FILM THICKNESSES

Wet film thickness measurement

From information given on a specification and the technical data sheets (TDS) correct
application thickness can be calculated. If regular checks of wet film thickness (WFT) are
carried out, and found to be adequate, it gives added confidence that upon checking the
following day, the dry film thickness (OFT) should meet specification requirements and
hopefully eliminate major rectification.

Wet film readings should be taken immediately after application, in order to obtain true readings
(solvent starts to evaporate away as it exits the spray tip). WFTs can be measured by using
either an eccentric wheel, or comb gauges.

Eccentric wheel

An eccentric wheel is a steel disc, machined to cut two grooves leaving three rims. The centre
rim is machined smaller than and eccentric to the two outer rims. The inner rim is called the
Eccentric Rim and the two outer, the Concentric Rims.

~:::::::I::I~ r Degree of

~I
eccentricity,
, 250 urn
normal

Figure 10.8 Eccentric wheel

A scale is engraved on the outer surface of one side of the wheel giving degree of eccentricity at
any point.

To use the wheel it should be placed on the surface with the zero at the six o'clock position,
rolled through 1800 in one direction, back to the zero and then 1800 in the opposite direction,
back to zero. The concentric outer rims will be wet for the full circumference, but the inner rim,

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 the eccentric rim, will only be wet for part of the circumference, having left and re-entered the
film on two occasions. The wet film thickness value is taken by transferring (mentally) the
interface between wet and dry on both sides of the eccentric rim into a value from the scale. The
average of the two values is the WFT ofthe paint film.

It should be noted that the eccentric wheel can only be used on flat plate. On a pipe, for
example it would be used circumferentially.

2 Comb gauges

Comb gauges are supplied in many fonns, square, rectangular, and triangular, in metal and in
plastic. Disposable plastic gauges will be supplied in small boxes containing several hundred.
Stainless Steel gauges are supplied in sets of four in a leather wallet. However all comb gauges
are used in a similar manner.

Assuming use of the SS gauges, four gauges will each have two working ends covering eight
different WFT ranges. Above each tooth is engraved a value 'thou' on one side and its
. equivalent in microns on the other side. This represents the value of the gap from tooth end to
substrate when the gauge is place finnly, perpendicularly onto the substrate.

When the gap under the tooth is full of paint it will wet the tooth. When not full it will not wet
the tooth.

A procedure for this operation would be: -

a) Select the appropriate gauge with the smallest increment rise tooth to tooth.
b) Apply the gauge firmly, perpendicular to the substrate into the paint film ensuring that the
two end lands are finnly on the substrate.
c) Withdraw the comb gauge and look at the teeth.
d) Two values should be recorded. The number above the last tooth wetted by the paint and
the value of the next highest not wetted.

The WFT is not an absolute value but 'in between'.

NB Comb gauges should be used longitudinally on curved surfaces e.g. pipes.

Not wet
Recorded as 50/75
Wet

Wet
Paint
Substrate

Figure 10.9 Comb gauge

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WFTs can be calculated by using the following formulae, according to information given.

WFT = 100 x DFT

VS

WFT V Volume
A Area

Binder

Solvent %

Volume
. - .-

~/
_.- .- - .-.-

~!_._. __ ~~I.~e~~._._._._._
. . -.-.-.-.-.- .

~
_._.

Solids %
Pigment, Extenders and others
Figure 10.10 Contraction from evaporation

Tests done on dry paint films

Dry film thickness

The specification for a painting contract will state a DFT criteria for each coat of paint applied.
As it is the inspector's main function to ensure that work is carried out to specification, he/she
should perform as many checks as needed to ensure that the specification criteria is met. The
DFT value can be determined by one of four methods.

1 Test panels
2 Calculations
3 Destructive test gauges
4 Non destructive test gauges
Test panels

Test panels are usually 150mm square plates of the same material as the component being
processed. The plates undergo the same operations at the same time as the main components.
Mainly used for destructive tests e.g. adhesion, they can also be used for DF. T checks.

