General Science

General Science General Science

Student Textbook Student Textbook
Grade 7 Grade 7

Student textbook
Grade 7

ISBN No -
Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau
Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau Price -
 General Science
Student Textbook
Grade 7

Authors
Hassen Worku (PhD)
Awoke Debebe (MSc)
Seid Mohammed Shfaw (MSc)
Muluneh Workie (MSc)
Editors
Getachew Tarekegn (PhD)
Kindu Nibret (MSc)
Agmas Amare (MSc)

Team Leader
Ehtegebreal Aregehagn (MEd)
Illustrator
Belayhun Tsegaye
Designer
Atersaw Tigyhun (MSc)

Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau

The textbook is prepared by Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau
and the Scholars Council with budget allocated by the Amhara National Regional
State Government.

©2015 Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau. All rights reserved.

Scholars Council

Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau

 Table of Contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................v
Unit 1
Basic Concepts of Science
1.1 Nature of science............................................................................................1
1.2 Scientific measurement..................................................................................12
1.3 Common laboratory equipment, uses, safety rules and procedures in science
laboratories.................................................................................................20
Unit 2
Matter in Our Surroundings
2.1. Characteristics and nature of matter.............................................................31
2.2 Physical and chemical properties of matter...................................................38
2.3. Classification of substances with composition and observable properties...40
2.4 Changes around us: Physical and chemical change.......................................46
2.5 Separation of mixtures and its application.....................................................50
Unit 3
Elements,Compounds and Chemical Reactions
3.1. Elements and their representation ................................................................66
3.2. Compounds and their representation............................................................69
3.3 Simple chemical reactions and equations......................................................81
3.4 Uses of chemical reactions in everyday situation..........................................92
Unit 4
Cell as the Basis of Life
4.1 Microscope.....................................................................................................97
4.2 Cell.................................................................................................................106
Unit 5
Living Things and their Diversity
5.1 Living things..................................................................................................126
5.2 Kingdoms of living things ............................................................................132

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 Unit 6
The Earth
6.1 Shape and dimensions of earth......................................................................158
6.2 Parts of the earth ...........................................................................................160
6.3 Movements of the earth.................................................................................161
6.4 Earth’s subsystems ........................................................................................163
6.5 Carbon and water cycles................................................................................165
Unit 7
Force, Motion and Energy
7.1 Definition of motion.......................................................................................172
7.2 Types of motion.............................................................................................174
7.3 Motion in straight line....................................................................................175
7.4 Force..............................................................................................................182
7.4.2 Force of gravity...........................................................................................184
7.5 Force and motion...........................................................................................186
7.6 Energy............................................................................................................191

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 Introduction
Rationale for the Curriculum Reform

Different studies have been conducted to improve the relevance and quality of
Ethiopian general education. Worth mentioning are the Education Road-map
(2018) and Cambridge Assessment Studies (2019). On top of these, the Ministry
of Education and Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau carried out
repeated monitoring and assessment of the school curriculum. The study and
assessment reports consistently reiterated that the previous general education
curriculum had weaknesses. Some of the weaknesses were: The curriculum focused
on low-level cognitive domain of learning; the presentation of some contents in the
curriculum did not consider students’ age and maturity level, and the curriculum
did not acknowledge indigenous knowledge systems. Furthermore, the curriculum
did not adequately encourage students to develop scientific thinking skills such
as observing, classifying, inferring, measuring, communicating, predicting,
identifying variables, constructing hypotheses, tabulating and graphing data,
defining variables, designing investigations, and experimenting. It also did not
provide adequate opportunity for students to develop 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, problem-solving, global and cultural awareness, digital literacy,
oral and written communication, creativity, collaboration, decision making, and the
like. To alleviate these shortcomings, a new curriculum framework and syllabus
have been developed. General science textbooks are developed on the bases of the
new curriculum framework and grades 7 and 8 general science syllabus.

General science curriculum

Based on the new curriculum framework, general science textbooks are prepared
for middle school students (grades 7 and 8). General Science education includes
physics, chemistry, and biology subjects. General Science education aims to equip
students with foundational science knowledge and skill that serve as a base for
secondary education . It intends to nurture scientific inquiry skills which students
use on their day to day lives and in learning science. In addition, it aims to cultivate
among students science processes and 21st-century skills that can be used in their
day-to-day life and academic career.
General Science Grade 7 Student’s textbook v
To achieve these major goals of general science education, the textbooks are
prepared based on the principles of inquiry-based, problem-based and context-
based learning. Inquiry is the intentional process of identifying problems, critiquing
experiments, distinguishing alternatives, planning investigations, researching
conjectures, searching for information, constructing models, debating with peers,
and forming coherent arguments. Inquiry-based learning involves posing questions,
making observations, reading books to find out what others have learned, planning
investigations, gathering, and analyzing information, reflecting on what was
learned in the light of new evidence, and proposing explanations and predictions.
It encourages students to use critical thinking skills that include designing and
carrying out investigations, interpreting data as evidence, creating arguments,
building models, and communicating findings to deepen students understanding
through logic and evidence.

Problem-based learning allows students to become the drivers of their learning.

Problem-based learning uses complex, real-world issues as the classroom’s subject
matter, encourage students to develop problem-solving skills and learn concepts
instead of just absorbing facts. It promotes students’ conceptual learning and skill
development. It helps students to acquire knowledge and skill in the context of
real-world problems. It engages the students in solving meaningful problems.

Context-based learning is using students’ prior knowledge, experience, and context

as a base for the new knowledge and skill development. It encourages students to
recall, relate, describe, or apply knowledge from relevant prior experience that can
be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.

Teachers, students, and parents will take part in the knowledge construction
process. It is important that teachers, students, and parents engage in observations,
experiments, and construction of knowledge. Hence, the textbooks are intended
not only to provide adequate knowledge and skill but also develop among students
learning to learn skills.

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 Implementation of the new learning and teaching techniques and
methods

General science textbooks include many activities that are helpful to put into practice
the aforementioned learning-teaching methods. The activities are designed based
on students’ prior knowledge, skill, and experiences. They are aimed to connect
students’ life experience with classroom science, to develop students’ science
process, inquiry, and 21st-century skills. To achieve the aims of these activities,
students should prepare themselves before class, and should be active participants
in the classroom. Teachers should encourage students to work on the activities
before class. During the teaching-learning process, the teachers are not expected
to provide answers for each activity before the students work on it. The students
should be given enough time, needed materials, and clues while they are working
on the activities. The teachers should lead students’ work very closely and scaffold
them when necessary.

Contents in the textbooks require appropriate utilization of instructional time and

extending learning to home and libraries. It is also indispensable that every student
brings his or her textbook to class. Parents should also assist students in carrying out
different activities. It is critical that teachers ensure that all activities and contents
in textbooks are properly covered and learned by students.

Dear students, please take good care of the textbook!

Learning requires effort, experimenting, and exercise!

We wish you a successful academic year

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 Unit 1 : Basic Concepts of Science

Unit Basic Concepts of

1 Science

Learning outcomes: At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the nature of science.
 Describe the main branches of science.
 Explain the difference between science and technology.
 Explain how science and technology affects human behavior,
practice and ways of thinking.
 Appreciate the contributions of famous Ethiopian scientists to
science and technology.
 Identify basic and derived units of measurements .
 Explain the concept of measuring physical quantities.
 Explain the difference between scalar, vector physical quantities,
fundamental and derived physical quantities.
 Identify different laboratory tools.
 Demonstrate safe ways of using apparatus in the laboratory.
 Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory.
 Apply laboratory safety rules and procedures.
 Identify potential hazards when doing laboratory Experiment s.

1.1 Nature of science

1.1.1 Definition of science
In order to understand what science is, it is necessary to deal with the key
characteristics of science. Discuss Activity 1.1 in groups and reflect your positions
to your teacher.

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Activity 1.1

The following statements describe some aspects of science and scientific

knowledge. Discuss in groups whether you agree or disagree with the statements.
1. Scientific knowledge is absolute and unchanging.
2. Science always involves Experiment s.
3. There is single scientific method that all scientists follow.
4. Scientific theory and scientific law represent the same concept.

Activity 1.2

Consider a cube placed at the center of a Table

as shown in the picture and answer the questions
below. (Note that when you are working in a group,
do not turn, lift or open the cube to see what is on
the bottom).

1. What do you observe on the Table ?

2. Based on your observation,
A. What number is on the bottom of the cube?
B. What is the color of the bottom face?
C. What is the pattern of the bottom face?
(Justify your answers based on your observations)

When doing Activity 1.2, you demonstrated some characteristics of the nature of
science and you did in a similar manner as scientists do. For example you:
 Worked in group
 Observed the cube
 Inferred answers based on your observation and experience
 Supported your answers (inferences) with evidence from your observation.
You also used your creativity and imagination to determine patterns and
relationships. Scientists make inferences in a similar way as you did when they
attempt to find answers to questions about natural phenomena.

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In your discussion, you probably came up with different answers to the questions.
The existence of different answers to the same question based on the same evidence
is another characteristic of the nature of science. In the same manner, scientists can
come up with different ideas based on the same set of data.

In general, the characteristics of the Nature of Science (NOS) and their respective
descriptions are given in Table 1.1 below.
Table 1.1 Characteristics of nature of science

Characteristics of Nature of
Description
Science
Empirical evidence in the form of quantitative
Scientific knowledge is based on
and qualitative data is the base of scientific
empirical evidence.
knowledge.
Scientific knowledge should not be viewed as
Scientific knowledge is tentative. absolute. It can be changed with the existence
of new evidence.
Scientific knowledge is the
Scientific knowledge is developed from a
product of observation and
combination of observations and inferences.
inference.
Scientific knowledge is the Scientists often use creative methods and
product of creative thinking. procedures throughout their investigations.
A scientific law is a description of relationship
Scientific laws and theories
or pattern based on observations. Scientific
are different kinds of scientific
theories are a well-supported explanations for
knowledge.
scientific phenomena.
Scientists use many methods to There is no a single “scientific method” used
develop scientific knowledge. by all scientists.
Science is a result of social or collaborative
Science is a social Activity that
effort and personal background or experience
possesses inherent subjectivity.
affects our observations.

Therefore, science is not only a body of knowledge. It is also described as a way of

knowing the natural world through investigating observation and evidence using
creative and imaginative ways.

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Activity 1.3

Read individually the following text about telephone invention and identify the
statements which describe the characteristics of the nature of science. Match the
identified statements with the different characteristics of the nature of science.

Brief history of telephone invention

Telephone is one of the most important inventions. It lets people talk to
each other at the same time across long distances. It is one of the greatest
inventions in communication technology. The invention changed the
way we communicate today.

Many inventors were working on electronic voice transmission during

the time of the invention of telephone. However, Alexander Graham
Bell was the first to be awarded a patent for the electric telephone in
1876. He developed new and original ideas by building on older
ideas and developments. He drew his inspiration from teaching deaf
and observation of his hearing-impaired mom. His endless scientific
curiosity, creativity and understanding of sound and electricity led him
to invent the telephone. His invention has become a base for today’s
wireless telephones.

1.1.2 Branches of science

Science can be divided into three major branches. These branches are life science,
physical science and earth science. While life science studies living things, physical
science studies about non-living things. Earth science is concerned with the study
of earth’s structure, properties, and processes.

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Science

Life Science Physical Science Earth Science

Biology Physics Chemistry

Figure 1.1 Branches of science

1.1.3 Conventional and indigenous knowledge

Activity 1.4

Imagine that you are caught with a common cold in a place where there is no
health institution such as clinic, hospital, and pharmacy. What do you do to get
rid of the disease?

Activity 1.5

Read the following scenario and discuss the questions below. The scenario is
about a girl and a boy who were caught with malaria, and what they did to be
cured from it.
Scenario
The girl went to a hospital to get her doctor immediately after she recognized
some symptoms of malaria. The doctor diagnosed her and found malaria
from her blood test. The doctor then gave her some medicines. After she
had taken the medicines, she recovered from the disease.

On the other hand, the boy went to an old man’s house when he felt a
headache. The old man lived near the boy’s house and was experienced in
traditional medicine. When the boy arrived, the old man asked him some
questions in relation to his headache. After the old man listened to the boy
carefully, he went to a garden and came with some leaves. He squeezed
the leaves with water into a beaker and gave it to the boy. The boy then
drank the traditional medicine. After some time, the boy got relief from
his headache.

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Questions
1. If you were the person who had been caught with malaria, where would
you go to recover from your illness? To the hospital or to the old man?
Justify your choice.

Indigenous knowledge and conventional knowledge represent two knowledge

categories. They are obtained by different ways of looking at the world around us.
Conventional knowledge is acquired through the method of conventional science.
Terms such as “modern knowledge” and “western knowledge” are often used to
refer to conventional knowledge. This type of knowledge system has the following
characteristics.
 It is tentative
 It is evidence supported
 It is based on observation and inferences
 It is systematically documented
 It is learned by formal education.
Indigenous knowledge is a knowledge system built up by a group of people in a
given culture. It is obtained through the accumulation of experiences, informal
education and intimate understanding of their environment. Indigenous knowledge
is also called “traditional knowledge”, “local knowledge” or “native knowledge”.
This knowledge system has the following characteristics
 It is based on experience and acquired from observations over time
 It is unwritten and known through oral traditions
 It is embedded in culture
 It is unique to a given society
 It is subjective and long term wisdom.
In our surrounding there are many examples of indigenous knowledge. Some of
them are the following.
 Traditional medicine
 Traditional alcohol production
 Drying (for food preservation)
 Traditional weaving

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 Tracing and crop rotation (for soil conservation)
 Traditional water conservations

Project work
It is known that Ethiopia is very rich in different indigenous knowledge.
By asking your parents, write as many types of indigenous knowledge as
you can and report to your teacher. Your report should contain the local
names of the indigenous knowledge and their benefits and weaknesses,
if they have.

1.1.4 Science and technology

Activity 1.6
1. How are science and technology related? How are they different?
2. What do you think are the effects of science and technology?
3. Which has a more direct effect on society? Science or technology?
Justify your answers.

The relation between science and technology are reciprocal. A scientific explanation
of a phenomenon leads to a technological development that serves a societal need.
Conversely, a societal need results in a technological solution, which then leads
to a scientific explanation. However, technology often has a more direct effect
on society as it solves practical problems and serves human needs. Science and
technology have some differences as shown in the following Table 1.2.

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Table 1.2: Difference between science and technology

Science Technology
 It is the process of exploring  It is the practical application of
new knowledge. scientific knowledge.
 It is always useful.  It can be useful or harmful.
 It emphasizes discovery.  It emphasizes invention.
 It is used to make
 Technology simplifies human life.
predictions.
 It advances scientific  It advances the standard of living
knowledge and discovery. in societies.

Activity 1.7

Read the following two paragraphs and discuss the questions below.

History of light bulb

More than 150 years ago, inventors began working on a bright idea.

The idea was to invent the light bulb. Like all other great inventions,

the light bulb can’t be credited to one inventor. It was a series of small

improvements on the ideas of previous inventors. This led to the idea

and the invention of light bulbs we use in our homes today.

It was Thomas Edison who discovered the light bulb in 1879. Thomas

Edison did not stop his contribution to improve electric lighting after

the invention. He was working to improve the bulb that made the use

of light bulbs practical.

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Questions
1. Is the development scientific or technological? Which statement in the
paragraphs supports your answer?
2. What benefits did scientific and technological development provide to
society?

Activity 1.8
Do the following questions at your home and present your answers to your
classmates.
1. List some examples of technologies that are used by the community in
your surrounding and discuss how these technologies solve practical
problems of the community.
2. Do these technologies have risks? If they have, what are their risks?

1.1.5 Scientists and ethical discipline

Since science is a human Activity , it relates to different human values. The diverse
set of values that contribute to the regulation of scientific activities is said to be
scientific ethics or scientific discipline. Scientific ethics is extremely integrated
into the ways scientists do their work. Thus, the reliability of their work and the
scientific knowledge they investigated depends upon whether they follow the ethic
or not. Some of the ethical disciplines in science are the following.
1. Integrity and honesty in reporting scientific data.
2. Careful analysis of scientific results to avoid error.
3. Proper crediting of sources of information, data, and ideas
4. Objective interpretation of results without bias.
5. Informing members of the community about any risks of the scientific
investigation.

1.1.6 Ethiopian scientists

There are many scientists around the world who contributed to the development
of science and technology. The following are some of the Ethiopian scientists who
played a big role in technological advancement.

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Ethiopian Scientist Major contributions
 Inventing two aerospace
mechanisms which were
patented under National
Aeronautics and Space
Administration’s (NASA) new
technology.
 Creating space shuttles
and rockets that assisted in
planetary science.
 Innovative creations of the
Global Positioning System
Dr. Kitaw Ejigu
(GPS), and a revolutionary and
dynamic flight simulator for the
Boeing Company.

 Outstanding research in
ceramic science
 Developed new ways of using
solar energy to make fuels like
hydrogen and methane.
 Investigated solid electrolytes

Dr. Sossina Haile

 Investigated ‘sorghum’ with

high nutritional quality; Which
tolerates drought and cold and
Which has resistance to pests,
diseases and the parasitic weed.
Professor Gebisa Ejeta

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 Co-founder of Mechanism
Design for Social Good, to
improve access to opportunity
for historically disadvantaged
communities.
 Co-founder for Black in AI
(Artificial Intelligence)- A
place for sharing ideas,
fostering collaboration and
Dr. Rediet Abebe
discussing initiatives to
increases black people in the
field of artificial intelligence.

 Discovered medicine to
prevent the parasitic disease,
‘Bilharzia’, from the fruit of
a common African plant, the
“Endod”
Dr. Aklilu Lemma

 A respected scientist in human

physiology
 Assessing the medical and
nutritional value of plants.
 Examining the health hazards
of medical plants to humans,
animals and the environment

Professor Alemtsehay Mekonnon

Activity 1. 9
1. Take one Ethiopian scientist, write a short biography of him/her and
briefly describe the contributions of his/her work to the society.

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1.2 Scientific measurement

Measurable quantities which are used to describe physical phenomena are called
physical quantities. Length, mass, time, volume, density and temperature are some
examples of physical quantities. Physical quantities possess at least magnitude
(numerical value) and unit.

1.2.1 Fundamental and derived physical quantities

Physical quantities can be divided into two. These are fundamental (basic)
quantities and derived quantities. Fundamental physical quantities are quantities
which can be measured directly. They are not described in terms of other physical
quantities. Length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substances
and luminous intensity are the seven fundamental physical quantities. The units
used to measure these fundamental quantities are called fundamental units. The
seven fundamental quantities with their respective SI units are shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Fundamental physical quantities and fundamental units

Basic Quantities Basic Units

Name Symbol Name Symbol
Length l meter m
Time t second s
Mass m kilogram kg
Temperature T Kelvin K
Current I Ampere A
Amount of substance N mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Derived physical quantities are quantities that can be obtained by the combination
of the fundamental quantities. Area, density, speed and volume are examples of
derived physical quantities. All derived physical quantities have derived units.
Table 1.4 presents some examples of derived physical quantities and their respective
units.

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Table 1.4 Some examples of derived physical quantities and derived units

Derived Quantities Derived Units

Name Formula Name Symbol
Velocity Distance/Time Meter per second m/s
Acceleration Velocity/Time Meter per second squared m/s2
Force (Mass) (Acceleration) Newton kg.m/s2
Work (Force)(Distance) Joule kg.m2/s2

Activity 1. 10
Express the derived units of the following quantities in terms of the fundamental
units.
 Area
 Volume
 Density
 Power

1.2.2 Scalar and vector physical quantities

Some physical quantities are described completely by only a number and a unit
(magnitude). This type of quantities is called scalar physical quantities. Scalar
quantities do not require direction for their description. Time, mass, volume,
density, temperature and energy are examples of scalar quantities. However, there
are quantities that cannot be described fully by the use of only magnitude. To
describe these quantities, both magnitude and direction are required. Quantities
which have both magnitude and direction are called vector physical quantities.
Displacement, velocity and force are examples of vector quantities.
Prefixes
We commonly write numbers using scientific notations. Scientific notation is the
short hand representations of very large or very small numbers. For example, 1000g
can be written as 1×103 g. But, it is possible to replace the 103 with the prefix called
“k” (kilo). Therefore, 1×103 g can be written as 1kg. Table 1.5 presents prefixes,
their symbols and values.

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Table 1. 5 Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value

peta P 1015 femto f 10-15
tera T 1012 pico p 10-12
giga G 109 nano n 10-9
mega M 106 micro µ 10-6
kilo k 103 milli m 10-3
hecto h 102 centi c 10-2
deka da 101 deci d 10-1

1.2.3 Measuring physical quantities

Measurement is a way of describing the natural world with numbers. Measuring
something means comparing the quantity to be measured with a reference standard
unit. Standard unit of measurements are unit of measurements which are well-
defined, highly precise and easily reproducible. They are unchanging with respect
to place, time and physical conditions. These standard units are known as System of
International Units (SI units). For example, ‘second’ is a standard unit of measuring
time. So, the duration of a second is fixed and the same to everyone at every place
on earth.
Measuring Length
Length is a fundamental physical quantity that represents distance between two
points. Length is often designated by “l”. But, it can also be designated by symbols
such as ‘b’, ‘h’, ‘w’ etc. The SI unit of length is meter (m). The non-SI units of
length are centimeter (cm), millimeter (mm), kilometer (km), etc.

Length can be measured in two ways: traditionally and scientifically. Traditionally,

length can be measured by units such as ‘hand span’, ‘cubit’, ‘foot’ and ‘yard’.
However, these traditional units are not reliable. This is because measurements
using these units vary from person to person. On the other hand, the scientific way
of measuring length used scientific instruments such as ruler, Vernier caliper, and
micrometer to measure length. In scientific way, standard units of measurement are
used to measure length.

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Figure 1.1: Length measuring instruments

Activity 1. 11
Form a group and do the following activities.
1. Measure the lengths of the following objects using appropriate traditional
ways and write the measurements in the Table .
2. Measure the length of the objects using appropriate scientific instruments
and write the measurements in the Table .

(Note: Take the measurements of the length of each objects by three different
students)

Measurements
Objects to be measured Traditional Scientific
S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3
A. Width of the blackboard
B. Thickness of your General
Science textbook
C. Length of your Table

Questions
A. Which set of measurements (traditional or scientific) is more reliable?
Why?
B. Are the scientific measurements of the three students equal? If not,
why?

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The length of an object to be measured determines the type of unit to be used.
For example, centimeter (cm) and millimeter (mm) are appropriate to measure
small lengths whereas kilometer (km) is suiTable for measuring longer lengths.
So, we can use meter to measure the width of the classroom, kilometer to measure
the distance from Bahir Dar to Gondar, millimeter to measure the thickness of an
electric wire, and so on.
Measuring Mass
Activity 1. 12
1. Explain how we measure mass traditionally? Share your experiences
with your peers.
2. How do you measure mass of jewelries? What is the appropriate unit to
measure mass of jewelries?

Mass is a fundamental physical quantity that describes the amount of matter

contained in a body. It is symbolized by ‘m’. The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
The non-SI units of mass are Gram (g), milligram (mg), quintal, ton and so on.
Smaller masses are measured using grams and kilogram while larger masses are
measured using quintals and tons.

Mass can be measured both traditionally and scientifically. Traditionally, instruments

such as ‘kuna’, ‘tassa’ and traditional beam balance are used to measure mass.
Where as to measure mass scientifically, we use scientific instruments such as beam
balance. A common type of beam balance consists of a uniform beam having two
pans. To measure mass of a body, a known standard (for example 1kg) is placed
on one pan, and the body to be measured is placed on the other pan. The unknown
mass of the body will be equal to the known standard when the beam balance is
balanced. Figure 1.2 shows different mass measuring instruments.

Figure 1.2 Mass measuring instruments

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Activity 1. 13
Form a group and do the following activities.
1. How do we measure small masses such as a single grain or a single Teff?
2. Estimate and then measure the mass of the following objects and write
your estimation and measurement on the space provided. Compare the
estimated value with the measured value.
Objects to measured Estimated Value Measured Value
A. Your General Science
textbook
B. One stick chalk
C. A duster

Measuring Time

Activity 1. 14
1. Put your hand on your neck and count 50, 100 and 150 heartbeats.
2. Measure the time you need to count 50, 100 and 150 heartbeats.
3. Tell to your classmates and teacher how you measured the time.

Time is a fundamental physical quantity that describes the duration between

the beginning and end of an event. It is designated by ‘t’. The SI unit of time is
second (s). The non-SI units of time are Year, month, day, hour, and minutes .
Similar to length and mass, time is measured using traditional and scientific ways.
Traditionally, people used methods such as shadow, position of sun, cook crows
and bird’s crisps to estimate time. For example, bird’s crisps indicate the dawning
of the day. On the other hand, the scientific way of measuring time involves the
use of clocks and watches to measure time. Figure 1.3 shows some time measuring
watches.

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Figure 1.3 Time measuring devices

Activity 1. 15
Make your own sundial.
Materials required: hoe, wooden stick, marking rocks or cards
1. Find a location, that remains sunny, in your school compound.
2. Dig a hole and place a wooden stick on the hole. Make sure that the
wooden hole stays upright.
3. Mark the shadow of the wooden stick every hour using a rock or a card.
4. Write the number for the hour (such as 4 ) on the rock or card.
5. Do you observe that the angle between consecutive cards or rocks is the
same or different? Justify your answer.
6. How is your sundial similar or different from a clock?

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1.2.4 Accuracy and precision in measurements

Activity 1. 16
Assume that four groups of students measured the boling temperature of water.
Their measurements are recorded in the following Table . Based on the data in
the Table , answer the following questions.
1. Which group has measured an average boiling temperature closest to
the expected value?
2. Which group measurements are close to each other?
3. One of the students in group A was not happy with the group’s result.
Why do you think this was?
4. Suggest two reasons why group A’s results are different to the rest of
the class.
Boiling temperature of water ( o C) (100o)
Trials
Group A Group B Group C Group D
1 90.0 95.0 99.0 102.5
2 91.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
3 90.5 101.0 99.5 101.0
Mean 90.5

Accuracy and precision are two concepts which are related to measurement.
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to its actual or expected value. For
example, in the above Activity , the average of measurements of group C is more
accurate that of the other groups. This is because the average value of measurements
in group C is close to the actual value (100oC).

Precision refers to the consistency of two or more measurements namely how

close these measurements are to each other. For example, in the above Activity, the
measurements recorded by group A are precise than the others. This is because the
measurements in group A are more close to each other than the measurements in
the other groups.

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1.3 Common laboratory equipment, uses, safety

rules and procedures in science laboratories

1.3.1 Laboratory safety rules

Activity 1. 17
1.When cooking, what safety precautions should be taken? (To avoid burns,
cuts, etc.)
2. When doing science Experiment s, what similar kinds and other safety
precautions should be taken?
3. To what extent is your classroom or school prepared for a kind of
emergency you might have when doing science Experiment s?
4. Is there any safety equipment in your school? Look around your
classroom or school for any safety related equipment.
5. Draw a floor plan of the room or building and clearly label where each
item is located. Discuss with your friend or classmate?
6. Why is it important to know where safety equipment is located?

Laboratory safety involves good laboratory practice by establishing a safe

environment. Laboratories can be hazardous if the rules are not followed. In a
laboratory Activity , a student may handle materials which are hazardous, poisonous,
flammable, and explosive. Some of these materials and equipment may also cause
severe burns or cuts if they are handled improperly or carelessly. Most accidents
that occur in the laboratory are a result of carelessness, impatience, improper or
unauthorized Experiment ation, and disregard for safety rules or proper operating
procedures. To minimize the chances of an accident in the laboratory certain rules
and regulations must be obeyed at all times when one is working or observing in a
laboratory. Therefore, it is not advisable for anyone to work in a laboratory without
proper knowledge of the dangers involved. . The followings are some of the basic
safety rules to avoid hazards and accidents during laboratory activities.

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1. DO NOT perform unauthorized Experiment s or work in a laboratory alone.
2. If you get a chemical in your eye, rinse immediately with large quantities of
water.
3. Long hair and loose clothing must be confined while in a laboratory.
4. Appropriate clothing must be worn at all times while in the laboratory.
5. Eating and drinking are not allowed in a laboratory.
6. Never direct the open end of the test tube toward yourself or anyone else.
7. Never pour water into concentrated acid.
8. Liquid and solid waste containers must be properly used at all times.
9. Report any accident and/or injury, however minor, to your teacher
immediately.
10. Clean up any spill immediately.

1.3.2 Hazard signs (symbols) and some personal protective

equipment in the laboratory
There is always a possibility of hazard or accidents in laboratories. Hazard signs
are put on the bottles or containers of some chemicals. So we should understand
the hazards associated with these chemicals and take extra care. There is also a
possibility of fire hazard and electrical hazard in the laboratory. Hazard signs are
also put on the walls at different places in the laboratory.
It is important that you are aware of the potential hazards and risks in the laborato-
ry. It is vital that you and the whole class understand each hazard of the laboratory
and take the necessary care. This can save us from different accidents that can
happen in the laboratory.

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Activity 1.18
Look at the following laboratory hazard signs. Then match the signs with the
meanings of the signs listed below.
A. Corrosive material F. Harmful irritant
B. No open flames G. Poison/ toxic material
C. Electrical hazard H. Flammable gas
D. Oxidizing agent I. Explosive hazard
E. Flammable and combustible J. High voltage

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9 10

Figure 1.4 Symbols of hazard signs

1.3.3 Personal protective equipment in the laboratory activity

Science Experiment s often can lead to an unexpected hazardous situation. Wearing
personal protective equipment (PPE) is an easy choice that can save you from
grief. The purpose of PPE is to protect individuals from hazards during a specific
task. PPE should be selected based on a hazard assessment of the specific task.
When you are around hazardous chemicals or equipment (even if you are not using
them), a minimum level of PPE should be applied. PPE minimizes the chance of
harm from the hazard but does not alter the nature of the hazard itself.
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Activity 1.19

Look at the following laboratory personal protective equipment and match

images with names.
1. Safety glass
2. Fire extinguisher
3. Glove
4. Face shield

Figure 1.5 Laboratory personal protective equipment

1.3.4 Common laboratory equipment/tools

Activity 1. 20

Look at the pictures of laboratory equipment/ tools in the Table below and
match their names with their functions.
1. Used to hold multiple test tubes upright at the same time.
2. Used for holding small samples or for covering beakers or evaporating
dishes.
3. Used to determine the mass of chemicals.
4. Used for funneling liquids from one container to another or for filtering
when equipped with filter paper.
5. Useful as a reaction container or to hold liquid or solid samples. They
are also used to catch liquids from titration and filtrates from filtering
operations.
6. Are sources of heat.
7. Used for addition of liquids drop by drop

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8. Used to mix, heat and/or hold small quantities of chemicals for assays
and laboratory Experiment s
9. Used for holding items
10. Used on a ring supports beakers to be heated by Bunsen burners
11. Used for holding test tubes when tubes should not be touched
12. Used to examine too small objects such as cells, microorganisms, etc.
that cannot be seen by the naked eye.
13. Used to produce a magnified image of an object.

Equipment/ tool

Figure 1.6 Common laboratory equipment

Activity 1.21

Assume that you are doing an evaporation Experiment to get the salt that has
dissolved in water.
1. What kinds of laboratory equipment do you need? Why?
2. What are the possible hazards associated with this Experiment ?
3. What safety measures will you follow?

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1.3.5 Making laboratory equipment/tools from locally
available materials
For junior schools, we do not need a great deal of expensive laboratory apparatus to
perform Experiment s. We can make much of the equipment from ordinary things
in our home or surrounding. In this section, you are going to make some laboratory
tools from local materials.

Project work

Activity 1.22

Prepare the following laboratory tools from local materials in groups. Use the
pictures given above to help you imagine the design. If you need help, contact
your teacher. Your teacher will assign one laboratory tool for each group.
1.Test tube holder 3. Test tube rack 5. Wire gauze
2. Alcohol burner 4. Beaker 6. Funnel

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Summary
 Science can be defined as a way of knowing the natural world through
investigating evidence together and making sense of that evidence to
explain the natural world.
 Science has three major branches: Life science, physical science and
earth science. Life science studies living things.
 Conventional knowledge is acquired through the method of conventional
science and characterized by tentativeness, evidence supported, claims
based on observation and inferences, systematically documented, and
learned by formal education.
 Indigenous knowledge is a knowledge system built up by a group of
people through the accumulation of experiences, informal Experiment s
and intimate understanding of the environment in a given culture.
 Technology refers to the process of applying scientific knowledge in
practical applications for various purposes.
 Technology has a more direct effect on society as it solves practical
problems and serves human needs.
 Adhering to safety rules is important while working in the laboratory.
 Measurement of an object consists of units and numerical values.
Traditional units of measurements are not reliable and not exact but the
conventional (SI) units are more reliable.
 Physical quantities can be basic, derived, scalar or vector quantities.
 Fundamental quantities are quantities that are obtained by direct
measurement, but derived quantities are obtained by combining the
fundamental quantities.
 Quantities that can be described by only magnitude are called scalar
quantities.
 Quantities that can be described by both magnitude and direction are
called vector quantities.

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Review questions and problems

I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1.At one time, many people thought disease was caused by fate or misbehavior.
Following the invention of the microscope, bacteria were discovered. After
this, a new theory of what causes disease arose that was known as the germ
theory. Why was the original theory modified?
A. It quickly became obvious that germs causes disease
B. The person who invented the microscope became ill
C. New evidence promoted revision to the original ideas
D. The proponents of the germ theory had political power

2. Which of the following is true about theory and law?

A. A theory explains a set of well tested observations; and a law describes a
pattern in nature
B. Law can be changed with the addition of new evidence but theories can not
C. A law explains pattern in nature in more detail than a theory
D. Theory and law can be used interchangeably

3. Why is it necessary that scientists modify scientific theories when important

new information is discovered?
A. To confuse the scientists
B. To keep the theory interesting and refresh
C. To keep the theory as accurate and effective as possible
D. To make sure the general public does not understand the theory

4. Which of the following best describes why scientists discuss and debate on
Experiment al results and possible explanations in studying phenomena?
A. Because debating helps scientists to analyzing both the strength and
weakness of empirical evidence
B. Because debating helps the scientists to present interesting and exciting
science to the public

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C. Because debating gives the scientists the opportunity to express their feeling
and opinion
D. Because every scientist wants to find an accurate explanation and disproves
other’s explanation

5. What is the difference between science ad technology?

A. Science is the study of the natural world to gain knowledge, and technology
is the use of that knowledge or practical purposes.
B. Technology is the study of the natural world to gain knowledge, and science
is the use of that knowledge for practical purposes.
C. Science and technology are the same thing.
D. Science has a direct effect on society than technology.

6. In the past people stored computer data on floppy disks. Eventually, people
began to use compact discs with greater storage capacity. Which of the
following best describes this situation?
A. Technology leading to a less useful means of storage
B. Technology being used to create a new need or want
C. Technology being used to develop the designed world
D. Technology leading to the development of new technology

7. Which of these is an example of technology helping a scientist?

A. A scientist discusses a theory with different colleagues.
B. A scientist determines whether to investigate a volcanic eruption.
C. A scientist performs an Experiment in a laboratory setting.
D. A scientist measures the mass of a chemical on a digital scale.

8. What would you use to measure length?

A. Graduated cylinder B. Triple beam balance
C. Meter stick D. Spring scale

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9. Which one best describes measurements that are accurate?
A. They are very close to an accepted value.
B. They are based on an estimate.
C. They are very close to each other.
D. They are not based on numbers.

10. Which one of the following is not a vector quantity?

A. Displacement B. Force C. Density D. Velocity

11. Which one of the following is a derived SI unit?

A. Newton B. Kelvin C. Kilogram D. Second

12. 2 hr. + 20 min + 60 sec are equal to ______ minutes.

A. 120min B. 150 min C. 141min D. 161 min

II. Answer the following questions briefly

13. Mention some examples of technologies in the field of communication,

health, agriculture and education. Briefly explain the benefits you get from the
technologies

14. Explain how human needs, science and technology are interrelated?

15. Does development in technology have risks? If so, mention some risks of
advancement in technology?

16. What do you think are the importance of safety rules?

17. List laboratory apparatuses and write their uses.

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 Unit 2 : Matter in Our Surroundings

Unit

2
Matter in Our Surroundings

Learning outcomes: At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Use particle theory‘s postulates to explain properties and behavior
of materials.
 Classify matter as an element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or
heterogeneous mixture with regard to its physical properties.
 Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle
separation, arrangement and types of motion.
 Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and changes
of matter.
 Appreciate that matter can be classified based on physical or chemical
properties.
 Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them.
 Demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this unit: observing,
classifying, comparing and contrasting, making models, inferring,
communicating, asking questions, designing Experiment s, drawing
conclusions, applying concepts.

Activity 2.1
Take a spoon of sugar and grind it into a tiny pieces. Again continuously
grind these pieces into a very fine powder. Next, dissolve the sugar in water
Yet if you taste the solution, you know that the sugar is still there.
1. What do you think has happened to the sugar?
2. What do you think about the size and volume of sugar pieces?
3. Do you think the mass of sugar changed?
4. Write your conclusion about how matter is made of?

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2.1. Characteristics and nature of matter

2.1.1 Meaning and properties of matter

Activity 2.2

In your home and class, you use many materials like tea cup, pen, textbook,
shoes, and black board for different purposes. What do all these matters have
in common?
As you look at your surroundings, you see a large variety of things with different
shapes, colors, sizes and textures. The air you breathe, the food you eat, stones,
stars, plants, animals, a drop of water, a particle of sand, etc are forms of matter.

Activity 2.3
In your surroundings you get or experience chairs, air, sound, light, banana,
water, and smell of perfume. Which of them do you think have mass and
occupies space and which do not?

Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter. Matter can exist in
three physical states. These are solid, liquid, or gases.

2.1.2 Particulate nature of matter

A. Particle model of matter
Activity 2.4

Fill one graduated cylinder with 50 mL of sand and another graduated cylinder
with 50 mL of water. Pour 50 mL of water into the graduated cylinder filled
with 50 mL of sand. Observe carefully the air bubbles that rise to the surface.
1. What is the total volume of sand and water?
2. Why is the final volume less than 100 mL?
3. What do you conclude from this Experiment ?

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The Particle Theory of Matter helps us to explain why different matters have
different properties.

The Particle Theory of Matter has the following key ideas:

1. All matter is made of tiny particles.
2. Particles of matter are attracted to each other.
3. Particles of matter have spaces between them.
4. Particles of matter are always in motion.
5. Temperature affects how fast particles move.
6. Particles of one substance differ from the particles of other substances.

Experiment 2.1

Title: Demonstration of the particulate nature of matter.

Objective: To demonstrate that matter is made up of smaller particles.
Chemicals: Potassium permanganate crystal or ink and water.
Apparatus: Beakers and spatula.
Procedure:
1. Pour water into the beaker till it is half full.
2. Dissolve some potassium permanganate crystals or ink until the solution
is purple.
3. Transfer half the solution into another beaker and fill it with water.
4. Continue the process with other beakers, comparing the color of the
solution through each dilution.
Observation analysis:
1. What happens to the color of the solution upon each dilution?
2. What does this signify?
3. What is your conclusion?

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2.1.3 Explaining observations using the particle theory of
matter
A. Diffusion and everyday effects of diffusion
Activity 2.5

Spray a perfume from a corner of the classroom. (You can substitute perfume
with burning incense (Etan) or sendel.)
1. Do you smell the perfume or incense? Why?
2. Why was it possible for you to smell from a distance?

Diffusion is an evidence for the particulate nature of matter. It is the process by

which particles of liquids or gases spread out randomly from a region of high
concentration to lower concentration.

Diffusion occurs because particles in a substance are always moving around.

Particles of gases diffuse quickly. The particles of gases are moving fast as a result
of very weak intermolecular forces between them.

Liquids can also undergo diffusion. The rate of diffusion of liquids is slower than
gases because liquids particles move more slowly due to strong intermolecular
attraction force that held them.

For example, if you drop a small amount of ink into a jar of water the color will
spread slowly through the water by diffusion.

Diffusion does not usually happen in solids because the particles in solids can only
vibrate on fixed position due to very strong intermolecular attraction force that held
particles of solids together.

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B. Properties of solids, liquids and gases
The differences in the properties of states of matter are given in the following Table.
Table 2.1: Properties of solid, liquid and gaseous state
Solid state Liquid state Gaseous state
Have definite volume but no Gases have neither
Have definite
definite shape. Liquids attain definite shape nor definite
shape and volume
the shape of their container volume
Are compressible to a small
Are incompressible Are highly compressible
extent
The particles attract The force of attraction between The force of attraction is
each other very liquid particles is weaker than much weaker than liquid
strongly solid particles and solid particles
Gaseous particles are
Particles of solid These particles of liquids move
in a continuous, freely
cannot move freely freely
random motion
Particles are very
Far apart particles compared to Very far apart particles
much closer to each
solids compared to liquids
other

C. Particles in solids, liquids and gases

Activity 2.6

The following Figure s represent the three physical state of substances. Which
of the following Figure s represent solid, liquid or gas? Explain.

Figure 2.1: Physical states of matter

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Observation and Analysis

1. In which state are the particles more closely packed?
2. In which state do you think the force of attraction is stronger?

The particles in a solid are held together strongly. The spaces between solid particles
are very small. A solid has a fixed shape and a fixed volume because the particles
only vibrate at their fixed position. The particles vibrate back and forth but remain
in their fixed positions.

Gases always fill or occupy their entire container. Since the particles are moving
constantly in all directions, they spread throughout their container, no matter what
volume or shape their container is.

D. Melting, solidification, condensation and evaporation

Activity 2.7
1. If you hold a piece of ice on your hand for a few minutes what will
happen to the ice? Why?
2. If a wet cloth is exposed outside to the sun, it will dry. Why? Where does
the water go?
3. If you cool a bottle of water to a very low temperature in a fridge, what
will happen to the water?
4. If you place a piece of butter on a hot pan, what will happen to the butter?
Why?