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 Calculations

Using certain formulae and information given on a materials data sheet, in conjunction with
values determined from WFTs for example, calculations can give us the 'unknown' values.
Four formulae can be used according to information provided.
WFT
OFT
VS%== WFT
100
xV I
OFT 4 WFT 1
x VS
A WFT 3
100
WFT
DF~
x 100
1

Question:
If 12 litres of paint was used to cover an area of 10m x 10m what would be the average WFT?

Answer:
Step 1 WFT = Volume = 12 Litres = 12 L
Area 10 x 10 100 m2
Step 2 Change to units common to volume and area = cm2 cm3

12 L x I,000 12000 cm3 = 0.012 em

100 m2 x 10,000 1,000,000 cm2

Step 3 Multiply x 10,000 (um/cm) = 120 urn

2 WFT 100 x OFT

VS 1
Question:
What WFT would be needed to give 50 urn OFT using a paint with a VS% of 65%?
~
-50
~OFT
100
WFTx=
x=
76.92
x=VS
OFT 1=urn
5000
65 1100=
1 WFT

Question:
What would be the OF. T if a paint with a VS content of 45% was applied at 120 urn WFT?
Answer:
OFT WFT x VS 120 x 45 5400 54 urn
1 100 1 100 100

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4 YS% DFT x 100
WFT I
Question:
What would be the YS% of a paint if it was applied at a WFT of 110 urn and the DFT was
63 urn

Answer:
YS% DFT x 100 63 x 100 = 57.27%
WFT 1 110 1

Destructive test gauges

As the name implies these types of gauges cause damage to the film which then needs to be
repaired. If a specification required a magnetic gauge to be used to measure a coating including
MIO (Micaceous Iron Oxide), in theory it can't be done, MIO is magnetic and would cause error
in the reading. In this instance a destructive test gauge might be specified or it may be required
to monitor closely the WFT and calculate (as above) the DFT.

A PIG, paint inspectors gauge is a type of destructive gauge. A reference line of a contrasting
colour is drawn on the painted surface to be tested. A blade is tightened into a special slot in the
PIG, pressure applied to force the blade through the paint to the substrate and then cut across the
reference line, leaving a damage about %" it is then possible to examine the damage through a
focusable microscope. Measurements can be taken by means of a graticule scale engraved on
one of the lenses.

Reference
line

1 View

~
Blade Damage View through lens with
graticule scale

Figure 10.11 Destructive test gauge

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The dimensions taken from the graticule scale at this point are not in any units, as the angle of
the cutter used alters, so will the representations of the graticule.

A chart is supplied with each gauge, and blades of different angles. If for example the chart
indicates Blade N°3 will be ground to x angle, can be used on thickness less than 500 urn,
multiply graticule reading by 1.8, 20 unit of graticule scale would then convert to 20 x 1.8 = 36
urn.

Other commonly used destructive gauges are the Ericson Test Drill and Saberg Thickness Drill.
The damage caused with this is circular.

Non destructive test gauges

This category of gauges is the most widely used and can be subdivided into Electronic and
Magnetic.

a) Electronic

The electronic gauges work mainly on two principles. Electro Magnetic Induction and Eddy

Current.. Th~ Electro Magnetic Inducti~n is suitable for ferro-magnetic subst~ates and the Eddy r

Current ISsUItable for non ferro-magnetIc substrates. \~ ~ (PNf\<i5t)

Modern electronic gauges are sometimes supplied with probes suitable for both situations, and
the gauges automatically change function according to the fitted probe. Both types are for
measuring non-ferro magnetic coatings. Accuracy ± 1;2 %.

b) Magnetic

This classification of gauges works with permanent magnets, no batteries. The simplest of these
IS: -
The Tinsley Pencil or Pull of Gauge. Sometimes called a foreman's gauge is suitable for spot
checks and is not very accurate, even on modern gauges of this type ± 15 % accuracy is quoted.
It looks very much like a pen and indeed is sometimes fitted with a pocket clip. It has a
permanent magnet attached to a spring. The tension of the spring can be adjusted so that the
gauge can be calibrated to work over a variety of thicknesses.