The change of a substance from a solid to a liquid state is called melting. The
reverse of melting is called freezing or solidification. As a liquid cools, the particles
in the liquid lose energy and move more and more slowly and then settle into fixed
position. Thus the liquid has frozen or solidified. This process is called solidification
or freezing.

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Figure 2.2 Melting and Freezing

When a liquid absorbs heat energy, the particles move more and more quickly.
Some of the particles gain enough energy to break free of the other particles. When
this happens, the liquid changes to a gas. The change of state of a substance from a
liquid to a gas is called evaporation.

Figure :2.3 Evaporation and Condensation

The reverse of evaporation, i.e. the change of state from a gas to a liquid, is called
condensation. As a gas cools, the particles in the gas lose energy and move more
and more slowly until the gas condenses to a liquid.

E. Compression

Experiment 2.2

Title: Comparison of gases, liquid and solid.

Objective: To compare compressibility of gas, liquid and solid.
Materials: Three syringes of 100mL, 20 mL or 10 mL.
Chemicals: Chalk powder or soil and water.
Procedure:
1. Take three syringes with their pistons and close the nozzles of the syringes
with rubber.

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2. Fill syringe I with chalk powder or soil, syringe II with water and syringe
III already contains air.
3. Insert back the pistons of the syringes and push the pistons.

Figure 2.4 Compression using syringes

Observation and analysis:
1. What did you observe?
2. Why do you think you are able to push the piston of the syringe III
containing air but it is difficult to push the piston of the syringes I and II?
Compression is the process of close packing of particles by applying external force
or increasing pressure. For example, when you inflate a ball it gets harder because
of the air particles are collected and compressed into the ball and pushing on the
inner walls of the ball.

Activity 2.8
Take two balloons. Fill both the balloons with air. Place one of the balloons
in a cold place. Place the second balloon in hot place (under direct sunshine).
Which balloon explodes first? Why?

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2.2 Physical and chemical properties of matter

2.2.1 Physical properties of matter

Activity 2.9

Consider materials in your surroundings such as water, common salt, sugar,

wheat flour, copper wire, air, charcoal, oil, Observe the materials and answer
the following questions.
1. Which of them are solids, liquids and which are gases?
2. Which of them do you think are soluble and which are insoluble in
water?
3. Tell the colors of each substance to your friends?

A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed without

changing it into another substance. Physical properties include;
• Properties recognized by our sense organs such as; color, taste, texture,
odor.
• State of substances as solid, liquid and gas.
• Properties like density, hardness, solubility, texture, conductivity of heat
and electricity, melting point, boiling point, magnetic property, etc.

2.2.2 Identification of substances using physical properties

Identification of substances can be done based on their physical properties such as
color, solubility, taste, texture, odor, state of substances density, hardness, melting
point, boiling point, etc.

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Experiment 2.3

Title: Identification of substances based on their physical properties.

Objective: To investigate the physical state and solubility of substances.

Materials required: Four small beakers, a spatula and glass rod.

Chemicals: Five different substances (common salt, oil, sand, sugar and water)

Procedure:
1. Examine each of the substances and record your observation about their
physical state.
2. Take four small beakers and add 50 mL water to each beaker. Then, add
one spatula of each substance to each beaker. Stir the mixture in each
of the four beakers with a glass rod and observe the solubility of each
substance.
Observation and analysis:
Copy the following Table in your exercise book and record your observa-
tions.

Soluble or insoluble in wa-

Substance State Color
ter
Common salt

Oil

Sand

Sugar

1. Does each substance have the same state after added in water?
2. Can we consider solubility of substances in water, as a physical property?
Why?

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2.2.3 Chemical properties of matter
Activity 2.10

Bring a small amount of milk, a lemon, paper, match, nail, tea cup to the class.
1. Add small amount of milk into a cup. Add the lemon juice into milk and
mix them together.
2. Tear pieces of paper and lit it with a burning candle for 30 seconds
carefully.
3. Touch one end of the nail with a burning candle for 30 seconds carefully.

Based on the above practical activities, answer the following questions.

a. What did you see on the milk after a lemon juice is added on it?
b. What did you see on paper and nail? Which one of them burns easily?
c. What do you understand from the above activities?

A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that describes its ability to be

changed into a new substance. To observe the chemical properties of a substance,
you must try to change it to another substance. For example, Wood can catch fire
and burns in air forming new substances water and carbon dioxide. Burning or
flammability, reaction of a substance with acids, water, air etc. are some examples
of chemical properties of substances. Chemical properties can be used to classify
substances.
2.3. Classification of substances with composition
and observable properties
Activity 2.11

Group the following substances into pure substances or mixtures. Table salt,
pure water, blood, copper, aluminium, soil, sulfur, air, oxygen , carbon, tea, oil,
and milk.

2.3.1 Pure substance and mixture

Substances around us can be classified as pure substances and mixtures. A pure
substance is a material, in which all its samples have fixed composition and dis-

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tinct properties. Elements and compounds are pure substances. All the samples of
a given pure substance are chemically the same.
Activity 2.12

Based on your lower grade knowledge, write the type of matter on the space
provided in the chart.
Matter

Pure substance Mixture

Element Homogeneous

Metal

A. Elements and compounds

Elements
Elements are made of tiny invisible particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest
particle that has the properties of an element. 118 elements have been known until
now. 92 of the elements are naturally occurring. The rest are man made. Each
element is made of one kind of atom.
Classification of Elements
Activity 2.13

Like animals or plants living in your surroundings, elements are all different,
but they have some properties in common.

Collect the following materials from your surrounding: Aluminum sheet, copper
wire, and charcoal (carbon), sulfur and compare the following properties.
Which one of them do you think;
a. is shinny or not?
b. can easily bent or flattened into shapes?
c. can be broken easily?
d. is/are conductor(s) or not?
e. have common properties with others?

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The elements can be classified as metals, nonmetals, or metalloid.
Metals
A metal is a substance that conducts heat and electricity well. Metals are usually
solid at room temperature except Mercury. They are shiny when polished. Metals
can be bent or flattened into shapes without breaking. That is, they are malleable
and ductile.

Some metals are heavy having high density while and some them are light that
have relatively low densities.

Examples of metals: Aluminium, Iron, Copper, Gold, Silver, Calcium, Sodium,

etc.
Nonmetals
A nonmetal is an element that is a poor conductor of heat and electricity except
carbon in the form of graphite. Nonmetals that are solid at room temperature will
break rather than bend. These elements do not usually shine when polished. Sulfur
and carbon are examples of solid nonmetals. Most nonmetals are gases at room
temperature. Some examples of gaseous nonmetals are helium, nitrogen, and
oxygen. Bromine, is a liquid nonmetal at room temperature.

Experiment 2.4

Title: Identification of physical properties of metals and nonmetals.

Objective: To identify physical properties of metals and nonmetals.

Materials required: Copper, iron, aluminium, lead, sodium metal, and a magnet.
Properties of metals and nonmetals
Procedure:
1. Take a magnet and check if the above metals are attracted by the magnet.
Which metals are attached by the magnet and which are not?
2. Examine each metal carefully. Your record should include physical
state, the color of the metal, and whether the element is magnetic or
nonmagnetic.

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3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for nonmetals.

Elements
Color State Magnetic or nonmagnetic
Copper
Iron
Aluminium
Lead
Charcoal (Carbon)
Sulfur

Observation and analysis:

1. Which element can be identified by its reddish-brown color?
2. Which element is silvery-white in color?
3. Which element is black in color?
4. Which element is grayish in color?
5. Which of the elements can be attracted by a magnet and which of them
are not?
Metalloids
Metalloids are a very small group of elements that have some properties of the
metals and that of nonmetals. Metalloids are not as good conductors of heat and
electricity as the metals, but they are better conductors than the nonmetals. Boron,
Silicon, and Germanium are examples of metalloid.
Compounds
Compounds are pure substances composed of two or more elements that are
chemically combined. A compound can be represented by a chemical formula,
which shows the types of elements and the ratio of elements in the compound.

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Activity 2.14

I. Which of the following are compounds and which are not? Why?
1. Mercury
2. Calcium chloride
3. Nitrogen gas
4. Copper oxide

II. Write the elements form which the following compounds are formed.
1. Sulfur trioxide
2. Sodium chloride
3. Calcium oxide

B. Mixture
Activity 2.15

Bring some amount of water, sugar, salt, sand and five beakers or any container
to your class. In separate beakers, mix water and sugar, water and salt, water
and sand, sugar and salt, and salt and sand.
1. In which of the mixtures can you see the components after mixing?
Why?
2. In which mixtures do the components cannot be seen after mixing?
Why?

Most of the substances you see every day in our surrounding are mixtures. A
mixture is made of two or more pure substances such as elements, compounds, or
both, that are mixed physically. Each substance in a mixture keeps its individual
property. And also, the components of a mixture are not always composed or mixed
in a fixed ratio.

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Figure 2.5: Heterogeneous Mixture of fruits

Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture
A mixture can be heterogeneous or homogeneous. A heterogeneous mixture is
defined as a mixture in which the component parts can be seen with a naked eye
or with a help of microscope. A soil is an example of a heterogeneous mixture
consisting of particles of sand and clay, humus, microorganisms, water and air.

Examples: a mixture of sodium chloride (Table salt) and sand, local bear, a mixture
of sand and salt, blood, milk, etc.

A homogeneous mixture is defined as a mixture in which the component particles

cannot be seen with a naked eye or with a help of microscope. Suppose you stir a
teaspoon of sugar into a glass of water. After stirring for a little while, the sugar
dissolves, and you can no longer see crystals of sugar in the water. You know the
sugar is there, because the sugar solution tastes sweet.

Examples: a mixture of alcohol and water, clean air, salt solution, sugar solution,
etc.

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A. Salt solution B. A mixture of water and oil

Figure 2.6: Illustration of: A- homogeneous and B-heterogeneous mixtures
Table 2.2 Difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous Mixture

Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

Has a uniform composition Has a nonuniform composition

Has only one phase Has two or more phases

Components cannot be seen with Components can be seen with necked eye
necked eye or with a microscope or with a microscope

2.4 Changes around us: Physical and chemical

change

2.4.1 Physical and chemical changes

Activity 2.16

Obtain a small piece of chalk.

1. Observe it and record its properties.
2. On a piece of clean paper, crush the piece of chalk with the back of a
metal spoon. Describe the changes that occur.
3. Place some of the crushed chalk into the bowl of the spoon. Add about
8 drops of vinegar.

Describe what happens.

a. Do you think a new substance was formed when the chalk was crushed?

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b. Do you think a new substance was formed when vinegar was added?
Provide evidence for your answers.

Think It Over: Mostly chalk is a single substance, calcium carbonate.

Physical Change
In what ways can matter change? There are two types of changes in nature; physical
and chemical changes.

A physical change is any change that alters the form or appearance of matter but
does not form a new substance. A substance that undergoes a physical change is
still the same substance after the change.

Examples: Powdering of chalk, dissolving of salt in water, melting of ice,

evaporation of water, etc.
Chemical Change
A change in matter that produces one or more new substances with new properties
is a chemical change, or a chemical reaction.

Examples: Burning of charcoal, rusting of iron, fermentation, photosynthesis in

plants, etc

Table 2.3: Difference between physical and chemical changes

Physical change Chemical Change

Results in no change in chemical Results in a change in chemical
identities of the substance identities of the substance
New substances with new properties
No new substance is formed
are formed

The change is easy to reverse It is difficult to reverse the change

Result in no change in the composition Results in a change in the composition

of the substance of the substance
Energy changes is not necessarily Energy change ( mostly heat change)
involved is involved.

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2.4.2 Importance of physical and chemical changes in our life
Activity 2.17

Consider the changes like melting butter, cooking eggs, erosion of soil, burning
wood to cook food, dissolving sugar in tea, making yogurt, and chopping wood,
hammering metal to make knife, rusting of iron, spoiling of food.
1. Which ones do you think are physical changes? Why?
2. Which ones do you think are chemical changes? Why?
3. Which ones do you think are harmful and which are useful changes?
Why? Write a group report.

Mostly things we found in nature are not directly used as they are, but we have to
modify them to fit our purpose. For example, to prepare bread or injera, the teff or
the wheat must be grinded to get flour. This is a physical change. But the rising of
the dough and the cooking process involves chemical change. We break wood into
smaller pieces for burning while cooking food. The breaking of wood is a physical
change but the burning of wood is a chemical change.

Crushing of stone for construction, melting and molding of metals to make tools,
evaporation of water to get salt from sea water, melting of butter or honey, milling
of grains like wheat and corn are some examples of important physical changes in
everyday life.

Cooking food, burning wood or charcoal for cooking food, burning gasoline or
kerosene in cars and machines, preparation of Tej or Tella by fermentation of starch
in grains like corn or sorghum, baking injera or bread, souring of milk, respiration
process, etc. are some examples of important chemical changes in everyday life.

Activity 2.18
From your day to day activities observe and record four changes and identify
whether they are physical or chemical changes.
Give your reasons why the changes are physical or chemical changes?

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Project work

Activity 2.19
There are peoples preparing local beer (Tella) and Arakie in your Villages
Write all the types of physical and chemical processes /changes /taking
place during preparation of Tella and Arakie.

2.4.3 Useful and harmful changes

Activity 2.20

List examples of harmful and useful changes (physical and chemical changes)
in the following Table .

Harmful Change Useful Change

What should do we minimize the harmful changes?

Some uses of physical changes

1. Freezing enables us to store and preserve meat and other food products for
a long period of time. This is very useful because microorganisms such as
bacteria and molds that cause the spoilage of foods die in cold places.
2. Cutting a piece of cloth to be made into shirts or any other material that can
be useful is an important change.
3. Grinding of teff is useful for preparing injera.
4. Evaporation of sea water is used to get salt.
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Uses of chemical change
1. Animals make use of chemical reactions to convert the food they eat to
obtain energy.
2. Plants undergo photosynthesis to combine carbon dioxide and water to
form glucose or sugar.
3. Changing wood into charcoal for cooking food is also another example.
4. Preparations of Tella, Tej, and bread.
5. Preparation of medicines, plastics, fertilizers and other important goods
involves chemical changes.
6. Chemical industries produce their products through chemical changes.
Useful materials like soap, ceramics, glass, plastics and paper are prepared
by chemical changes.

There are also chemical changes that are harmful such as the rusting of iron,
decaying of food and explosion of bombs.

2.5 Separation of mixtures and its application

Activity 2.21

Tea leaves are separated from the liquid with a filter. Milk is churned to
separate the butter. We gin cotton to separate its seeds from the fiber. How
do you separate sand mixed with salt in glass of water? Write your steps and
present to your classmates.

Separation methods are those methods that can be used to separate mixtures into
their components. Separation is an important processes used to purify components
from mixtures.

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2.5.1 Methods of separation of mixtures
Activity 2.22
1. Bring some amount of grain purchased from a shop or from your home
to the classroom. Now, spread the grain on a sheet of paper. Do you find
only one kind of grain on the sheet of paper? Are there pieces of stone,
husks, broken grain and particles of any other grain in it?
2. Before grinding teff, you need to remove impurities that may be present
in it. How do you remove the impurities?

Both homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures can be separated by physical

methods. The method to be used is chosen based on the differences in physical
properties of the components such as magnetic property, solubility, density, melting
point, boiling point, etc. Some of the separation methods are decantation, filtration,
evaporation, magnetic separation, using separatory funnel, simple distillation and
fractional distillation.
1. Magnetic method of separation
This method involves the separation of magnetic substances from nonmagnetic
substances by means of magnet. Magnetic separation takes advantage of magnetism,
so it is useful only for certain substances that are strongly attracted by magnet.

Experiment 2.5

Title: Separation of mixture using a magnet

Objective: To separate a mixture of iron and Sulfur using a magnet.

Materials required: Magnet, iron filings, powdered Sulfur, beaker, sheet of

paper/ watch glass, and spatula

Procedure:
1. Take two spatulas of iron filings and powdered sulfur into a beaker, and
mix them thoroughly.
2. Place a portion of the mixture on a sheet of paper/ watch glass.

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3. Bring a magnet close to the surface of the mixture as shown in Figure 2.7

Figure 2.7: Magnetic separation

Observation and analysis
1. What type of mixture is it?
2. Which component of the mixture is attracted to the magnet?
3. What can you conclude from the Experiment ?
2. Evaporation method
Evaporation is a method used to separate out mixtures where there is/are one or
more dissolved solids. In this method the liquid component drives off from the solid
components by applying heat. This is because liquid components will evaporate
over time through heating. Evaporation is suitable to separate a soluble solid from
a liquid. In many parts of the world, Table salt is obtained from the evaporation of
seawater using heat energy from the sun.

Experiment 2.6

Title: Evaporation

Objective: To separate salt from a salt solution.

Materials required: Burner, evaporating dish, tripod, wire gauze, salt, beaker,
watch glass, beam balance, measuring cylinder.

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Procedure:
1. Dissolve about 10g of common salt (NaCl) in 30 mL of tap water in a
beaker.
2. Pour the salt solution in to an evaporating dish as shown in Figure 2.8.
3. Boil the solution until all the liquid evaporates and observe the result.

Figure 2.8: The separation of salt from a salt solution by evaporation.

Observation and analysis
1. What did you observe in the evaporating dish?
2. What would happen to the level of the liquid if the evaporating dish is
covered with a watch glass? Is evaporation possible?

3. Sedimentation, Decantation and Filtration

Activity 2.23

Collect some muddy water from a pond or a river. If it is not available, mix some
soil to water in a glass. Let it stand for half an hour. Observe the water carefully
and note your observations. Does some soil settle at the bottom of water? Why?
What do you call this process?

Sometimes, it may not be possible to separate components of a mixture by

winnowing and handpicking. For example, there may be lighter impurities like
dust or soil particles in lentils (misir) or peas. How are such impurities separated
from lentil or pea before cooking?

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Lentil or grains are usually washed before cooking. When you add water to these,
the impurities like dust and soil particles get separated. These impurities washed out
into water, which becomes a little muddy. Now, which will deposit to the bottom of
the container lentil or dust? Why? Have you seen that the container is tilted to pour
out the dirty water? When the heavier component in a mixture settles after water
is added to it, the process is called sedimentation. When the water (along with the
dust) is removed, the process is called decantation.

Experiment 2.7

Title: Decantation

Objective: To separate a mixture of liquid and insoluble solid denser than the
liquid component.

Materials required: Two beakers, glass rod, sand, and water.

Procedure:
1. Put water and sand into a beaker, and stir them thoroughly.
2. Allow the mixture in a beaker for one minute to settle down the insoluble
solid.
3. Pour the liquid above solid into another beaker as shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Decantation of muddy water

Observation and analysis
1. Which component of the mixture was sedimented?
2. What can you conclude from the Experiment ?

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Filtration is a separation method used to separate out insoluble substances in
a mixtures comprised of particles of which some are large enough in size to be
captured with a filter paper. Particle size can vary considerably, in a given type of
mixture. For instance, water filters can filter out bacteria (of length in order of 1
micron) and soil particles from stream water. Such process of separating insoluble
particles that cannot pass through the pores of a filter paper is called filtration.

Experiment 2.8

Title: Filtration

Objective: To separate a mixture of chalk (insoluble) and water by filtration.

Materials required: Beakers, filter paper, funnel, flask, powdered chalk and
water.

Procedure:
1. Put powdered chalk into a beaker containing water, and stir the mixture
to mix them.
2. Pour the mixture into the funnel fitted with a filter paper and collect the
filtrate in the flask as shown in Figure 2.10.
3. Observe the result.

Figure 2.10: Filtration

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Observation and analysis
1. Does the powdered chalk dissolve in water?
2. Which substance is collected in the flask?
3. Which substance remains on the filter paper?

4. Separation using Separatory funnel

Separatory funnel is used for separating a mixture of two liquids that do not mix
with each other. For example, oil and water from their mixture can be separated
by this process. If a mixture of such liquids is allowed to stand for some time, they
form two or more separate layers. The components that form different layers can
then be separated by decantation or using a separatory funnel.

Experiment 2.9

Title: Separation using separatory funnel.

Materials: Oil, water, separatory funnel, stand set up, clamp, funnel and beaker.

Procedure:
1. Fix a separatory funnel in a stand as shown on the Figure 2.11
2. Pour about 50ml of a mixture of oil and water through a funnel into a
separatory funnel.
3. Close the separatory funnel using a lid.
4. Now shake the separatory funnel gently and slowly.
5. Now, open the stopcock of the separatory funnel to release the pressure
inside the funnel.
6. Place the funnel in the stand and allow the two liquids to separate
completely.
7. Take a beaker and place it below the separatory funnel and open the lid of
the separatory funnel.
8. Open the stopcock of the separatory funnel and pour the lower layer of
water carefully into the beaker.
9. Close the stopcock of the separatory funnel as the oil reaches the stopcock
of separatory funnel.

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10. Place another beaker below the separatory funnel to collect oil from the
separatory funnel.

Figure 2.11: Setup of separation using separatory funnel

Observation and analysis
1. How many layers or phases are there?
2. Which component is at the upper layer and which one is in a lower layer?
Why?
5. Distillation
Activity 2.24

In your community there are peoples who are preparing Araki (katikala).
1. Observe carefully how they are processing it.
2. Ask the name of materials and their functions they use in the process.
Report for your friends in a class.

Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures composed of two or more

pure liquids (components). Distillation method is based on the difference in boiling
point of the components.

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Distillation is a purification process where the components of a liquid mixture are
vaporized and condensed and then isolated. The mixture is heated until one of the
components boils (turns to a vapor). The vapor is then fed into a condenser which
changes it back into a liquid. Then the liquid is collected in the receiver and it is
called distillate. The substance that remains in the original container is called the
“residue”. Simple distillation is used to separate liquid mixtures which boil without
decomposition and have enough difference in their boiling points.

Experiment 2.10

Title: Simple distillation

Objective: To separate the mixture of water and alcohol.

Materials required: Distillation flask, condenser, wire gauze, ring, stand with
base, clamp, Bunsen burner, conical flask, Thermometer and beaker.

Chemicals: Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and pure water

Procedures:
1. Mix 100 mL of ethyl alcohol (ethanol) with 100 mL of pure water in a 250
mL beaker.
2. Set up the distillation apparatus as shown in Figure 2.12
3. Add the mixture into the distillation flask.
4. Put a porous material or sand (boiling chips if there are any) in the flask.
5. Heat the distillation flask gently and observe the results.
6. See the temperature rise during distillation using the thermometer.
7. Turn off the Bunsen burner when the temperature reaches about 900C
8. You can check the odor of ethanol in the receiving conical flask.

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Observation and analysis
a. What is collected in the receiver (conical flask) and what remains in the
distillation flask?
b. Give the names of the apparatus used for the evaporation and condensation
processes in the Experiment ?
c. Why is the condenser connected to tap water in a simple distillation set
up?
d. Why does the cold water apply from bottom to top?
e. What is the need to use the boiling chips?

Figure 2.12: Simple distillation

2.5.2 Separating of mixtures using local materials

Activity 2.25

Identify separation methods used by people in your community;

1. In separation of teff, wheat, bean or other seeds from the chaff.
2. To clean dirty water
3. To get clear coffee from the pot/jebena
4. To get clear Tella or Tej

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Mixtures can be separated using locally available materials. The followings are
some of locally used materials used to separate different types of mixtures in to
their components.

Figure 2.13: Sieving

Figure 2.14 Farmers separating seeds from chaff using wind

A farmer separates teff from the chaff by the help of wind. Teff particles are denser
than the chaff and settles to the ground while the chaff is separated by wind.

Figure 2.15: Purification of coffee by decantation

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Figure 2.16: Local preparation of araki by distillation

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Summary
 Matter is made up of tiny particles.
 Every substance has two types of properties; physical and chemical
properties
 Physical properties of a substance describe the characteristics of the
substance that are related to physical changes.
 Substances can be identified based on their physical properties (such as
state, color, odor, taste, hardness, density, melting and boiling points) and
chemical properties.
 The Particle theory matter explains why different matter has different
properties.
 Diffusion occurs because particles in a substance are always moving
around.
 Compression is the process of close packing of particles by applying
external force or increasing pressure.
 A physical property is a characteristic of a pure substance that can be
observed without changing it into another substance.
 A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that describes
its ability to change into different substances of new composition and
properties.
 The elements can be classified as metals, nonmetals, or metalloid.
 A physical change is any change that alters the form or appearance of
matter but does not make any new substance.
 A change in matter that produces one or more new substances is a chemical
change, or a chemical reaction.
 A mixture is a form of substance formed when two or more pure substances
are mixed physically.
 Mixtures can be separated in to their components by physical means.

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Review Questions

Instruction I: Write ‘TRUE’ if the statement is correct or ‘FALSE’ if it is not

correct
1. Particles of matter are always in motion.
2. There is space between particles of matter.
3. There are no attractive forces between particles of matter.
4. A chemical change is a change results in the composition of a substance.
5. A heterogeneous mixture contains only one phase.
6. Elements are types of substances composed of two or more types of atoms.
7. Two different substances can have similar physical properties.
8. Compounds can be separated to their components by physical processes.
9. The properties of a substance that can be observed without altering its identity
are physical properties.
10. The ability of iron to conduct electricity is a chemical property of iron.
11. The temperature at which a solid melts is the same as the temperature at
which its liquid solidifies
12. Physical properties can be used as a basis for identifying substances.
13. Solids and liquids are easily compressible.

Instruction II: Choose the best answer from the alternatives provided.
14. Which one of the following is chemical change?
A. Melting of ice C. Burning of charcoal
B. Dissolving of salt in water D. Powdering of chalk
15. Which one of the following is a homogeneous mixture?
A. Blood B. clean Air C. Milk D. muddy water
16. Which one of the following is a pure substance?
A. Tea B. Oxygen C. Tap Water D. Milk
17. Which of the following is a compound?
A. Tea B. Soil C. Milk D. Sugar
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18. Which one of the following does not involve a change of state?
A. Freezing C. Expansion
B. Melting D. Evaporation
19. Which one of the following processes does not help in separation of
mixtures?
A. Filtration B. Distillation C. Sieving D. None
20. The apparatus used to separate two immiscible liquids is
A. Separatory funnel C. Distillation flask
B. Condenser D. Filter paper
21. The two processes that take place during distillation are ____.
A. Filtration followed by evaporation
B. Evaporation followed by condensation
C. Condensation followed by evaporation
D. Filtration followed by condensation
22. The process of settling of suspended particles in a mixture is known as __.
A. Decantation B. Distillation
C. Sedimentation D. Magnetic separation
23. Which of the following substances cannot be further decomposed by
ordinary chemical means?
A. Water B. Gold C. Sugar D. Table salt
Instruction III: Fill in the blank spaces.
24. Anything that has mass and occupies space is _________.
25. A method used to separate solid from liquid using filter paper is _________.
26. A mixture that has uniform composition of pure substances is _________.
27. Elements that have high conductivity of heat and electricity are _________
28. The process of close packing of particles by applying external force is
known as ________.
29. The process by which particles spread out from a region of high concentration
to a region of lower concentration is known as ________.

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Instruction IV: Give a brief explanation for the following questions.
30. Physical and chemical changes are the two types changes in matter. What is
their difference in terms of energy change and reversibility of the change?
31. Describe the properties of matter in terms of the particle theory.
32. Explain why some substances are solids, some are liquids and some of them
are gases based on the particle theory of matter.
33. During distillation processes, one liquid distillates out first before the other.
Why does this happen?
34. Explain diffusion and compression in terms of the particle theory of matter.
35. Why do gaseous substances have indefinite shape and indefinite volume?
Give your explanation based on the particle theory of matter?

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 Unit 3 : Elements, Compounds and Chemical Reactions

Unit Elements, Compounds

3 and Chemical Reactions

Learning outcomes: at the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Compare elements to compounds and how they are represented by
symbols and formulas.
 Write the symbols of common elements or compounds.
 Name compounds given their formula and write formula given the
name of the compound.
 Use symbols and chemical formulas as a way of communicating
information about elements and compounds.
 Apply the Law of conservation in writing balanced equations.
 Interpret chemical formulas of compounds in terms of the elements
present and the ratios of their atoms.

3.1. Elements and their representation

3.1.1 Common elements

Activity 3.1

Given the following naturally occurring elements: Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon,

Potassium, Aluminium. Can you guess the symbols of these elements to
represent them?

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Activity 3.2

Pair Matching: Look at the chart below, match the name with the symbol
of elements?

Exploration Questions
1. Arrange elements whose names begin with the same letter.
2. Do we give the same symbols for the elements whose name begin with
the same letter?
3. How are the letters of the symbols arranged?
4. Give a reason why are not all elements symbolized by the first letter of
their names.
5. Is there an element whose symbol is different from the first letter of its
name? Why?

An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into any other
substances by ordinary chemical or physical means. It is made up of only one kind
of atom. Each element can be identified by its chemical name and symbol.
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3.1.2 Chemical symbol
Chemical Symbol is a shorthand representation of chemical name of an element.
It is a one or two letter designation of an element.

Examples: The chemical symbol of oxygen is O, of zinc is Zn, and that of iron is
Fe.

3.1.3 Writing symbols

The chemical symbols of most elements are derived from their English name and
some of them are from Latin names. In writing symbols the first letter is always
capitalized. If the symbol contains two letters, the second letter is a small letter. A
given chemical symbol stands for a specific element. No two elements can have
the same symbol.
Table 3.1 Symbols of some common elements derived from their English names

English Name Symbols of elements

Hydrogen H
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Sulfur S
Aluminium Al
Chlorine Cl
Helium He
Magnesium Mg
Lithium Li
Calcium Ca

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Table 3.2 Symbols of some common elements derived from their Latin names

English Name Latin name Symbols of elements

Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cupprum Cu
Gold Aurrum Au
Silver Argentum Ag
Potassium Kalium K
Sodium Natrium Na
Mercury Hydrogyrum Hg
Lead Plumbum Pb
Tin Stannum Sn

Activity 3.3

1. Write the name of the following symbols and compare their difference in
relation to their names.
i. Ca and Cu
ii. He and Hg
iii. N and Na

2. Write at least one element for each of the following alphabet letters that
can be the beginning letter of their names. A, B, C, F, H, L, N, O

3.2. Compounds and their representation

Activity 3.4

1. From your prior knowledge and experience, you know different compounds.
a. List the names of the compounds you know and write their chemical
formula?
b. What do you think is the basic difference between elements and
compounds?

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3.2.1 Compounds
Compounds are pure substances that consist of atoms of two or more different
elements combined chemically in fixed ratio. The fixed ratio or number indicates
the number of atoms (elements) present in a compound.

3.2.2 Meaning of formula

Activity 3.5

One of the compounds found in most fruits like lemon and orange is citric
acid. The chemical formula of Citric acid is C6H8O7
1. What types elements are found in the compound?
2, How many numbers of each element are there in the formula?

The formula of a substance is the symbolic representation of its composition.

Formulas can be either formulas of elements or formulas of compounds.

The formula of an element consists of only symbol of one element whereas the
formula of a compound contains the symbols of two or more different elements.
The chemical formula of an element or a compound represents its composition
using symbols and numbers.

Therefore, from a formula of a compound we can determine:

1. The type elements present in the compound
2. The number of atoms of each element in the compound.
Examples.
a. NaCl - contains one Sodium and one Chlorine atoms
b. Al2O3- contains two Aluminum and three Oxygen atoms
c. CaCO3 contains one Calcium, one Carbon and three Oxygen atoms
Formulas of Molecules of atoms
A molecule of an element is an atom or group of atoms that exists free in nature.
Elements in nature may exist as Monoatomic, Diatomic or Polyatomic elements.

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Mono atomic elements: - They exist as uncombined single atoms.

Example noble gases (Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon).

Diatomic elements: - Exist as a molecule containing two atoms combined together.

These are Hydrogen (H2), Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2), Fluorine (F2), Chlorine
(Cl2), Bromine (Br2), and Iodine( I2).

Polyatomic elements: - Other elements exist as molecules containing more than

two atoms.

Example: Phosphorous (P4), Sulfur (S8) and others.

3.2.3 Valence number

Activity 3.6
Consider the compounds NaCl, AlCl3, MgCl2
1. What do you observe about the number of chlorine atoms combining
with the different atoms?
2. Which element combined with more chlorine? What do we call this
characteristic of atoms?

The combining power of an element with another element in compound formation

is called valence number.

Elements in nature have their own combining powers to combine with others. For
example, in common salt, NaCl one atom of sodium combines with one atom of
chlorine. So the valence number of sodium is 1 and that of chlorine is also1. In a
compound water, H2O since 1 atom of oxygen combines with two hydrogen atoms
its valence number is 2. But the valence number of hydrogen is1.

The common valence number of most common elements is 1,2,3, or 4 as shown in

Table 3.3 below

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Table 3.3:Valence number of some common elements.
Valance Valance Valance Valance
Number 1 Number 2 Number 3 Number 4
Na Ca Al C
K Mg N Si
H Zn P
Cl O
Br S

Some elements can have more than one valence number called variable valence
number. For example, elements like Fe and Cu have more than one valence numbers
as;

The Valance number of Fe is 2 in FeCl2 but it is 3 in FeCl3.

The Valence number of Cu is 1 in Cu2O but it is 2 in CuO.

3.2.4 Formulas of binary compounds

Activity 3.7

In the following molecular model each colored ball represents an element.

Different size also shows a different element. Based on the color or size of balls
in the following models identify which one of them are binary compounds and
which ones are not?

A C
B

D E

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Compounds composed of only two different elements are known as binary
compounds. In binary compounds elements may combine only in a one to one
ratio or more than that. For example, in sodium chloride (salt) NaCl, which has
one sodium (Na) and one chlorine (Cl). But in laughing gas (N2O) that has two
nitrogens (N) and one oxygen (O).

Examples of binary compounds: KCl, H2O, CO2, Al2O3, N2O3 , CaO,SO3, AlCl3,etc

3.2.5 Writing chemical formulas of binary compounds

If we know the valence number of elements, we can write the chemical formula
of compounds. Chemical formulas are written using the valence number of the
elements combined. To write the formula of a compound using the crisscross
method, we use the following steps.
1. Write the symbols of the two elements side by side. Write the metal to the
left and the non-metal to the right hand side.
2. Write the valence number, of each atom at the top of its symbol
3. If necessary, divide the valence number by the highest common factor to
get a simple ratio.
4. Make a crisscross of valence numbers and write them as subscript numbers
this will give you the formula of the compound.
Example:1. Write the formula of calcium nitride
1. Write the symbols of the two elements side by side.

Ca N
2. Write the valence number, of each atom at the top of its symbol

3. If necessary, divide the valence number by the highest common factor to

get a simple ratio.

4. Make a crisscross of valence numbers.

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Therefore, the formula of calcium nitride will be Ca3N2

Similarly,

The chemical formula of Sodium iodide is NaI, Magnesium oxide is MgO, and that
of Aluminium chloride AlCl3

Activity 3.8

Write formulas for the following compounds.

1. Magnesium and chlorine
2. Sodium and oxygen

3.2.6 Naming binary compounds

We can use the following basic rules to give a name of binary compounds
Rules in Naming Binary Compounds
1. The name of a binary compound is the combination of the names of the two
constituent elements.
2. For binary compounds that consist of metals and nonmetals, the metal is
named first followed by the nonmetal.
3. The suffix -ide replaces the last letters of the name of the nonmetal. For
example, chlorine is changed to chloride.
Table 3.4:Names of some nonmetals in binary compounds

Non-metallic Element Name in Binary Compound

Chlorine Chloride
Fluorine Fluoride
Oxygen Oxide
Nitrogen Nitride

4. If the metal has variable valence numbers, the valence number of the metal
used in the formula should be placed in parenthesis using capital Roman

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numerals after the name of the metal.
Examples: Cu2O – Copper (I) Oxide
FeCl2 – Iron (II) Chloride
5. If the binary compound consists of nonmetallic elements only, we name the
first element is named by its own name followed by the name of the second
element with the suffix –ide.
Examples: HCl – Hydrogen chloride
HBr – Hydrogen bromide
H2S – Hydrogen sulfide
6. If two nonmetallic elements form two or more compounds, we name the
first element followed by the name of the second element with the Greek
prefix like mono, di, tri, etc. as indicated in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Greek prefixes used in naming binary molecular compounds

Prefix Meaning
Mono 1
Di 2
Tri 3
Tetra 4
Penta 5
Hexa 6

Examples
CO – Carbon monoxide CO2 – Carbon dioxide
SO2 – Sulfur dioxide SO3 – Sulfur trioxide
N2O – Dinitrogen monoxide NO2 – Nitrogen dioxide

N.B . For some compounds, common names are used in everyday life. For example,
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is known with the name limestone, sodium chloride is
usually called Table salt, dihydrogen monoxide (H2O) is named as water, Nitrogen
trihydride (NH3) named as ammonia for However, common names usually give no
information about chemical composition.

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Activity 3.9

1. From the of the following list, which of them are binary compounds and
which are not?
a. Br2 b. HF c. CaCl2 d. H2SO4
2. Write the formulas for the following binary compounds.
a. Zinc Chloride
b. Copper(II) oxide
c. Magnesium bromide
3. Write the name of the following compounds.
a. HCl b. NO c. H2O
d. PCl3 e. MgS f. K2O
4. The valence number of a metallic element X is 3. What is the formula of
its oxide?

3.2.7 Polyatomic ions

Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms of elements bonded together and have an
overall positive or negative charge. Polyatomic ions have characteristic formulas,
names, and charges that should be memorized. In polyatomic ions the number
indicating the charge indicates their valence number. The followings are common
polyatomic ions with their valence numbers.
Table 3.6: Formula and valency of polyatomic ions

Valence number 1 Valence number 2 Valence number 3

Formula Name Formula Name Formula Name
OH- hydroxide CO32- Carbonate PO43- Phosphate
CN- cyanide SO42- Sulfate
Hydrogen
HCO3- carbonate
(bicarbonate)
NO3 -
nitrate
NH4+ Ammonium

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Polyatomic ions can form compounds with other monatomic (of one element) or
polyatomic ions. The formula of compounds containing polyatomic ions can be
written in the same way as those of binary compounds.

Examples: The formula of a compound formed from sodium and carbonate ion
with a valence of 1 and 2 respectively will be Na2CO3 as ;

Similarly;
a. The formula of a compound formed from K and NO3- ion will be KNO3
b. The formula of a compound formed from Al and SO42- ion will be Al2(SO4)3
c. The formula of a compound formed from Na and OH- ion will be NaOH

3.2.8 Naming simple chemical compounds containing

polatomic ions

Activity 3.10

Naming chemical compounds and writing chemical formulas

Instruction: You will be provided or you will prepare some cards containing
elements and polyatomic ions with their valence numbers. You will play
the cards with your class mates in pairs or in groups. Represent formulas of
compounds using the cards you get. The winner will be a student or a group
who has represented and named more number of compounds.

Materials: Playing cards, 50 positive ions cards and 50 negative ion cards, 4
or more score cards, and Pencils

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Information on cards

Each card has the name and the valence number of an element or a polyatomic
ion printed on the card.
Rules of playing
1. Familiarize yourself with the rules for building and naming compounds.
2. Mix or shuffle the positive and negative ion cards together.
3. Then give cards to each player. The number of cards you deal will depend
on the number of people playing. For example, 6 players would each
receive 6 cards.
4. Put the remaining cards in the middle of the players.
5. Take or draw a card from the top of the deck or take the top card from the
discard pile. The player has the opportunity to form neutral compounds
at any time during their turn.
6. Write the formula of the neutral compound on the scorecard.
Hint: 1 sodium + 1 chlorine → sodium chloride, NaCl

We can use the following rules to name simple compounds containing polyatomic
ions.
1. If a compound consists of a metal or ammonium ion, the name of the metal
or ammonium ion is named first without changing its name.

Example: Na2CO3, sodium carbonate

NH4NO3 - Ammonium nitrate

2. Compounds that involve metals with more than one valence number (i.e.
with variable valence number) are named as follows
a. Write the valence of the metal after the name of the metal using Roman
numerals in a bracket.
b. Then follow rules one.

Example: CuCO3 - Copper (II) carbonate Fe2(SO4)3 - Iron (III) sulfate

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Activity 3.11
1. Write down the formulas of the compounds made of the following
pairs.
a. Sodium and sulfate ion
b. Ammonium ion and hydroxide ion
c. Sodium and nitrate ion
d. Magnesium and phosphate ion
2. Name the following compounds.

a. CaSO4 c. KNO3
b. MgCO3 d. NH4Cl

3.2.9 Interpreting of chemical formula

Activity 3.12
Given a chemical formula CaCO3:
1. List the types of elements in this compound?
2. How many of each element are there in this compound?
3. What do you understand from your answers of question 1 and 2?

Chemical formulas have qualitative and quantitative meanings. Qualitative

meaning refers to kinds of elements while quantitative meaning refers to the
number of elements in a formula. Qualitatively symbols represent the identities of
the elements. You can see the qualitative meanings of symbols on Table 3.7.
Table 3.7: Qualitative meaning of symbol or formula

Chemical Symbol or
Qualitative Meanings
Formula
H2O Hydrogen and Oxygen are present in a molecule

NaNO3 Sodium, Nitrogen and Oxygen are present in a compound

3P4 Phosphorus is present in a molecule

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Activity 3.13

Show the qualitative meaning of the following formulas of substances.

Chemical Symbol or
Qualitative Meanings
Formula
Ca(OH)2
HNO3
4Br2

Quantitatively symbols accompanied with coefficient and subscript numbers that

represent the numbers of atoms of the elements. A subscript shows the number of
atoms in a formula.

For example in water molecule: H2O represents two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom in water.
Table 3.8: Quantitative meaning of chemical symbol or formula

Chemical Symbol or For-

Quantitative Meanings
mula
Two hydrogen bromide molecule that contains one
2HBr
hydrogen atom and one bromine atom each.
Five water molecules that contain two hydrogen
5H2O
atoms and one oxygen atom each
Three chlorine molecules that contains two chlorine
3Cl2
atoms each

Activity 3.14

Fill the blank spaces in the Table below.