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 Screw to adjust tension

Spring

Scale
Cursor line

Figure 10.12 Cross section of Tinsley pencil Permanent magnet

Lock/unlock

Knurled wheel for

calibration

Figure 10.13 Magnetic horseshoe gauge

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The Magnetic Horseshoe gauge is a very old type of gauge still favoured for measuring hot
surfaces such as metal spray. Accuracy often quoted as better than ± 10% and as for all
magnetic gauges, it is suitable for use in hazardous areas. This gauge works by measuring the
change in magnetic flux between two magnetic poles at the bottom of the gauge. The flux
change is brought about by the thickness of the non-magnetic coating. The gauges are supplied
in a wide variety of scales and are calibrated like all magnetic gauges.

The Magnetic Coating Thickness gauge, known colloquially as the 'banana gauge', measures
non-ferromagnetic coatings over ferromagnetic substrates and can, according to the
manufacturer even be used under water. This type of gauge relies on spring tension to break the
magnetic attraction of a permanent magnet to a ferromagnetic substrate. Because spring tension
doesn't have a linear function the scales on the gauges are in logarithmic increments. When
calibrating for use it is therefore of paramount importance to calibrate using a shim as near as
possible to the paint thickness. Modern gauges of this type often quote ±5 % accuracy.

Procedure for calibration to BS 3900 PT C5 (now ISO 2808)

(BG Transco specifY calibration on a prepared surface, therefore a plate with the same substrate
surface finish as that to which the paint is applied, should be used).

It is extremely important to remember that should the gauge be calibrated on a flat plate, the
reading on a blasted surface would take from approximately % of the depth of the profile, giving
values of up to 50 urn more than the actual 'over the peak' value.
1. Select a plastic shim (magnetically insulated) as near as possible in thickness to that of the
paint to be measured.
2. Place the shim centrally on the calibration plate, as detailed above.
3. Locate the magnet in the gauge onto the shim, apply a light pressure to ensure that the heel
doesn't wobble or rock, and wind the scale wheel on the gauge fully forward to release all
tension on the spring allowing the magnet to attach to the substrate.
4. Wind the wheel slowly back, clockwise, tensioning the spring until the magnet detaches.
At this point the movable cursor on the gauge is adjusted so that the red line on top of the
cursor is in line with the thickness value of the shim as shown on the scale wheel.

The gauge is now ready to use.

Some 'banana' gauges do not have a movable cursor. Instead these have a fixed cursor, moulded
into the case, and a movable scale, and to calibrate these gauges, the value of the shim on the
scale wheel has to be moved to the cursor.

Tests for mechanical properties on paint films

Abrasion resistance

Ericson, Taber and Gardner are just three of many companies who manufacture specialist
equipment for testing paint films.

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A materials resistance to abrasion can be tested using a Taber Rotary Abraser. Discs painted
with the material to be tested are rotated under special abrading wheels. The abrading wheels
can be of various compositions, depending upon the degree of abrasion required. For example,
sand paper or carborundum. Periodically the samples can be checked for thickness or damage
inflicted.

Hardness

The hardness of a film can be tested by many methods including the Buchholz Indentor and the
Sward Hardness Rocker, but one of the most frequently used for hard coatings is the Koenig
Albert.

A pendulum with two spherical fulcra is free to swing on a plate painted with the material under
test. The number of swings is counted electronically. (If the fulcra penetrate the surface, more
resistance will reduce the number of swings).

Flexibility BS 3900 El

Standard panels are coated with material to be tested and bent around cylindrical mandrels of
various diameters. The flexibility of a coating is expressed as the smallest diameter mandrel
over whieh the paint will not crack when bent.