Chemical Symbol or Formula Quantitative Meanings

3H2
4N2
5F

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3.3 Simple chemical reactions and equations

3.3.1 Simple chemical reactions

Activity 3.15

There are several chemical reactions done at our homes by our parents. Describe
the chemical reactions that occur;
1. When our parents burn wood, charcoal or kerosene for cooking food.
2. When they brew Tella or Tej
3. When they make yoghurt (Ergo)

A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances (the reactants) are
converted to one or more different substances (the products). Substances involving
in a chemical reaction may be elements or compounds. They are represented as:

Reactants → Products

Reactants are the starting materials or initial substances of a chemical reaction.

Products are the end materials formed during the chemical reaction.

Consider the reaction: The chemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen that gives
water,

Hydrogen + Oxygen → water

Or this chemical reaction also represented with symbols and formulas as

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Therefore, Hydrogen and Oxygen are reactants and water molecules are products.

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Experiment 3.1

Title: Simple chemical reaction.

Objective: To study simple chemical reactions by burning magnesium ribbon in

air.

Materials Required: Bunsen burner, match, tong, and crucible.

Chemicals required: Magnesium ribbon.

Figure 3.1: Burning of magnesium ribbon in air

Procedure
1. Hold a magnesium ribbon with a tong and heat it on the Bunsen burner.
2. Collect the product on the crucible.
3. Record your observations.
Observations and Reflection
a. What is the importance of heat for the reaction?
b. What are the reactants?
c. Compare and contrast the properties of the reactants with the product
formed.
d. Investigate the chemical reaction and write your conclusion. (Your teacher
guides you how you perform this practical Experiment )

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3.3.2 Evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred

Experiment 3.2

Title: Simple chemical reaction

Objective: Investigating simple chemical reaction

Chemicals: Baking soda and Vinegar

Materials: Spoon or spatula, plastic cup or beaker, measuring cylinder

Procedure
1. Place 2 small spoonfuls of baking soda into a clear plastic cup.
2. Add about 125 ml of vinegar. Swirl the cup gently.
3. Look at the material in the cup. Carefully fan the air above the liquid
toward you. What do you smell?
Observation and reflection
a. What changes do you see?
b. Feel the outside of the cup. What do you notice about the temperature?
Think it over
What changes did you detect using your senses of smell and touch?

Chemical reactions involve changes in properties of substances and energy.

One way to detect chemical reactions is to observe changes in the properties of
substances involved. Changes in properties are resulted when new substances are
formed.

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Some indicators for a chemical reaction taking place are;
1. Color change may indicate that a new substance has formed.

Figure 3.2: Color change of solid and liquid reactants

2. Change of physical state: The mixing of two solutions may yield a solid
substance at the bottom of the reaction container.

Figure 3.3: Formation of solid after reaction

3. The formation of a gas from solid or liquid reactants.

Figure 3.4: Evolving out of gas after reaction

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4. Change of texture and hardness may also change. For example, moist bread
dough forms a dry, porous solid after baking.
5. Changes in Energy: As matter changes, it can either absorb or release energy.
Chemical reactions usually absorb or liberate heat energy. One common
indication of a change in energy is a change in temperature.

N.B. All color changes, change of state, evolution of a gas and a change in energy
does not necessarily mean that a chemical reaction takes place.

3.3.3 The Law of Conservation of mass

Activity 3.16

Analogy. See the following physical processes

1. If you grind a 50kg of teff in a mill what will be the mass of the powder
you have?
2. If you dissolve 10g of sugar in a 50g of water, what do think is the mass
of a sugar solution?
3. If you burn a piece of paper what do you think about the mass of paper
before and after burning?
4. What will be the mass of ash formed if 10g of magnesium is burned in
oxygen? Do you think the mass of magnesium and the mass of the ash
equal? Why?
5. Take 30g of NaCl solution in one test tube and 30 g of AgNO3 solution in
another test tube. Mix the two solutions in a beaker. What do you think
is the mass of the product in a beaker?

Notice: Measure the mass of the beaker before mixing the two solutions.

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed
during a chemical reaction. That is the total mass of the reactants is equal the total
mass of the products. This is because the number and types of atoms in reactant
elements and in products are equal.

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For example, if two atoms of sodium react with two atoms of chlorine, they form
a compound sodium chloride containing two sodium and two chlorine atoms as;

2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Experiment 3.3

Title: Investigation of the law of conservation of mass

Objective: To determine the mass of substance before and after a chemical

reaction.

Apparatus: Spatula, test tube, Bunsen burner, beam balance and test tube holder.

Chemicals: Iron filling and sulfur powder

Procedure:
1. Measure the mass of test tube.
2. Take 5 grams of iron filling and 9 grams of sulfur powder, mix them in a
test tube.
3. Heat the mixture strongly in a closed test tube.
4. After the reaction is completed, cool the test tube and take the mass of the
test tube with its content.
5. Subtract the mass of the test tube from the mass you obtained in step4.
Observation and Analysis
1. What is the mass of the new compound formed in the reaction?
2. Is there change in mass before reaction and after reaction?
3. What do you conclude from the Experiment ?
4. Write the balanced chemical equation.

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3.3.4 Writing simple chemical equation

Activity 3.17

The chemical reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride
and hydrogen gas can be written shortly as: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
a. List all the things used to write the chemical equation.
b. What is the name of substances on the left side of the arrow? List them.
c. What do we call the substances found on the right side of the arrow?
List them
In order to describe a chemical reaction, we need to indicate what substances are
present at the beginning and what substances are produced at the end of the reaction.

A chemical equation is the shorthand representation of a chemical reaction using

formulas of reactants and products. The general chemical equation for a reaction
can be written as:

Reactants → Products

In the chemical equation, the reactants are on the left side and products on the right
side of the arrow ‘‘→ ’’

The arrow is read as “to produce” or “yields”.

For example: The reaction: C + O2 → CO2 is read as: ‘Carbon reacts with oxygen
to produce carbon dioxide.’

3.3.5 Balancing chemical equation

Activity 3.18
1. What do we mean balancing of a chemical equation?
2. Why do you think that all chemical equations are always balanced?

To describe a reaction accurately, a chemical equation must show the same number
of each type of atom on both sides of the equation. A chemical equation is balanced
to obey the law of conservation of mass.

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There are several methods for balancing chemical equations. We will see two
methods namely the inspection method and the L.C.M (Least common multiple)
methods at this level.

N.B. During balancing chemical equations the subscript numbers should not

be changed.
I. Inspection (Trial and error) Method
It is a method of balancing an equation by putting a coefficient before the symbol
or formula by trial and error. In this method, we use the following steps to balance
the chemical equations.
Step 1: Write the word equation.
Step 2: Write the symbols and formulas of the word equation.
Step 3: Put coefficients in front of the reactants and products by trial and error
until the chemical equation is balanced.

Example:

When potassium reacts with oxygen it produces potassium oxide. Write a balanced
chemical equation for this reaction.
Step 1. Write the word equation
Potassium + oxygen → Potassium oxide
Step 2. Write the symbols and formulas of the word equation
K + O2 → K2O
Step 3. Putting coefficients of reactants and products by trial and error until the
reaction is balanced.
K + O2 → K2O
Here observe carefully that both O and K atoms are not balanced. To balance O
insert coefficient number 2 before K2O hence O is balanced as;
K + O2 → 2K2O
However, K is still unbalanced because the number of K atoms are 2 on the reactant
side and 4 on the product side at this stage.

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Finally, to balance K, change the coefficient of K into 4 on the reactant side in front
of K. Therefore, the equation is balanced:
4K + O2 → 2K2O

Activity 3.19
Balance the following chemical equations by inspection method.
1. Carbon burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide.
2. Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride
and hydrogen gas.

II. Least Common Multiple (L.C.M) method

This is a method of balancing using the least common multiple (L.C.M) of all the
total valence number of each atom involved in a chemical reaction and dividing the
L.C.M by the total valence number of each element. The following steps are used
to balance a chemical equation using the L.C.M method.
Step 1. Write the total valence number of each element above it
Step 2. Find the L.C.M of all total valence number and write it above the arrow
Step 3. Divide the L.C.M by the total valence number of each element.
Step 4. Write the number obtained in step 3 as a coefficient of the formula.
Step 5. Check if the number of elements of each kind on the reactant side and
product side are exactly equal.
Example:
Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between aluminium and
oxygen forming aluminum oxide as: Al + O2 → Al2O3
Step1. In the reactants, aluminium atom has a valence number of3. Write 3
above Al. Each atom of oxygen has a valence number of 2, the total valence
number of oxygen is4. Write 4 above O.
In the product; Al2O3 the total valence number of aluminum is 6, write 6 above
Al. In the same way the total valence number of oxygen is 6. Write 6 above
oxygen as;

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Step2. The L.C.M ( Least common multiple) of 3, 4, and 6 is 12. Write this
number above the arrow as,

Step3. Dividing 12 (the L.C.M) by the total valence number of each atom gives
12 ÷ 3 = 4 , for Al, 12 ÷ 4 = 3, for O2 and 12 ÷ 6 = 2 for Al2O3
Step4. Writing the results of step 3 as coefficients of the corresponding formula.
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Step5. Check-up the number of atoms present on the right and left sides
Left (reactant) side 4 Aluminum and 6 Oxygen
Right ( product) side 4 Aluminum and 6 Oxygen
Since the number of atoms of each element on both sides are equal, the bal-
anced equation will be;
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3

Activity 3.20
Balance the following chemical equation using the L.C.M method
1. Ca + N2 → Ca3N2
2. Na + O2 → Na2O.

3.3.7 Demonstrating balanced equation

A balanced chemical equation must obey the Law of Conservation of Mass. This
is an important guiding principle to write different chemical equations. You can
balance chemical equations using different materials in your surroundings. In the
next Activity , your teacher will guide you how chemical equations are balanced
using drawing colored circular models. The models represent the elements on the
reactant and product side.

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Activity 3.21

Using drawing colored circular models, write the balanced reaction of hydrogen
with oxygen that gives water

Procedure:
1. Label reactants and products with different circular colors with markers, to
represent each side of a chemical equation.
2. Choose one color to represent an element in the chemical reaction.
3. To create a compound, put the correct circular color together to represent
a bond between atoms.
4. Count the total number of atoms you have for your reactants and products
before you attempt to balance the equation. Look for the same colors on
both sides of the equation.
5. Determine if you need to balance the equation by adding coefficients. This
is done by comparing the numbers for each atom on the reactant side with
the product side.
6. Then add any coefficients if they are needed and count how many atoms
we now have. You do not need to change any subscript number to balance
the equation.

Hint: -
+
H2 O2 H 2O
Result
1. What are the coefficients of the reactants and products?
2. Do you think the reaction obeys the law of conservation of mass?

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3.4 Uses of chemical reactions in everyday situation

Activity 3.22

You experience burning of materials when you strike a match, burn a candle,
start a campfire or burn wood, etc.
Observation and reflection
1. What is burning?
2. Write three uses of burning. (Hint: We cannot drive a car if there was no
burning.) Add other examples.
Think it over
Chemical reactions are used to produce most of our energy. List out reactions
in groups that can be used as a source of energy in your home and present your
report to the class.

Chemical reactions are an integral part of technology, culture, and life itself.
Burning fuels, cooking food, smelting iron, making glass and pottery, brewing beer,
and making wine and cheese are among many examples of activities incorporating
chemical reactions that have been known and used for thousands of years. Chemical
reactions are the basis for the geology of earth, in the atmosphere and oceans, and
in a vast array of complicated processes that occur in all living systems.

Summary
 Chemical symbol is shorthand notation of the name of elements.
 Chemical formula is shorthand notation of the chemical name of elements
or compounds.
 Chemical equation is shorthand representation of the chemical reaction.
 Valence number of an element is the combining power of an element with
another
 Chemical formulas are written using the valences of the elements
combined.
 Chemical formulas have qualitative and quantitative meaning.

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 Quantitatively a formula represents the number of the elements in a given
compound.
 Qualitatively a formula represents the kind of elements involved in
making a compound.
 Compounds composed of only two different elements are known as
binary compounds.
 Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms bonded together and have an overall
electric charge.
 A chemical reaction is the process of converting reactants to products.
 Chemical reactions involve changes in properties of substances and a
changes in energy.
 The law of conservation of mass states that, during a chemical reaction,
mass is neither created nor destroyed.
 Chemical equation is the shorthand representation of a chemical reaction
using formulas of reactants and products.
 A balance chemical equation must obey the Law of Conservation of Mass.
 In a balanced chemical equation, the total number of atoms of each
element on the left hand side is equal to the total number of atoms of the
same elements on the right hand side.

Review Questions
Instruction I: Write ‘TRUE’ if the statement is correct or ‘FALSE’ if it is

incorrect.
1. Elements are the simplest substances which cannot be broken in to simpler
substance by ordinary reactions.
2. Two elements can have the same chemical symbols.
3. Polyatomic ions can exist in nature by themselves.
4. Atoms of elements are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical
reaction.
5. F2 and 2F have the same meaning.
6. A compound contains two or more types elements that are chemically
combined together.
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7. Chemical equations must obey the law of conservation of mass.
8. In chemical equations reactants are written on the left while products on the
right of the arrow.
9.Chemical reactions do not involve change in properties of substances.
10. Qualitative meaning of chemical formulas refers to the number of atoms
present in a compound.

II Choose the Correct Answer from the Given Alternatives.

11. The chemical symbol for sodium is _____.
A. So B. S C. Na D. Sd
12. Which of the following is the correct name of CaBr2?
A. Calcium bromide C. Carbon dibromide
B .Carbon bromide D. Calcium(I) bromide
13. Aluminum has a valence number of 3 and sulfur has a valence number of 2
What is the chemical formula for aluminum sulfide?
A. Al2S B. AlS3 C. Al3S2 D. Al2S3
14.The name of NO2 is _____.
A. Nitrogen monoxide C. Nitrogen oxide
B. Nitrogen dioxide D. Mononitrogen oxide
15. Quantitatively the formula 3N2 represents _____.
A. 3 atoms of nitrogen B. 2 molecules of nitrogen
C. 3 molecules of nitrogen D. 6 molecules of nitrogen
16. The correct balanced chemical equation for the reaction between iron and
oxygen to form iron (III) oxide is
A. 2Fe + O2 → 2FeO B. 3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4
C. 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 D. Fe + O → FeO
17. The valence number of silicon (Si) in SiH4 is _____.
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
18. The Latin name of potassium is ______.
A. Argentum B. Kalium C. Natrium D. Cuprum

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19. Consider the following balanced chemical equation;

3Mg(OH)2 + 2H3PO4 → Mg3(PO4)2 + 6H2O
What is the coefficient of water in the chemical equation?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 6
20. What is the correct coefficient of nitrogen, when hydrogen reacts with
nitrogen to produce ammonia (NH3) in the following reaction?
N2 + H2 → NH3
A. 1 B.2 C.3 D.4
III Give short answers for the following questions.
21. Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.
a. Potassium phosphate b. Calcium fluoride
c. Phosphorus trioxide d. Iron(II) oxide
22. Name the following compounds
a. MgSO4 b Al2O3 c NaCl
23. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the following reactions.
a. Aluminum + Chlorine → Aluminum Chloride
b. Sodium + Oxygen → Sodium Oxide
c. Potassium + Water → Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
24. What is the chemical symbol of Silver?
25. What is the name of the starting materials in a chemical reaction?
26. What is the meaning of coefficient number and subscript in writing chemical
equations?
27. During a chemical reaction heat energy may be released. Does the
temperature of the reaction increase or decrease? Explain?
28. The source of electrical energy in our country is water and wind. Mention
other possible electrical energy sources our country can use.
29. State and explain the law of conservation of mass.

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Unit

4
Cell as the Basis of Life

Learning outcomes: At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Define a microscope.
 Explain the use of a microscope.
 Distinguish the different types of microscopes.
 Describe the basic parts and functions of a microscope.
 Use a microscope to observe objects.
 Define a cell.
 Explain how cell was discovered.
 Draw a cell and label its major parts.
 Describe the functions of the major structural parts of a cell.
 Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms.
 Give examples of cell shape.
 Explain why cell shape and structure vary.
 Discuss the differences of cell, tissue, organ and organ system.
 Define respiration and write its chemical equation.
 Describe photosynthesis and its chemical equation.
 Develop science process and inquiry skills.
 Develop and use a model to describe the structure and function of a
cell.
 Analyze and describe the relationships of the hierarchical levels
(Kingdom to Species) in the classification of organisms.

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4.1 Microscope

Activity 4.1

Think of a pond in your surroundings. What living things have you seen living
in it? Mention some of them. Do you know there are living things in the pond
which cannot be seen with our naked eyes? What instrument helps us to see
these very small living things?

Activity 4.2
1. Can you name something that exists even though you can’t see it with
your eyes?
2. Have you ever seen a microscope? When someone gets sick, she/he
probably might have gone to a clinic or hospital. The medical laboratory
technicians take samples, either stool or blood for diagnosis. Can you
guess the instrument they are using for identification of parasites in the
stool or blood?

Do you know this instrument?

A microscope is a tool that helps us to see objects that are too small to be seen by
the naked eye. It enables us to see small objects by enlarging images of the objects.
Some of the most basic concepts of biology such as cells were not imaginable before
the invention of microscopes. Biologists use microscopes to study organisms, cells
and cell parts.

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4.1.1 History of invention of microscope
Activity 4.3
1. Explain how the microscope was invented?

During the 1590s, two Dutch eyeglass makers, Zacharias Janssen and his father
Hans Janssen, Experiment ed with early lenses. They realized that if you put a
small object in front of a tube containing several lenses, the object would appear
very large and much more enlarged when compared with a single magnifying
glass. In such a way they invented the compound microscope. Since that time, new
developments were made on microscopes until today’s sophisticated microscopes
are developed.

Robert Hooke improved microscope in 1665. He made a compound microscope.

During the 1670s, Anton Leeuwenhoek, born in Holland, made microscope with
a simple single lens device which had greater clarity and magnification than
compound microscopes of his time.

Figure 4.1 Early microscopes.(A: Zacharias Janssen and Hans Janssen’s micro-
scope, B: Robert Hooke’s microscope and C:Anton Van Leeuwenhoek’s micro-
scope)

Activity 4.4
1. Discuss the works of Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Janssen, Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke in relation to microscope invention.

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4.1.2 Types of microscope
Today, various types of microscopes are available for use in science laboratories.
Microscopes have varied applications and modifications related to their purpose.

Activity 4.5
1. Can you explain how microscopes differ from one another?
2. Look at the following diagrams carefully. If you are asked to classify
them into two groups, what do you think are the criteria?

3. Name the above instruments (A to D)

Based on the number of lenses, microscopes are classified into two types: simple
microscope and compound microscope. A simple microscope has a single convex
lens for magnification. Simple microscopes have low magnification power;
usually they enlarge objects 10 to 20 times. Simple microscopes help to enlarge
small objects, letters and observe structures of insects and flowers etc.
Leeuwenhoek’s microscope, hand lenses and reading eyeglasses are examples of
simple microscopes.

A compound microscope is a microscope that uses two lens systems at the same
time. The two lens systems are the eyepiece (ocular) lens and the objective lenses.
The word ‘compound’ refers to use of multiple lenses in compound microscopes
as opposed to simple microscopes which use a single lens. The objective lens is
compounded (multiplied) by the eyepiece lens. The eyepiece lens usually magnifies
ten times and is labeled 10X. The objective lenses magnify 4X to 100X. Total
magnification is, therefore, the product of the magnifications of the eyepiece and
objective lenses.

Compound microscopes are used to observe plant and animal cells, and
microorganisms like yeast, amoeba and others.

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Activity 4.6

If the size of an organism is 0.001mm, how large will it be if it is magnified by

a compound microscope under low power (if the magnification of the ocular
lens is 10X and the low power objective is 4X)? Hint: Actual Size = Image size
÷ Magnification.

Practical Activity 4.1 Observing objects

Materials needed: Hand lens, Samples (insects like ants, housefly)

A. Observing insects using hand lens

Procedure:
1. Bring sample non-poisonous insects to the laboratory or classroom.
2. Put the specimen (insect) on a Table or any surface in a bright area.
3. First look at the insect with naked eyes. Then, take the hand lens and
hold it just above the specimen and move it up and down slowly until
the image appears clear.
B. Observing letters using hand lens

Open a book and observe the text with a hand lens. Now, based on your
observations, reflect on the following questions.
1. Compare your observations with that of the following diagrams.

2. What difference have you noticed when you observe with your naked
eye and with that of the hand lens?
3. Why do you think people wear reading eyeglasses?

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4.1.3 Basic parts of compound microscope
A compound microscope has different parts which should be manipulated to
magnify objects. The different parts of a compound microscope and their functions
are described in the Table below.
Table 4.1 Parts of a compound microscope and their functions

Part Function
The lens at the top of the microscope that we look
through. On its rim, there are certain markings such as
Eyepiece (ocular)
5x, 10x, 15x which indicate the magnification power.
Ocular magnifies the image of the object.
It is a hollow tubular structure that connects the eyepiece
Body tube to the objective lenses. Light enters from the objective to
the ocular through the body tube.
Holds the body tube and lenses. Used to carry the
Arm
microscope.
Used for quick focusing by moving the objective lens
Coarse adjustment
or stage up and down. It raises and lowers the stage or
knob
objective more rapidly. It is used for initial focusing.
It also raises and lowers the stage or objective lenses
but more slowly. It allows you to make very fine focus
Fine adjustment
adjustments. Fine adjustment knob is used when high
knob
power magnifications (objective lenses other than low
power) are used.
These magnify the image of the specimen, and project
the magnified image into the body tube. Objective lenses
Objective lenses come in various magnification powers, with the most
common being 4x (low power), 10x (medium power),
40x (high power), and 100x (oil immersion objective).
Holds objective lenses. It can be rotated into position for
Nose piece
different magnifications.
Stage A platform for placement of the microscope slide.

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Stage clips Hold the slide in place on the stage.

Mirror Reflects light up to the diaphragm.
It is optical lens located under the stage often in
conjunction with a diaphragm. It is used to collect and
Condenser
focus the light from the illumination (light source) on to
the specimen.
The opening and closing of this iris diaphragm controls
Diaphragm (iris)
the amount of light which pass through the condenser.
Base The bottom of the microscope used for support.

Activity 4.7
1. Based on Table .4.1 and the lists of parts of a compound microscope
given below, identify and label the parts of the microscope.

Figure 4.2 Parts of a compound microscope

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Care of a microscope
Microscope is an expensive laboratory instrument that should be used with great
care. So, using a microscope properly is an important skill for biologists.

Give attention to the following precautions while handling and using a microscope.
1. Always use both hands when carrying the microscope. Place one hand on the
arm and the other hand under the base.
2. Carefully place the microscope on your work Table .
3. While looking through the eyepiece, carefully turn the coarse adjustment
knob until the specimen comes into view.
4. Use the fine adjustment knob for final focusing of the image.
5. Use ONLY the fine adjustment knob to focus on high power. Never use
the coarse focus knob on high power! If you turn the coarse adjustment
knob while on high power, the objective could easily break your slide and
damage the objective lens.
6. Always use cover slip when mounting since it protects the objective lens if
it touches the slide.
7. Do not touch the glass part of the lenses with your fingers.
8. You should use only lens cleaner to clean lenses.

Practical Activity 4.2 Studying parts of a microscope

So far you have learnt about the different parts of a compound microscope.
Now your teacher will provide you a microscope and you will be asked to
identify the part and tell its function.
1. Locate the eyepiece. Note that it is marked with a number and an “X”.
Is it 10X or 15X? This is where you view objects.
2. Locate the arm and the base. Hold the arm in your one hand and the
base in your other hand. Can you tell the functions of these parts, base
and arm?
3. Where is the revolving nose piece? Note that the objective lenses are
attached to it.

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Are the objectives of the same length? Look the numbers on the objective
lenses? What do the numbers indicate? Which objective lens has greater
number? The objective lens with greater number magnifies bigger than
the one with small number.
4. Find the coarse adjustment knob. Turn it slowly upwards and
downwards. What happens? Does the stage or the body tube with the
objective lenses raises and lowers?
5. Locate the nose piece. Rotate it to the right or left. This is how you
select the objective lenses.
6. Now, locate the mirror. The mirror is used to reflect light from an
external electric light or commonly from diffused sunlight from the
windows or ceiling electric light.

Warning: Never reflect sunlight directly onto the mirror!

Practical Activity 4.3 Mounting and focusing

Definition of terms: Mounting means preparing a specimen on a slide for

microscopic observation. Focusing is adjusting the focus to see the specimen
clearly. Specimen is a sample of object, plant, animal etc. for microscope study.

Materials required: Microscope, Microscope slide, Cover slip, Dropper,

Water, Hair or fiber, Forceps

Procedure
1. Place a drop of water on the middle of a microscope slide.
2. Using a pair of forceps, place a few strands of hair or fiber on to the drop
of water.
3. Cover it with a cover slip.
4. Place the slide on the microscope stage and observe under low power and
medium power.

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Question - What does the fiber or hair look like before and after observing
under a microscope?

Project work 1: Making microscope from local materials

Are you ready to make a simple microscope? Try the following and do your
own!!

Materials required:
 Plastic water bottle
 Scissors or Knife
Procedures:

Step 1: Cut a plastic water bottle in half

Step 2: Sketch two notches opposite each

other on the bottle.

Step 3: Add two deeper notches opposite

each other in between the first notches.

Step 4: Cut out notches with scissors. The

lower notches should be 2.5 cm or so
below the upper notches for ease of use
and to help magnify items.

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Make the slides
 Step 1: Cut a flat plastic into strips
to make “slides”
 Step 2: Put the specimen on one of
the slides.
 Step 4: Save one blank slide to
make your water drop lens.
Use your microscope

Step 1: Place a slide on the lower notches.

Step 2: Place a blank slide on upper notches.

Step 3: Place a large drop of water on the

blank slide.
1. Question: Now look at the specimen,
what happens?
2. What is the role of water?

Be sure, there is enough light, the light

underneath the specimen is crucial for
viewing the magnified image.

4.2 Cell

4.2.1 What is a cell?

Activity 4.8

Examine the following diagrams.

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Questions:
1. What can you infer from the above diagrams?
2. What are plants and animals made of ?
3. What are you made of ?

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. All plants and animals are
made of cells. The human body is composed of trillions of cells.

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4.2.2 The discovery of cell
Activity 4.9

Read the roles of Robert Hooke and Anton Van Leeuwenhoek in the discovery
of cells and describe the pictures in Fig.4.3.

Figure 4.3 Discoveries of Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke

In 1665, the English scientist Robert Hooke discovered cells. Robert Hooke took
a thin slice of cork from an oak tree’s outer bark, and looked at cork under his
microscope. He saw small boxes or compartments which looked like a honeycomb

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(see fig.4.3). He called these compartments cells. Hooke actually saw the dead cell
walls of plant cells (cork). He was the first person to coin the term cell.

In 1674, Leeuwenhoek observed numerous single-celled organisms swimming in

a drop of pond water. He called them “animalcules” which means small animals.
Most of the animalcules are now named as unicellular organisms, many of them
are protozoa He also observed various cells like: bacteria, yeast cells and red blood
cells. Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to see living cells.

4.2.3 Structure of a cell

Activity 4.10 Teamwork: Cells are like Schools (Analogy)

Consider your School as cells and generate analogy to cells. For example, the
cell membrane controls what goes in and out of the cell, much like the main gets
in your school control what go into the school. Create similar analogies: to the
director’s office, teachers’ lockers, students’ or teachers’ cafeteria and walkways.

As schools have various buildings and rooms to carry out their learning and
teaching Activity , cells also have various compartments to do life processes. These
compartments in cells are called organelles.

Even though, there are many different types of cells, they all have four common
characteristics. These are:
1) All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane. The cell membrane is an outer
covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment.
It also controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell.
2) All cells contain cytoplasm. It is a jelly-like fluid which contains organelles.
It also contains the compounds that cells need to survive such as water, salts
and enzymes.
3) All cells contain DNA. DNA is important to make new cells and controls
all cell functions.
4) All cells contain ribosomes, which synthesize proteins.

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Figure 4.4 Structure of plant (A) and animal cells (B)

Activity 4.11
Refer biology book on cells answer the questions below.
A. Complet Table 4.2.
B. Identify which organelles are present in animal or plant cells only
C. Which organelles are common to both plant and animal cells?
Table 4.2 Cellular organelles and their functions.

Present in
Function
Cell part plant Animal
cells cells
Separates cell from external
Plasma environment;
membrane controls passage of organic
(Example) molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and
wastes into and out of cell
Cytoplasm
Nucleus

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Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Cell wall
Chloroplasts
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi body
Vacuole
lysosome

Project work: 2 Constructing Cell Model

Materials required: colorless plastic bag, large seed (dry beans) or stone, water,
cardboard box, plastic, glue or plant exudate( natural glue from certain plants
in your area) scissors and/or a sharp knife, buttons, small sticks, rubber bands,
leaves or any other local materials that could represent different cell organelles.
(Hint: Use a plastic to represent the cell membrane, cardboard as a cell wall, and
think of the various cell organelles while preparing materials). Here you have
pictures of models for reference.

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4.2.4 Cell shape and size
Cell shape
Cells in organisms have different shapes. Even in the same organism,cells have
different shapes. See Fig.4.5.

Activity 4.12

The illustrations given below show different types of cells. Explain how each cell
differs from the rest. Can you describe the shape of cells in Fig.4.5?

Figure 4.5 Some types of human cells (left) and some protozoa (right) with dif-
ferent shapes.

Why do cells vary in shape?

Cells of different organisms and even cells within the same organism are very
diverse in shape, size, and internal organization. Generally, cells could be round,
spherical, elongated, spindle shaped etc. Cells sometimes are very long. Some are
branched like the nerve cells. The shape of cells is different because they have
different functions. See Fig4.6 and note how the shape of cells is related to their
function.

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Shape Examples

Shape of cell:Biconcave shape This shape enables

Example: Red Blood Cells in them to transport
Humans oxygen.
Shape of cell: Spindle shaped Spindle shape of
Cells (pointed at both ends). muscle cells allows
Example: Muscle cells contraction.
With this shape
they can transmit
Shape of cell : Long and messages from one
branched cells part of the body to
Example: Nerve cells the other.

Figure 4.6 Shape of cells and their function

Cell size
As cells have different shapes they have also different sizes. The size of cells on

average is 10 to 20 µ in diameter. Animal cells are generally smaller than plant

cells. Most bacterial cells range from about 1 to 10 microns in length and from

0.2 to 1 micron in width.(1,000 microns equals one millimeter;micron is short for

micrometer).
Why are cells generally small in size?
Cells generally remain small in size to transport nutrients and gases into and out

of the cell and remove waste (e.g. Co2) easily. If a cell increases in size, it be-

comes difficult for the cell to move nutrients and gases in and out.

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4.2.5 Unicellular and multicellular organisms

Activity 4.13

Consider the following organisms.

Figure 4.7 Types of organisms

Identify organisms with a) one cell, b) many cells. What can you say about the
relation of the number of cells of an organism and its size?

A unicellular organism is an organism that consists of a single cell. That’s all life
processes such as reproduction, feeding, digestion, and excretion occur in one cell.
Amoeba, paramecium, and all protozoa are examples of unicellular organisms. On
the other hand, multicellular organisms are composed of many cells. All the cells
work in coordination in multicellular organism. Plants, animals including humans,
and most fungi are examples of multicellular organisms.

Activity 4.14

Group the following organisms either as unicellular or multicellular organisms.

Figure 4.8 Unicellular and multicellular organisms

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4.2.6 Cell, tissue, organ, organ system and organism

A multicellular organism is made up of five levels of organizations: cells, tissues,
organs, organ systems and organism. Studying the organization helps us to make
the parts easier to understand. While cells are the basic units of an organism, groups
of cells can perform a job together. These cells are called specialized because they
have a special job. Specialized cells can be organized into tissues. For example, our
liver cells are organized into liver tissue. Our liver tissue is further organized into
an organ, the liver.

Figure 4.9 Body level of organization of a rat

Organs are formed from two or more specialized tissues working together to
perform a job. All organs, from our heart to our liver, are made up of an organized
group of tissues. These organs are part of a larger system, the organ systems. For
example, our heart works together with our blood and blood vessels to form the
circulatory system. This organ system must be organized with other organ systems,
such as the nervous system and the digestive system, for our body to work. Organ
systems work together to keep an organism alive. Organisms are highly complex
structures which rely on many systems working together.

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Activity 4.15

Look at the following diagrams carefully.

a. Try to guess what each image represents?

b. Rearrange the body parts in order of increasing complexity.

Figure 4.10 Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ system and Organism

Activity 4.16

Consider the following levels of organizations in plant and animal bodies.

Figure 4.11 Levels of organization in a horse and a plant

a. Rearrange these levels of organization with their respective parts.
b. What structure represents an organ in the horse?
c. Name the organ system in the horse.
d. What represents an organ in the plant?
e. Take any system of yours and give an example of level of organization
(other than digestive system).

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4.2.7 Respiration and mitochondria
When gasoline burns in a car engine, energy is released. It is transformed in many
ways, making the car function. Carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other waste gases
from the burning gasoline exit through the exhaust pipe. Mitochondria are like
engines in cells.

Activity 4.17

All living things need energy to survive. Without energy, life cannot exist.
Where does energy come from and how? What is the role of oxygen that we
inhale?

Energy is essential for normal function of the body. For example: to pump blood
through our veins, inhale air into our lungs, for body movement. We need also
energy for our daily life activities like writing, studying, playing football, walking;
running etc

What is the source of energy that we use for all these purposes?

Cellular respiration is a multi-step process that converts the chemical energy in

the food we eat into usable cellular energy. This energy used by cells is called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is produced in the mitochondria of cells. That
is why mitochondria are named as the “powerhouses” of the cell.

In cellular respiration glucose (from food we eat) and oxygen (we breathe in) are
used to produce energy. Carbon dioxide and water are also produced in cellular
respiration. When we breathe in, our cells get oxygen needed for respiration. When
we breathe out, carbon dioxide is removed from our cells.

Aerobic respiration can be summarized in a chemical equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Glucose Oxygen Carbon
Water
dioxide

There are two types of respiration based on the presence or absence of oxygen.
Respiration process that occurs in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic
respiration. Respiration without oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. Certain
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organisms like some bacteria respire anaerobically.

Activity 4.18
1. In both types of respiration, what are the inputs and outputs? Which
type of respiration is more efficient and why? Do humans respire
anaerobically? Explain how.
2. Do plants respire? Explain.

In both types of respiration, it is the glucose molecule that undergoes reactions

to produce energy. More energy is obtained in aerobic respiration than anaerobic
respiration from the same number of glucose molecules.

There are two types of anaerobic respiration:

Alcoholic fermentation- The products are energy, alcohol and carbon dioxide
Lactic acid fermentation-The products are energy, lactic acid and carbon
dioxide

See the equation below for both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Glucose + Oxygen Energy + carbon dioxide + water (aerobic respiration)

Glucose Energy + Alcohol + carbon dioxide (Alcoholic fermentation)

Glucose Energy + lactic acid + carbon dioxide (Lactic acid fermentation)

Figure 4.12 Word equation of aerobic and anaerobic respiration

During tiresome exercise like running, playing football and swimming sufficient
oxygen is not available to muscles. Under such circumstances, muscles produce
additional energy anaerobically. That means, we use anaerobic respiration in
addition to aerobic in intense physical activities.

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4.2.8 Photosynthesis and chloroplast
Activity 4.19
1. Where do plants get their food?
2. Recall the cellular structures (organelles) in a plant cell (section4.2.3).
Which organelle is responsible for manufacturing food in plant cells?
Why can’t animals prepare their own food?

To stay alive, we need a constant supply of energy. We need energy to move, think,
and grow. Where does that energy come from? It all starts with the sun. Plant cells
store light energy from the sun in the form of molecules. Energy as a form of food
from plants is transferred to all other living things.

Figure 4.13 Process of photosynthesis

Activity 4.20
Look at Fig.4.13
A. What do plants need to carry out photosynthesis?
b. What are the products of photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is a process where plants use sunlight to produce carbohydrates
and oxygen. During photosynthesis, light energy is trapped by chlorophyll and
used to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugar and oxygen. The process of
photosynthesis can be summarized in chemical equation:
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Light
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Carbon Oxygen
Water Glucose
dioxide

Figure 4.14 Word equation of photosynthesis

Importance of Photosynthesis
The fruits and vegeTable s we eat are obtained as a result of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the primary source of food for all organisms. Animals also get
oxygen from photosynthesis.

Look at Fig,4.15 and study the important relationships between respiration and
photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis
Plants produce carbohydrate and oxygen

Animals and plants

Plants use carbon
use carbohydrate
dioxide and water
and oxygen

Animals produce carbon dioxide

Respiration
Figure 4.15 Relationship between photosynthesis and respiration
From Figure 4.15, you can understand that photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide
and water into carbohydrate and oxygen. Respiration converts food into energy,
water and carbon dioxide. Both processes are interrelated and living things can
not exist without them (respiration and photosynthesis). The two processes
are responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between living
organisms and the environment.

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Summary
 A microscope is an instrument that can be used to observe small objects,
including cells.
 Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism.
 All cells contain: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA (hereditary
information) and ribosomes for protein synthesis.
 Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane bound nucleus.
 Prokaryotes genetic material is not enclosed in a membrane.
 Robert Hooke in 1665 looked at cork under a microscope and described
what he called the compartments he saw in the cork “cells”.
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek1 called the single-celled organisms that he saw
under the microscope “animalcules.
 Size of cells is limited by need for regions of cell to diffuse materials like,
oxygen and other gases
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
 Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell.
 Multicellular organisms are composed of more than one cell.
 Multicellular organisms have cells, tissues, organs, organ systems.
 Living things depend on the cycle of cellular respiration and photosynthesis
for survival.
 Cellular respiration is a process that occurs in the mitochondria of
organisms.
 In aerobic respiration in cells energy, carbon dioxide and water are
produced.
 In anaerobic respiration in cells; energy, either lactic acid or alcohol and
carbon dioxide can be formed.
 More energy is produced in aerobic respiration than an aerobic respiration.
 Photosynthesis needs energy from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to
produce glucose and oxygen inside chloroplasts.
 Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are biological processes
responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
living organisms and the environment.

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Review questions

I. Multiple choice questions. Choose the correct answer from the given al-
ternatives.

1.What do the markings like 5x, 10x, 15 x on the rim of the eyepiece indicate?
A. Indicate the magnification power C. Indicate the size of the eyepiece
B. Indicate the length of the body tube D. Indicate the power of adjustment

2.What is the correct way of carrying a microscope?

A. Hold the arm in one hand and the base on the other hand
B. Hold the body tube in one hand and the base on the other hand
C. Hold the nose piece in one hand and the base on the other hand
D. Hold the eyepiece in one hand and the base on the other hand

3. What part reflects light from an external light source up through the bottom of
the stage?
A. Eyepiece B. Objective C. Mirror D. Base

4. Which structure is found ONLY in plant cells?

A. Cell membrane B. Cytoplasm C. Nucleus D. Chloroplast

5. What do the mitochondria do?

A. Make protein B. Transport materials
C. Produce energy D. Store food

6. The hard, nonliving material that makes up the cell wall of a plant cell is
_________.
A. Protein B. Lipid C. Cellulose D. Carbohydrate

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7. Which of the following lists the correct order for the levels of organization in
the human body, from most to least complex?
A. Organism → organ system → organ → tissue → cell
B. cell → organ → organ system → tissue → organism
C. Organism → cell → tissue → organ → organ system
D. Cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism

II. Complete the following blanks with appropriate words/phrases.

8. When focusing a specimen, you should always start with the __________

9. When using the high-power objective, only the _______ knob should be used.

10. To which part of the microscope are the objectives attached to? ____________

11. A group of cells with similar structures working together are ________.

12. In cellular organization of plants, shoots and roots are examples of __________.

13. Glucose and _________ are the products of photosynthesis.

14. _________, water, and energy are the products of cellular respiration.

15. Photosynthesis is the process in which energy from _______ is transferred to

glucose.

16. Photosynthesis occurs in the ____ and cellular respiration occurs in the _____.

III . Label the following diagram and identify which one is a plant cell or an
animal cell.

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IV. Short answer questions

1. What would happen if microscope had never been invented?

2. On a compound microscope, an objective lens magnifies an object 25 times

and the ocular lens magnifies it 10 times. What is the final magnification of the
image?

3. Suppose you when you look a cell under a microscope, you observe the cell
has a nucleus and a cell wall. Is it an animal cell or a plant cell? How do you
decide?

4. Describe the relationship between cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

Discuss the functions of chloroplasts and mitochondria.

5. What happens to the energy after it is absorbed during photosynthesis?

6. How do photosynthesis and cellular respiration form a cycle of energy storage

and use?

7. Evaluate the importance of plants to other organisms and the environment.

8. Use the diagram to answer the next two questions.

a. Which process stores energy? Which process releases energy? How do you
know?
b. Why do living things need both processes for survival? Explain.

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Unit Living Things and their

5 Diversity

Learning outcomes: At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Distinguish between living and nonliving things by describing the
features that characterize living organisms.
 Discuss if movement i.e. locomotion can characterize all living
things or not.
 Define classification and its purpose.
 Explain the purpose of scientific name.
 List down the hierarchical levels in the classification of organisms.
 Describe the distinguishing characteristics of the kingdom Animalia,
Plantae, Protista, Monera and Fungi.
 List common examples of animals, Plantae, Protista, Monera and
Fungi.
 Describe the body plan of a common animals, Plantae, Protista,
Monera and Fungi.
 Describe habitats of animals, Plantae, Protista, Monera and Fungi.
 Compare the five kingdoms of living things by describing their
distinguishing characteristics.
 Summarize the commonest examples of organisms belonging to
each Kingdom.
 Describe the body plans of insects such as butterfly, amphibians
such as frogs, mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers such as junipers,
flowering plants, Paramecium, Algae, and Mushroom.
 Relate each Kingdom of organisms to their major habitat types as
aquatic, terrestrial or moist.

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5.1 Living things

Why is a stone different from a butterfly? In this section, you will learn about the
characteristics that distinguish living things from nonliving things.