A conical mandrel with a uniform taper from 3 mm diameter to 37 mm diameter is frequently

used now. The conical type needs only one sample to achieve a result whereas the straight
mandrels need a plate for each mandrel.

Impact resistance

Each generic type of coating material used has it's own impact resistance requirements, as
measured, in joules. Tubular impact testers are commonly used for this test. A weight, typically
I Kg. is lifted up the tube to the height required and held in place by a retaining collar. A
painted sample is fixed under the tube. By rotating a ring within the collar the weight is released
and falls onto the sample, which is then assessed for damage.

Two types of test can be done, direct impact and indirect impact. Direct being onto the painted
side of the sample and indirect on the non-painted side.

Accelerated testing

Normal weathering tests are a simple process of hanging out painted panels, facing South, on an
I A' frame and periodically testing for colour retention, chalking, water absorption etc. over a
period of years. However new products ready to go on the market, cannot wait years for test
results. The manufacturers may have spent many thousands of pounds on Research and
Development of the product, and will want some return. Accelerated tests can be done which
reduce testing time to months by accelerating or intensifying the conditions to which the paint
will be exposed.

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Some typical test cabinets used for testing specific conditions are: -

• Humidity cabinets

For testing tropical conditions. Humidity is very high at 95% and elevated temperatures up to
55°c.

• Salt spray cabinets

For checking paint ability to withstand salt laden environments.

• Water soak tests

Allowing painted panels to be submerged to test for water absorption, by weighing before and
after submersion.

• Temperature cycling

Painted samples are subjected to constant temperature cycles trom hot to cold. Paints in
common with most materials expand and contract according to temperature. Constant expansion
and contraction can result in cracking. Maximum and minimum temperature can be set and
cycle time, over a running period of 1000 hours, as an example.

•
Prohesion testing U9r'" kvf1 tJC.. cd ~'~
Painted sample plates are cut with a pre-damage in the form of an X, 50 mm each incision
length. A 3% saltwater solution is sprayed onto the plate for 60 minutes and stopped for 60
minutes, at a constant 35°C. The cycle continues for 1000 hours. On examination after the 1000
hours, there shall be no blistering or undercut outside of a 3 mm boundary on each side of the
pre-damage.

Drying and curing tests

On the manufacturers data sheet for a paint it will invariably state a recommended over coating
time, at a specific temperature, as a guide. The reason being that tests done to determine the
drying/over coating time will have been done in a laboratory to that specified temperature.
Higher ambient temperatures will shorten the stated time and conversely lower temperatures will
need longer over coating time.

Two tests to determine the drying time are: -

• Ballotini test
• Beck Koller Stylus test (BK trying time recorder)

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Ballotini test

Ballotini, tiny spheres of glass, or sometimes sand is trickled onto a newly painted block
graduated in hour of traverse, e.g. 24 hours for the block to traverse full length under the funnel.
After a specified time the block is removed, tipped onto its side, tapped lightly, and examined.
The position of the last grain of sand or 'ballotini sticking to the surface is recorded as the drying
time at that temperature e.g. 200e ± 0.5°C.

• .. ....................... . ..... ............. . . . . .......................

.........................
. ....
- - - - -

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Figure 10.14 Ballotini test

BK drying recorders

The BK gives more information than the Ballotini, which purely indicates drying time. The BK
defines also the stages of drying. E.g. Solvent Evaporation Time, The SolGel Transition,
Surface Drying Time and Final Dry Time.

Needles (stylus) are fixed to motor driven wires which then traverse over the full length of
painted glass strips 300 mm x 25 mm, in pre set times of 6, 12, 24 hours. The needles can also
be weighted if required. When the paint is wet the needle will penetrate through to the glass. As
the solvent evaporates the needle will start to cut a continuous track in the film, as drying
progresses it will cut an interrupted track, until finally dry when no scratch is visible.