Activity 5.1

Your teacher classifies soil, water, and Table into one group, and eucalyptus,
sheep, and mushrooms as a different group.
1. Why does your teacher classify them into two different groups?
2. List down as many differences/similarities as possible between these two
groups.
3. Are you a living thing? Why?
4. Classify things found in your classroom into living and non-living things.

Around us, we can find many things like stone, soil, buildings, air, water, plants,
and animals. The earth in which we live is made up of several things. These things
can be categorized into two groups, living and non-living things.

5.1.1 Characteristics of living things

All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions. These are
sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, growth and development,
respiration, nutrition, excretion, adaptation, homeostasis, and metabolism. All
these characteristics define life. Non-living things lack all this characteristics.

Activity 5.2
Look Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1 Examples of animals and plants

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a. Are they all living things? Why?

b. Do they all move from place to place? Can we say that those which
cannot move are living things? What can you conclude about locomotion
as the characteristic of living things?
c. Are all things that move living things?

Activity 5.3

Which characteristic of living things is shown in the pictures below?

Figure 5.2 Pictorial representation of characteristics of living things

Activity 5.4
Is your hair a living thing? Why?

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5.1.2 Classification and scientific names of organisms
Activity 5.5 Small Group Activity

Look at the two book shelves below and discuss the questions that follow.

1. Which shelf is properly organized and easier to search for books of

your interest? Why?
2. If you are asked to organize one of the shelves, what criteria will you
use?
3. What is the purpose of putting things orderly?
4. Can you give reasons why scientists classify living things?
What is classification?
Sorting living organisms into groups according to their similarities and dissimilarities
is called classification. That is organisms that share similar features are placed in
one group, and those with dissimilar characteristics are placed into different groups.

Uses of classification:
 It helps to sort organisms in order.
 It helps to identify new organisms by finding out which group they fit
with.
 To facilitate easy study of organisms.
 It helps to understand the relationship among different groups of
organisms.

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Activity 5.6

You have learned that organisms are classified based on their similarities with
other organisms they are related to. For example, cats are related to tigers.
Look at the features of the donkey and relate it with the pictures of animals
given below and answer the question.

Which animals are closely related to it (donkey), and which animals do you
think are least closely related to it? Why?

Practical Activity 5.1 Outdoor Activity

In this practical Activity students move around their school compound or locality
for exploration of living things. The students will work in groups to come up with
a list of organisms and their characteristics. Observe any living thing you see and
list its characteristics as many as possible. Movement (Moving, non-moving),
wings (winged, wingless), producer, consumer, fur, feathers, legs (number of
legs, no legs), cones, flowers, etc. are examples that can be used as criteria for
classification.

After completing your outdoor exploration:

A. Set criteria to group the list of organisms.
b. Group them based on your criteria.

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From your exploration, you have observed that living things are diversified or
varied. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, refers to all of the variety of life that
exists on Earth. Classification allows us to understand diversity better. It helps in
the identification of living organisms as well as in understanding the variety of
living organisms.

The Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) devised a system of

grouping organisms into hierarchical categories according to their form and
structure. Each category represents a level of grouping from larger, more general
categories to smaller, more specific categories. Before Carolus Linnaeus, naturalists
often named newly discovered organisms after their names; however, there was no
agreement upon the way to name living things. This makes it difficult for naturalists
to talk about their findings with one another. This all changed in the 1750s, when
Linnaeus devised a system that standardized the way organisms are classified and
named.

Activity 5.7
1. How many of you have two or more names? Don’t you have a name
different from your school name? What would happen if you use names
interchangeably at all times, in school, outside, and at different places?
2. Why do scientists give one and single name for every organism?

Modern biologists adopted the Linnaeus system of classification and naming of

organisms. Linnaeus gave an organism a scientific name with two parts: the genus
name followed by the species name. This system of two-part names is known as
binomial nomenclature. Scientific names allow scientists to communicate about
particular species without confusion. Also, remember that biology is studied all
over the world. One species may have many different common names in different
countries even in different languages. Thus, scientific names allow scientists around
the world to communicate clearly about living things.

Living things are given binomial names based on rules. What are the rules?

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Rules of binomial nomenclature (scientific naming)
1. It is always written in italics (if typed) or underlined (handwritten)
2. The first is genus name and second is species name.
3. The first letter of the genus name is always capitalized.

For example, the scientific name of humans is Homo sapiens. In this, Homo is the
genus name which comes first and begins with a capital letter and sapiens is the
species name which comes second and written in small letters. Both the names are
written in italic (Italic refers to a type style) in printed materials such as books,
like this: Homo sapiens, Felis catus etc. When handwritten, for example, on a
blackboard or your notebook, scientific names should be underlined separately,
like this:Homo sapiens, Felis catus.

5.1.3 Hierarchy of classification

Biological hierarchy (Taxonomic hierarchy) is the process of arranging various
organisms into successive levels of the biological classification either in a decreasing
or an increasing order from kingdom to species or from species to kingdom. There
are seven major levels of classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,
Genus, and Species.

Activity 5.8

Consider your country, “kebele”, zone, region, “ketena”, and “woreda” as

biological hierarchies.
a. Rearrange these administrative areas from the more inclusive to the least
inclusive. What are the equivalent levels in the biological hierarchy?
b. Which level of the hierarchy contains a wider range of organisms?
Explain.
c. Match the numbers in the diagram below with the seven levels of
hierarchy (species, class, phylum, order, kingdom, genus, and family).

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5.2 Kingdoms of living things

Activity 5.9
Look Fig5.3
Which kingdom do humans belong to?

Figure 5.3 Kingdoms of living things

Whittaker gave the five Kingdom classification for living organisms. He categorized
living organisms based on multiple characteristics such as cellular structure, mode

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of nutrition, body organization, mode of reproduction,etc. These five kingdoms are
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Activity 5.10
1. Give examples of living things that belong to the five kingdoms in your
area and present your work to your class.

5.2.1 Kingdom animalia

Animals are grouped in this kingdom. Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular and
heterotrophic organisms.
Major characteristics of animals
 Animals are multicellular organisms.
 They are consumers (eat another organism because they cannot make
their own food).
 Most animals have muscle and nervous tissue.
 Animals require oxygen, for use in respiration.
 Most animals reproduce sexually.
 Most animals can move. Since they are consumers, they need to move
from place to place in search of food.
 Animal cells do not have cell walls and chloroplasts.
Major groups of Animals
Animals are usually divided into two major groups: invertebrates and vertebrates.
Invertebrates are animals without backbone e.g. worms and insects. Vertebrates
are animals which have a vertebral column or backbone. The five major groups of
vertebrates are fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

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Fish
General characteristics of fish
 All fish are cold-blooded
(ectothermic). Cold blooded animals
are not able to maintain a constant
internal body temperature. The
temperature of cold-blooded animals
is determined by the temperature of
the surrounding environment. It means
their body temperature changes as the
environment’s temperature changes
 They are aquatic animals. That is,
their habitat is water.
 Have gills, which allow them to
breathe under water.
 Fish have fins. The fins are used for
movement and balance in water.
 Have scales that cover their bodies.

Activity 5.11
A. Why do fish cannot live outside water?
b. How do fish reproduce? Is it similar to cows, cats or dogs?

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Amphibians
General characteristics of amphibians
 They are ectothermic animals like
fish.
 Their body is divided into the head
and trunk.
 Their skin is smooth without any
scales, with glands that make it
moist.
 They have four legs for locomotion.
 Young amphibians have gills and
Figure 5.4 External body parts
adults have lungs.
of a frog
 Young amphibians live in water,
adults live on land.

Activity 5.12

A. Where do these animals live?

B. What do they eat?
C. How do they reproduce?
D. Have you ever collected tadpoles
from ponds and played with them?
What are they? Are they fish?
E. What season of the year do you see
most frogs and toads? Why?
F. Have you ever heard frogs
croaking? Is it the male or the
female that croaks? What is the
purpose of croaking?

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Practical Activity 5.2: Study the external structures of frogs

Materials needed
 Container like plastic bag ,tin can, jug, large-mouthed glass
 Forceps (if not available,use your hands covered with plastics)
Procedures:
Collect some frogs from a pond, stream, river, etc. and put them in your
container. Add some amount of water in the container to maintain hydration
of the frog and cover it so that the frog does not escape. The container
should let air or have space for air to the frog. The frogs collected are
to be released at the end of your Activity , so Do NOT HARM THEM.
KEEP THEM SAFELY.
 Bring the frogs to the laboratory room or classroom.
 Investigate the external body parts and answer the following questions
below.
 Once done, release the frogs to their proper habitats.
Based on your observations, answer the following questions.
 Examine the hind legs. How many toes are present on each foot?
 Are they webbed?
 Examine the forelegs. How many toes are present?
 Are the toes webbed?
 Use a ruler to measure from the tip of the head to the end of the frog’s
backbone.
 Locate the frog’s eyes. What color is the eyeball?
 Locate the nostrils and tympanum. What is their function?
 Feel the frog’s skin. Is it scaly or is it slimy?
Report your results to the class.

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Reptiles
Activity 5.13
a. Where do these
animals live?
b. What do they eat?
c. How do they
reproduce?
d. Name these
reptiles.

General characteristics of reptiles

 These are creeping and burrowing terrestrial animals with scales on their
body.
 They are cold-blooded animals.
 Their skin is dry and rough.
 Their body is divided into head, neck, trunk, and tail.
 They breathe with their lungs.
 Most have 4 legs and a tail.
 Members of this group are turtles and tortoises, crocodiles and alligators,
and lizards and snakes.
Activity 5.14
Why do reptiles like lizards bask in the sun in the morning and go to shady
areas in the afternoon?

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Birds

Figure 5.5 Some types of birds

Activity 5.15
a. Where do birds live?
b. What structures enable birds to fly?
c. Can birds fly if you remove their feathers? Why?
d. What do birds have, which is not there in any other animals?
e. How do birds reproduce?
f. Are hens birds?
g. How do birds breathe? Do they have lungs?
h. Birds have no teeth, so they cannot chew their food? Then, how do they
feed and digest food?

General characteristics of birds

 They have a beak, two wings and two legs
 Some feed on seeds and fruits while others prey on worms, insects, or
smaller animals.
 Their beaks are adapted to many ways of feeding; seed-crushing, fruit-
scooping, flesh-tearing, nectar-sipping, wood-pecking and so on.
 They have feathers.
 Birds are warm blooded (homoeothermic) animals i.e., they are able to

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maintain a constant body temperature.
 Most take care of their young.
 Most birds can fly except flightless birds (e.g., Ostrich)
Mammals
Activity 5.16

See the pictures

a. What characteristics do all these mammals share?
b. Where do these mammals live (their habitats)?

Figure 5.6 Representatives of mammals

General characteristics of mammals
 Give birth to their young and feed them with milk.
 Have hair on at least part of their body.
 Have four limbs with digits ending in claws, nails, or hooves (except
whales).
 Breathe with lungs.
 Are warm-blooded.
Activity 5.17

Mammals have lungs to breathe. How do mammals like whales and dolphins
breathe in water?

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Invertebrates
All organisms which do not have a vertebral column are often referred to as
invertebrates. More than 95% of all animals are invertebrates Sea anemones,
jellyfish, flatworms, nematodes, segmented worms, insects, snails, and starfish are
examples of invertebrates.

Now you are going to collect some insects (invertebrates) and investigate their
body structures.

Practical Activity 5.3 Study of the external structures of insects

Materials needed/methods
 Nets (Arial nets, sweep nets, aquatic nets), jars or tin can, tweezers,
aspirators, Hand picking
Collect some insects from your school compound or outside and bring them to
your laboratory room or classroom.

a. Count the number of legs. Is there any other animal that has the same
number of legs?
b. Differentiate and count the number of body parts.
c. How many wings are there?
d. Tell about their habitat (place where you collect them).
e. Write a report on your observation.

Note: Use a hand lens for your observation.

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Another invertebrate called earthworm plays a key role in enriching the soil.
Earthworms eat organic waste material and excrete digested material called
castings, into the soil. Castings help maintain a nutrient-rich soil.

Practical Activity 5.4 Study the external structures of earthworms

Materials needed
 Container like plastic bag ,tin can, jug, large-mouthed glass)

 Forceps (if not available, use your hands)

Procedures:
1. Collect earthworms (your teacher will help you to locate their habitat)
2. Bring them to your laboratory room or classroom and examine the external
body parts and answer the following questions.
a. See the body segments and count and compare it with other groups.
b. Identify the anterior and posterior ends. Locate the mouth and anus. The
sharper end is the earthworm’s anterior or head-end, whereas the blunter
end is its posterior or tail-end.
c. Locate the anus at the back end which is a small hole where solid waste
is expelled.
d. About one-third of the way back from the mouth you should see a thicker
and smoother section of the worm. What is it called? What is its function?

Figure 5.7 External structure of earthworm

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5.2.2 Kingdom plantae
All plants belong to the kingdom Plantae.
Major characteristics of plants
 Capable of producing their own food (autotrophs) by photosynthesis.
 Cannot move from place to place
 Most have adapted to live on land.
 Cells have thick cell walls made of cellulose.
 Depending on their type plants reproduce with seeds or without seeds.
A plant kingdom is further classified into subgroups on the basis of various factors.
Based on seed formation, plants can be classified as seedless plants or seed plants.
Plants that do not produce seeds include ferns, mosses, and liverworts. Plants that
produce seeds are divided into gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Activity 5.18
1. Give examples of seedless and seed plants from your area.
2. Identify the following plants either as seedless or seed plants.

Eucalyptus Teff Mosses

Fern Wheat Junipe

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The types of plants you are probably most familiar with are trees, grasses, and
flowers. These plants can produce seeds. A seed is a structure that contains a plant
embryo and a supply of food inside a protective covering.

Gymnosperms are a group of seed plants whose seeds are not surrounded by a fruit.
The seeds of many gymnosperms are enclosed in cones. Gymnosperms do not
produce flowers. Most gymnosperms are trees such as pine and junipers.

Figure 5.8 Some gymnosperm plants

Activity 5.19
1. Contact an agricultural expert or agriculture officer in your locality and
collect data about the types of gymnosperms found in your area. You
can use the following questions as a starter:
a. What are the indigenous gymnosperms of Ethiopia? In what kind of
habitats do they grow? For what purpose do people use them? Why
should we protect them?
b. Look around your school. What kind of plants are there? Can you
classify them into different groups based on a certain criteria?

Angiosperms, also known as flowering plants, produce seeds within a fruit. They
are the most diverse of all plant groups and include fruit trees, roses, corn, grass,
and ‘Teff‘.

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Figure 5.9 Some angiosperm plants

Activity 5.20
1. What similarities and differences are there between gymnosperms and
angiosperms?
2. Consider your main diets (plant products) that you eat every day. Are
your main diets are obtained from gymnosperms or angiosperms?
Explain why.
3. Think of our world without plants. What would happen?

Seedless Plants
Plants that reproduce without seeds are called seedless plants. Bryophytes and
ferns are seedless plants.

Activity 5.21
How do such plants reproduce without seeds?

Bryophytes
Bryophytes are a group of small, simple, green land dwelling plants of which a few
are aquatic. Bryophytes contain three groups: Liverworts, hornworts and mosses.
Bryophytes reproduce by spores rather than flowers or seeds. They have a root-
like, stem-like and leaf-like structure (no true root, stem or leaves).

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Mosses Liverworts
Figure 5.10 Mosses and liverworts
Mosses and liverworts are small, simple plants usually found in moist locations.
You may find mosses around your house even the walls if the area is moist.

Pteridophytes are seedless plants that have root, stem and leaves. They mainly
grow well in moist and shady places. Most pteridophytes have vascular tissues
to transport food (phloem) and water (xylem). Pteridophytes do not have seeds
or flowers either, instead they reproduce by spores. Ferns are examples of
pteridophytes.

The leaves of ferns are often called fronds. If you look underneath a fern frond, you
may see small patches that contain the spores. Not every frond has spores under it.
Ferns have an underground stem called a rhizome from which the fronds develop.

Figure 5.11 Ferns

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Practical Activity 5.5

Collect samples of mosses, ferns, junipers, and flowering plants and analyze
their characteristics. Note their similarities and differences.

5.2.3 Kingdom protista

Activity 5.22
What are these organisms shown in the picture? Animal? Bacteria? Plant?

Fungi? Protozoa?

Kingdom Protista is a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms that are not
plants, fungi, or animals. Protists have nucleus, mitochondria, and other organelles.
Some have chloroplasts and can photosynthesize. They may reproduce sexually,
asexually, or both. They occur in many environments, including water, soil, and
inside of other organisms (parasites). The major groups of protists are protozoa and
microscopic algae.

Activity 5.23
1. What do you know about malaria, amebiasis, and giardiasis? To which
kingdom do you think the causative agents of these diseases belong to?
Why?
2. What are the roles of algae?

Protozoa
Protozoa are single- celled organisms that occur mostly in aquatic environments
and are either free living or parasitic in plants and animals. Mostly they reproduce
by asexual means. Most protozoa have the ability to move by locomotory organelles
like pseudopodia, flagella and cilia. Members of protozoa include amoeba,
paramecium, leishmania, euglena, and giardia.

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Figure 5.12 Locomotory structures of protozoa

Practical Activity 5.6

Title: Preparation of hay infusion

Objective: Culturing and observation of paramecium

Materials required:
 A small handful of hay or dried grass or leaf litter.
 Pond or river water or any natural water (untreated water) Do not use
tap water.
 A large beaker or similar container
 Microscope, slide and cover slip
 Dropper
Safety: Disease-causing organisms can also flourish in a hay infusion. It is
essential to ensure strict hygiene when handling the infusion (e. g. wash hands
thoroughly after handling the samples)! If infusion is no longer needed, it
should be disposed of and all containers or tools should be disinfected with hot
water and thoroughly cleaned.

Procedures:
1. Put a small handful of hay or other dry plant residues into the container
and fill it with water (pond water is preferable).
2. Cover the container loosely (e. g. with a piece of cloth) and place it in
a warm, bright place (at least at room temperature, but without direct
sunlight).

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3. Let the mixture incubate at room temperature for several days. In 5 to 10

days the broth should turn dark and turbid.
4. Take small samples from the hay infusion with a dropper.
5. Add one or two drops of the sample on slide. Cover it with cover slip.
Mount and observe under low power objective lens and answer the
following questions.
Questions:
a. Do you see any moving living things?
b. Make a drawing of the organisms you observed under the microscope.
c. What is the purpose of using hay or dried grass?
d. Why pond water or any natural water (untreated water) is used, than tap
water for this Experiment ?
Microscopic algae
Plant-like protists such as algae make their own food by photosynthesis. Although
these protists may have chloroplasts, they do not have roots, stems, or leaves. And
while all plants are multicellular, plant-like protists may be single-celled, colonial,
or multicellular. Many single-celled plant-like protists are free-living aquatic
organisms. Examples: Chlamydomonas, Euglena.

Practical Activity 5.7

Title- Observation of algae

Objective : To observe different types of green algae

Materials needed
 Pond water  Slide and coverslips
 Beaker (any container)  Dropper
 Microscope
1. Collect some algae from ponds, rivers or moist soil around your area.
2. Using a dropper, place two or three drops of pond water on a microscope
slide.

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3. Gently cover the slide with a cover slip and view under low and medium
power.
4. Identify them by comparing with the key chart provided by your teacher.

5.2.4 Kingdom monera (bacteria and blue green algae)

Activity 5.24

Souring of milk, food poisoning, and decomposition of organic matter are

due to the action of microorganisms. Can you mention these organisms? To
which kingdom do they belong to? How are they different from the previous
kingdoms?

Monera is a biological kingdom that is made up of prokaryotes (particularly

bacteria). All bacteria are microscopic prokaryotes (without nuclear membrane)
and lack membrane bound organelles. They have a cell wall composed of murein
(a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids). Some bacteria can produce their
own food while others break down food and absorb it. They occur everywhere.
Bacteria reproduce asexually by fission. Some move by means of flagella.

Figure 5.13 Types of bacteria (basic shapes)

Activity 5.25
a. What are the roles of bacteria in the environment?
b. Are there useful bacteria? What curdles milk?
c. Are there harmful bacteria?
d. Name some diseases caused by bacteria and explain how to prevent them
from spreading.

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Blue green algae
 Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are a group of photosynthetic
prokaryotes and not true algae, but rather bacteria.
 Habitat: They are aquatic, found naturally in all types of water.
 They are photosynthetic.
 In warm, nutrient-rich (high in phosphorus and nitrogen) slow moving
water, cyanobacteria can multiply quickly, creating blooms that spread
across the water’s surface.

5.2.5 Kingdom fungi

Activity 5.26
a. What do you understand from the diagrams?

b. What are the umbrella-like organisms?

c. What are the white and green patches on the tomatoes, oranges and
breads?

Fungi (singular, fungus) live in soil, water, and even in the air. Many forms live in
and on plants and animals. Mushrooms, molds and yeasts are examples of fungi.