Other tests

Mechanical thumb test

This is a test for even through drying of paint. It simulates pressing a thumb onto a surface and
applying a twisting motion. A cam drives a weighted shaft with a semi spherical rubber end cap,
allows it to drop onto the painted plate, rotate through 270°, then lifts it off again. The plate is
then visually inspected for tearing, pulling, wrinkling etc.

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Pencil scratch test (Wolff-Wilborn)

Pencils are graded in degree of Blackness B and degree of Hardness H. HB being the middle or
the range. Higher the number and harder or blacker the lead is.

A sharpened pencil is fitted into a special steel block and pushed along the surface, starting with
e.g. 3H and working up 4H, 5H etc. The first pencil to scratch the paint lends its hardness value
to the paint e.g. 5H.

Mechanical scratch test

A stylus with various added weights is drawn across the painted surface. The weight that causes
the surface to be scratched gives its value to the hardness e.g. 500 gm.

Gold leaf test

A test for residual tack. A small square of gold leaf is lightly pressed onto the surface of the
paint. The gold leaf is then pealed off and the area examined with a magnifying glass. No
residual gold leaf should remain.

Thumbnail test

A quick test for hardness is to try to penetrate the paint film with the thumbnail. If the
thumbnail penetrates, the film is "cheesy".

Opacity

The opposite of transparency, a test to determine the ability to hide (cover) the substrate. The
following are methods to determine the wet film opacity, a combined function of pigment
concentration and refractive index, using cryptometers. Commonly used cryptometers are Pfund
Cryptometers and there are two types.

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 Trough type

A wooden block with a tapered sunken trough in the middle, the bottom of which is formed by
chequered black and white glass squares. Paint is added at the deep end and scraped along to fill
the trough. Looking perpendicular onto the trough, find the point where the underlying square
can just no longer be seen. (Look at the squares offering the biggest contrast to the paint
colour). A scale running along the groove will indicate the depth of the groove at that point, and
is recorded as a wet film thickness.

A A

Section on
A-A

Figure 10. I 5 Pfund cryptometer, trough type

2 Black and white fused plates

The second type is a black and a white glass square, fused together. On each square is an
engraved scale starting at zero on the joint. Paint is applied onto the square with the most
contrast and a "top plate" of clear glass placed in position with the tapered contact edge exactly
on the fusion line. Small "feet" at the end of the top plate allow a tapered film of paint to form
under the glass top plate. Look for a point along the film where the underlying black or white
plate can just no longer be seen. Note the value on the scale and multiply by the constant on the
top plate.

Black
Square White
Square
Glass plate in position
70 60 50 40 30 :w 10

Figure 10.16 Black and white fused plates

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Hiding power charts and micrometer adjustable film applicator

Various designs of black and white A4 signed cards are used for this method. Chequercd,
striped, zigzag, half and half and cards of ones own design can be used. The surface is coatcd
with a solvent resistant lacquer to prevent immediate absorption. The applicator is a frame with
an adjustable gate, which can be controlled by two micrometers for vertical movement. After
zeroing on a flat surface the reading on the micrometers represents the gap under the gate.

Paint is applied onto one chart and the bar applicator immediately drawn over it. If opacity is
not achieved (as previous) the gate is adjusted 5 urn higher and the operation repeated on
another card until the film thickness required for opacity has been attained.

Degree of Gloss

Gloss is a measure of reflectivity. Light follows general rules and travels in a straight linc.
When light hits a surface it reflects off at the same angle as it strikes the surface. A modern
gloss meter works on exactly this principle, a light source directs a beam of light onto the
surface under test, and a photo electric cell, set at the same angle, collects the reflected light and
quantifies it and converts it digitally into a percentage of the incident light. On a perfectly
smooth surface it would give almost 100%. On an uneven surface some of the light is deflected
and so the percentage reading would be lower. A high percentage of reflection will be gloss and
a low percentage will be matt. Gloss meters for general use have two common angles, typically
60% and 20% both taken from the perpendicular, the 60% angle being the most common usage.

Photo
electric cell

Light
scattered

Reflected
light

Incident
Smooth surface light

Uneven surface
Figure 10. I 7 Degree of gloss

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Any property, which can affect the paint surface formation, can affect the gloss factor. Main
contributors are PVC Degree of Dispersion Particle size, Resin type (for polymer formation and
RI, refractive index) and Solvent type.

Adhesion

Inspection is defined as "Examining, testing, gauging, one or more characteristics etc." One of
the properties required of a paint film is to 'provide adhesion to the substrate', therefore an
inspector is expected to test to ensure the paint is performing this function. There are three main
areas for adhesive failure within a paint system.

a) Primer to substrate failure

b) Inter-coat adhesion (between films)
c) Cohesive failure (within a paint film)

a) Primer to substrate failure

Primer to substrate failure is the most serious. Failure here means no protection at all. This is a
surface contamination problem mainly. Lack of adequate surface preparation, grease, oil, dirt,
dust are the usual causes.

b) Inter-coat adhesion

Caused by the problems above and others. Lack of observance of recommended over-coating
limits and expansion/contraction differences between materials.

c) Cohesive failure

Over thickness of a layer can entrap solvent during the drying process and thus stop
polymerisation and the correct formation of the film, reducing cohesive strength. The main
reason for cohesive failure is solvent entrapment but incorrect ratio mix of a' two pack can have
exactly the same effect.

These failure points can be detected in several ways, some costly, requiring equipment costing
several hundred pounds and some requiring an outlay of a few pounds only.

'V' cut test

A craft knife is all that is required to perform this test. Cut through the paint, to the steel
substrate, with two cuts forming an inclusive angle of approximately 30°, with leg length of
approximately 13 mm. Insert the tip of the blade into the tip of the 'V' and try to lever off. The
paint should chip across the tip of the 'V' clearly and cohesive without following the line of any
of the faults described. It should not expose any of the substrate.

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Cross cut (cross hatch test)

Cut through the paint using six horizontal and six vertical cuts approximately 2 mm spaces
giving a 25 squared grid. Special profile cutters can be purchased for this, or a craft knife can be
used. Apply an agreed tape to the area (different tapes have different degrees of stickiness and
would give different results), rub smoothly onto the hatched area and then snatch off. The
resulting areas of disbondment are then compared to diagrams shown in BS 3900 Pt E6 and
classified according to percentage area of disbondment.

Dolly test

The dolly test is more expensive to use, but unlike the above gives an answer in units of psi or
newtons/urn square, etc and so is classed as a quantitative test.

A typical procedure for the test would be: -

Ensure the test area is clean and oil/grease free, lightly abrade the area and apply mixed two
pack heavy duty adhesive. Firmly place the aluminium alloy dolly in position onto the adhesive
ensuring that the skirted flange is to the adhesive. Leave for manufacturers recommended cure
time. Place the core drill supplied around the dolly and cut through the coating to the substrate
(this ensures that only the area of the dolly flange receives the pull off forces). Apply the pul1
off gauge and apply pull off force, (some models use a ratcheted lever, others a knurled wheel)
until failure occurs. This will usually involve a loud bang and the instrument will 'jump' from
the substrate. Examine the face of the dolly and apportion adhesive failure according to areas
exposed, at the pull off force indicated on the scale.

For example with an aluminium metal spray, single coat, there could be: -

1. Adhesive to dolly failure.

2. Adhesive to aluminium failure.
3. Cohesive failure within the aluminium.
4. Aluminium to substrate failure.

Hydraulic adhesion test equipment /

This is a much quicker test with a higher degree of accuracy. The HATE use cyano-acrylic
impact adhesives and can usually be done approximately two hours after dolly/adhesive
application, the dolly's are mild steel and reusable because they are heated up to destroy the
adhesive after use. Big downside for this test is initial cost and usually high maintenance.

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