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Nor do they have many animal-like characteristics. All fungi are made of eukaryotic
cells that have cell walls made of chitin. Fungi range in form from single-celled
yeasts to multicellular mushrooms. Fungi do not produce their own food. Fungi
get their food by breaking down organic materials and absorb the nutrients directly
into their cells. Some fungi get their food by digesting the dead remains of other
organisms. Others are parasites that live on plants or animals, causing diseases.
Athlete’s foot, for example, is caused by a fungus. Some fungi live in symbiotic
relationships with algae, e.g. lichens.

Activity 5.27
1. What are yeasts (Ersho in Amharic)? What is the purpose of mixing
dough with yeast?
2. Explain the roles of fungus in:
a. Homemade alcoholic drinks (e.g. Tella, Tej)?
b. In the environment?

Practical Activity 5.8

Title- Growing molds

Objective : To answer why do molds grow on injera or bread or fruits and

realize that mold spores are present everywhere.
Materials needed
 Plastic bag or any other container
 Pieces of injera or bread, peel of orange
 Water
Procedures:
Trial A
1. Sprinkle water on a slice of injera or bread.
2. Put the bread/injera/ orange in the plastic bag.
Trial B
3. Take another piece of injera/bread/ peel of orange

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4. Touch a dry soil with your hand and rub it on the bread /injera/ peel of
orange.
5. Seal or tie both the plastic bags in trial A and B.
6. Put them in a warm place or in an empty carton and leave undisturbed.
7. Follow up the growth of your mold after three days.
Observation and result
1. What do you observe? In which trial do the molds grow well? Why?
2. What is the color of the molds?
After completion, properly dispose of all the specimens and wash your hands
with water and soap.

Practical Activity 5.9

Study of mushrooms
Title- Study of mushrooms

Objective : To be familiar with various parts of a typical fungus. Study their

habitats.
Materials needed
 Mushroom
 Carton or any other container to keep the mushrooms
Procedures:
1. Collect mushrooms from your school compound or your area.
2. Get a mushroom to your school laboratory or classroom.
3. Place the mushroom on a Table and examine it.
4. Identify the different parts.
Question
1. What is the function of each part?
2. Draw and label the parts.
Wash your hands with soap and water.

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Summary
 The seven characteristics of living things are movement, respiration,
sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition.
 Classification is grouping of living things into categories based on natural
relationships among them.
 Vertebrates are animals with backbones and include fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals.
 Invertebrates are animals without backbone. Worms and insects are
examples of invertebrates.
 Algae are simple water plants that do not have roots, stems and leaves but
contain the green pigment chlorophyll.
 Bryophytes are land plants that do not have true leaves, stems or roots.
That is why they need to live close to a water source or in moist areas on
soil, tree trunks, and rocks.
 Flowering plants have flowers and when pollinated, they can ripe into a
fruit that bears seeds.
 Non-flowering plants are mostly evergreen trees that have narrow, needle-
like leaves. They do not have flowers, they have cones instead.
 Insect’s body is divided into the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. They
have three pairs of legs, two pairs of wings, and a pair of antennae.

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Review questions

I. Chose the correct answer from the given alternatives

1. Which one is the correct order of hierarchy from highest to lowest rank?
a. Kingdom → class → phylum → order → genus → family → species
b. Kingdom → phylum → class → order → family → genus → species
c. Genus → order→ class→ family→ species → phylum → kingdom
d. Kingdom → phylum → order→ class→ genus → family→ species

2. Binomial nomenclature is a two-part naming system brought from ______ &

_______.
a. Domain and kingdom c. Phylum and class
b. Order and family d. Genus and species

3. What is the largest group in the classification system?

a. Species b. Genus c. Order d. Kingdom

4. Which kingdom performs photosynthesis?

a. Animalia b. Plantae c. Bacteria d. Fungi

5. Why do single-celled amoeba and bacteria belong to different domains?

a. Amoebas eat bacteria.
b. Bacteria are not made of cells.
c. Bacteria cells lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus.
d. Amoebas are motile; bacteria are not.

6. A plant that has seeds but no flowers and fruits?

a. Bryophytes b. Gymnosperms c.Mosses d. Pteridophytes

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II. Give the vertebrate group based on “Who am I?” questions.

Who
am I?
I have a I can be covered I carry babies in
Babies are fed milk
backbone in fur/wool/hair my belly
Most animals in
I have lungs
?1 I have earlobes my group live on I am warm blooded
land
I have a I am covered in
I lay eggs I am warm blooded
backbone feathers
?2 My eggs have I am warm to Most in my group
I have lungs
hard shells touch can fly
I have a I am cool to My eggs are
I lay eggs
backbone touch leathery to touch
Most in my My body is
?3 I am cold
group live on I have lungs covered in leathery
blooded
land scales
I have a My eggs are soft
I lay eggs Young have gills
backbone jelly covered
?4 Most do not I am cold to
I live in water Adults have lungs
have scales touch
I have a
I live in water I lay eggs I have gills
backbone
?5 I am cold I am covered
I have fins
blooded with scales

III. Short answer questions.

8. List the features that define each of the five kingdoms:

Animalia Plantae Fungi Protista Monera
___________ _________ __________ ________ _______
___________ _________ __________ ________ _______
___________ _________ __________ ________ _______

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9. Bats are mammals.
a. In what ways are they like birds?
b. In what ways are they like other mammals?

10. What is the advantage of giving scientific names?

11. What is the importance of protists, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals?

12. What are the roles of fungi in our daily life?

13. What are the importance of mosses, liverworts, and hornworts in the
environment?

14. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms bear seeds, then why are they classified
separately?

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Unit 6 : The Earth

Unit

6
The Earth

Learning outcomes: At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the shape of the earth
 Identify the evidences supporting the shape of the earth
 Name dimensions (circumferences, diameters, and angular distances)
of the earth
 Describe the organization and contents of the different parts of the
earth
 Differentiate between rotation and revolution of earth
 Explain the effects of motions of the earth
 Construct model of earth
 Develop science process skills
 Describe the interaction between hydrosphere, biosphere,
atmospheric and lithosphere
 Explain water and carbon cycles on earth’s spheres.

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6.1 Shape and dimensions of earth

Activity 6.1

Assume that students were discussing the shape of earth in groups. The
discussion in the four groups ended up with the following conceptions. Which
group’s conception would you support? Justify your answer.

Group 1: Earth’s surface is flat and endless.

Group 2: Earth is a sphere and we live inside

Group 3: Earth is a sphere with a flat surface where we live.

Group 4: Earth is spherical and we live on.

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Activity 6.2

Consider the following pictures and discuss the questions.

1. Figure 6.1 represents a moon moving through the shadow of the earth.
Discuss why the shadow that falls on the moon became curved? What
would happen to the shadow if the earth was flat?
2. In Figure 6.2 , it was shown that a ship is moving away from observers.
What do you observe when the ship is going far away? How can you
explain this situation with respect to the shape of the earth?

Figure 6.1: eclipse of moon Figure 6.2: Departing ship

The shape of earth is slightly flattened at the poles and bulged in the middle. There
are observational evidences that supports the idea that the shape of the earth is
spherical. Some of the evidences are:
 The disappearing and reappearing of ships on the horizon
 Time differences between distant places
 Earth’s shadow on the moon during a lunar eclipse
 Picture of earth from space.
Because of the slightly flattened surface at the poles and bulged surface at the
equator, the earth can have different circumferences at the equator and at the poles.
The circumference of the earth at the equator is called Equatorial circumference.
And the circumference of the earth at the poles is called polar circumference. The
dimensions of the earth are given in Table 6.1.

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Table 6.1: Dimensions of Earth
Dimensions Unit (Kilometers ) Unit (Miles)
Equatorial circumference 40,075 km 24,902 mi
Polar circumference 40,007 km 24,860 mi
Equatorial diameter 12,756.4 km 7,926.4 mi
Polar diameter 12,713.6 km 7,899.8 mi

6.2 Parts of the earth

Activity 6.3
Equipment and materials
 Boiled egg
 Knife
Procedures
1. Remove the shell from the egg. The shell of the egg is analogous to the
crust of the earth.
2. Observe the next part of the egg (white part of the egg). This is analogous
to the mantle of the earth.
3. Observe the third part of the egg (yellow part of the egg). This is
analogous to the core of the earth.
Question
1. Think of another analogy that can illustrate internal layers of the earth

The earth is made up of three concentric layers with one over another. These layers
are called crust, mantle and core.

Crust: Crust is the outermost layer of the earth. It mainly consists of silicon and
aluminum. The crust has two parts. The first is the continental crust. It varies in
thickness between 20 km and 90 km. The second is called oceanic crust. It varies in
thickness between 5 km and 10 km. The oceanic crust is denser than the continental
crust.

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Mantle: The mantle is the thickest layer of the Earth. It takes about 83% of the
Earth’s volume. Its thickness is about 2900km. It is largely composed of iron and
magnesium.

Core: Core is the central layer of the Earth. The core is mostly iron, with some
nickel. It is about 16% of Earth’s total volume. The core has two layers. These
are inner and outer cores. The inner core is solid, and the outer core is liquid. The
metallic core accounts for Earth’s magnetic field.

Figure 6.3: Parts of earth

6.3 Movements of the earth

Activity 6.4

We are living on a planet earth. And earth is always in motion. Even if it is

moving, we feel like it is at rest.
A. What evidence can you use to support that the earth is moving?
B. What would happen if it did not move?

Earth performs two types of motions simultaneously. These motions are rotation
and revolution.

Rotation: It is the movement of the earth on its axis. Earth takes 24 hours to make
one rotation. When Earth rotates, different parts of the Earth face the sun. This
causes a change from day to night. The part of the planet which faces the sun
becomes day. And the opposite part of the earth on which the sun light do not reach

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becomes night. The existence of day and night on earth is an indication of the
movement of earth. (Note that an axis is an imaginary line about which the earth
rotates. This axis is tilted at 23.5o from the vertical).

Figure 6.4: Rotation of earth Figure : 6.5: Day and night on earth due to
rotation
Revolution: Revolution is the motion of earth around the sun. The earth takes
365¼ days to complete one revolution. Because the earth’s axis is tilted 23.5o from
the vertical, at any time of a year, some places on Earth tilt toward the sun, and
others tilt away. The places tilting toward the sun receive more solar energy and
have warmer temperatures than those that tilt away. This causes different parts
on earth to have different seasons: These seasons are summer, winter, spring and
autumn. Figure 6.6, shows the revolution of earth and the variation of seasons in
the north and south hemispheres.

Figure 6.6: Revolution of earth and the four seasons

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6.4 Earth’s subsystems

A system is a collection of interdependent parts enclosed within a definite boundary.

Within the boundary of the earth, there are four independent subsystems called
spheres. These spheres are the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere.
These spheres are so closely connected that a change in one sphere results in a
change in one or more of the other spheres.

Activity 6.5

Consider the following events and answer the questions below.

A. Human deforestation causes soil erosion.
b. Smoke in the air causes respiratory problems in people.
c. A decrease in vegetation causes an increase in soil erosion
d. An increase in vegetation increases oxygen in air
e. An increase in vegetation decreases ground water
Questions
1. Identify the causes and effects in each event.
2. Classify the causes and effects into groups based on their similarity
3. What common characteristics did the items in the same group have?

The four spheres of the earth are described as follows.

Lithosphere: The lithosphere refers to the solid and rocky crust that covers the entire
Earth. It includes different landforms such as mountains, valleys, rocks, minerals
and soil. The lithosphere is constantly changing due to forces and pressures from
the S,un, wind, ice, water and chemical changes.

Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere includes all forms of water in the Earth’s

environment. The forms of water include things such as the ocean, lakes, rivers,
snow and glaciers, water underneath the earth’s surface and water vapor that is
found in the atmosphere.

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Biosphere: The biosphere is composed of all living organisms, including; plants
and animals. It is believed that all life exists in the biosphere.

Atmosphere: The atmosphere refers to the air that surrounds the earth.

Since the four spheres are interdependent, the change in one sphere affects the other.
For example, in the first question of Activity 6.5, human deforestation (change in
biosphere) caused soil erosion (change in lithosphere). Similarly, an increase in
vegitation ( change in biosphere), increases oxygen in air (a chnge in atmosphere).

Figure 6.7: Interaction between spheres

Activity 6.6

1. Consider the following events and identify which spheres are interacting
in the events.
A. Ethiopian people are constructing the renaissance dams with rock
materials and irons
B. Water in the lake is either absorbed and became groundwater or
evaporates into the air
C. Humans generate energy by rotating turbines with water.

2. Consider your town as a system and identify the interacting spheres in the
town.

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6.5 Carbon and water cycles

6.5.1 Carbon cycle

Carbon cycle is one of the processes in which the interaction between the
hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and atmosphere can be demonstrated. Carbon
is the foundation of all life on earth to form complex molecules like proteins. It is
also found in air in the form of carbon dioxide.

Activity 6.7

The following statements describe how carbon and carbon compounds are
consumed and released from plants and animals. Read the statements and
answer the questions below.
1. Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration
(breathing) and combustion (burning).
2. Animals eat plants. Carbon compounds enter into animals through the
food they eat. The animals release carbon dioxide through the process
of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis and
release oxygen.
4. The dead animals and plants are eaten by decomposer in the ground. The
carbon that was in their bodies is then returned to the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide.
Questions
A. Identify the interacting spheres in the phenomenon represented by the
statements
B. Describe the exchange of carbon between biosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere in each case

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Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged among
the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. In the carbon cycle,
the carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.
These plants are then eaten by animals and the carbon gets into their bodies. These
animals and plants eventually die. Upon decomposing, carbon is released back into
the atmosphere. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere
eventually becomes fossil fuels. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made
activities, which releases more carbon back into the atmosphere.

Figure 6.8: Carbon cycle

6.5.2 Water cycle

Questions
1. Discuss how water resources are used in our daily life?
2. The water we are using for different purposes has been on earth since the
existence of the earth. What do you think is the reason for the existence of
water after billions of years?
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Activity 6.8
Material and equipment
 Electric stove (any source of heat)
 One liter of water
 Some pieces of ice
 Pans (one small and one big)
Procedures
1. Pour the water on the larger pan and put the pan on the stove
2. Make the stove on and wait until the water evaporates
3. Put some pieces of ice on the small pan
4. When the water in the larger pan begins to evaporate, hold the small pan
directly above the larger pan.
Questions
A. What did you observe on the bottom of the small pan?
B. What was the purpose of the ice in the small pan?
C. What specific processes can you identify in the Experiment ?

Water cycle is a continuous circulation of water and water vapor between Earth and
the atmosphere. Because the cycle is on a continuous loop, the water cycle does not
have a definite starting point. In the water cycle, surface water like ocean, river and
lake absorb heat energy from the sun and evaporates. The process of change of water
to vapor is called evaporation. As the vapor goes up, its temperature decreases. Due
to the decrease in temperature, the vapor begins to cool and changes into very small
water droplets. The process of change of water vapor to water droplets is called
condensation. The droplets then fall to the ground in the form of rain. This process
is called precipitation. When rain droplets hit the ground, some of the water is
absorbed by the soil. This water is then used by plants in the surrounding area.
And some of the water moved to the ocean, rivers or lakes. Evaporation again
takes place from plants and water bodies. The evaporation from plants is called
transpiration.

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Figure 6.9 Water cycle

Activity 6.9
1. Identify which spheres are interacting during evaporation, condensation,
precipitation and transpiration.
2. What would happen if the water and carbon cycles stopped?

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Summary
 The shape of Earth is spherical which is slightly flattened at the poles and
bulged at the equator.
 The equatorial circumference of the earth is 40,075km and the polar
circumference of the earth is 40,008km.
 The earth is made up of three concentric layers with one over another.
These layers are crust, mantle and core.
 Crust is the outermost layer of earth and consists mainly silicon and
aluminum.
 Mantle is the thickest part of the Earth layers which extends down to
about 2900 km from the crust to core
 Core is the center of the earth which has two layers: an inner core which
is solid and an outer core which is liquid.
 Earth performs two types of motions. These motions are rotation and
revolution.
 Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis.
 Revolution is the movement of earth around the sun.
 The four sub-systems of earth include biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere
and atmosphere. These sub-systems are called spheres
 Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged
among the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the
earth.
 Water cycle is defined as the continuous movement of water from the
ground to the air and vice-versa.

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Review questions and problems

I. Answer the following questions briefly

1. What would happen if the earth stops revolution?
2. Label the diagram with the words from the word bank.

3. List some earth sphere interactions that you experience in your own daily
Activity .
4. From the following passage, identify the spheres which are interacting

Rain falls from clouds in the atmosphere to the earth and forms streams and rivers.
The streams and rivers provide drinking water for wildlife and humans as well
as water for plant growth. River action erodes banks and uproots plants on the
riverbanks. Flooding rivers wash away soil.

II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives

5. An angle of 23.5o is formed between the axis of earth and a line
A. The center of the earth to the Polars
B. The center of the earth to the sun
C. Perpendicular to the plane of the earth’s orbit
D. Perpendicular to the equator
6. If the earth’s rate of rotation decreases, there would be an increase in the
A. Length of the season
B. Number of observable stars seen night during the year

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C. Length of day on earth
D. Inclination of the axis of rotation
7. During which part of the water cycle is it easiest to see water?
A. Evaporation B. Plant uptake
C. Precipitation D. Transpiration
8. When swimmers get out of the pool and sit in the sun, their wet skin dries
quickly. What happens to the water?
A. It turns to vapor and moves into the air.
B. It is pulled up into the sun by gravity.
C. It condenses and moves to plant and trees.
D. It becomes part of the water in the ground
9. If a planet had no water, _______________.
A. It would have no rocks.
B. It would have no insects.
C. It would have no light.
D. It would have no hills.
10. One of the main ways carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere is
_______________.
A. Photosynthesis B. Combustion
C. Respiration D. Decomposition
11. Which hemisphere is north of the equator?
A. Northern Hemisphere B. Southern Hemisphere
C. Eastern Hemisphere D. Western Hemisphere
12. When it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere, what season is it in the
Northern Hemisphere?
A. Fall B. Winter
C. Spring D. Summer
13. Earth’s tilt changes as it revolves around the sun.
A. True
b. False

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 Unit 7 : Force, Motion and Energy

Unit

7
Force, Motion and Energy

Learning outcomes: At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the terms motion, force, and energy
 Explain the various types of motion
 Develop skill of manipulating numerical problems related to motion,
force and energy
 Analyze data to identify patterns or relationships
 Explain the various effects of force
 Appreciate how the concepts of force, motion and energy are related
 Explain the real application of rectilinear motion, Newton’s laws of
motion
 List different forms of energy
 Name parts of measuring device of force
 Explain conservation of energy
 Differentiate between renewable and nob-renewable source of energy

7.1 Definition of motion

Activity 7.1

The following Figure represents two cars which left station 1 and reached
station 2 simultaneously. Grade 7 students were requested to sit in small groups
and identify which of the objects were moving. The ideas of their discussion
were summarized and grouped into the following four themes.

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Theme 1: The cars are

moving but the stations
are not
Station 1 Station 2
Theme 2: The cars and the
stations are not moving
Theme 3: The cars and the
stations are moving
Theme 4: It is impossible to
determine
Question
If you were one of the students who participated in the discussion, which idea
would you support? Explain your reason.

Motion is one of the key concepts in physics. The state of motion or rest of an
object is described with respect to a point called a reference point or a reference
frame. So, if an object changes its position with respect to a chosen reference
frame, it is said to be in a state of motion,. Otherwise it would be in a state of rest.

Activity 7.2

Assume that you were the driver of a bus traveling from your home to school. At
the moment you are in between traffic light 1 and traffic light 2 as shown in the
Figure below, which (traffic light1, traffic light 2, bus, you or the ground) is in
motion with respect to:

A. The ground
B. The bus
C. You
D. Traffic light 1
E. Traffic light 2

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7.2 Types of motion

Activity 7.3
1. List down some examples of moving bodies you observed in your
surrounding
2. Classify the moving bodies you mentioned into groups based on some
common characteristics.

Motions can be classified into four types based on the kind of paths that objects
follow. These are linear (rectilinear) motion, oscillatory (vibratory) motion,
curvilinear motion, and rotational motion.

Linear (rectilinear) motion: It is a motion of a body in a straight line. For example,

a car moving on a straight road, an airplane flying straight in air and an object
falling vertically down are some examples of rectilinear motion.

Oscillatory (vibratory) motion: It is a back and forth motion a body. Examples of

oscillatory motion include motion of a pendulum and motion of objects suspended
on a spring.

Curvilinear motion: A motion that is taking place in a curved path is called

curvilinear motion. A car moving along a curved track and motion of the moon
around the earth are examples of curvilinear motion.

Rotational motion: This type of motion includes a spinning motion of a body

about an axis. Motion of the wheel about its axis and motion of the second or
minute hand of a wrist watch are rotational motions.

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Figure 7.1: Types of motion

7.3 Motion in straight line

7.3.1 Distance and speed

One of the different types of motion is a motion taking place in a straight line. This
kind of motion is also called rectilinear motion.

Activity 7.4
Materials and equipment
 Timer (clock)
 Meter (ruler)
 Chalk
Procedures
1. Draw a straight line on the ground with
chalk.
2. Let one student gently roll a ball along
the ground in a direction perpendicular
to the line 1m away from it as shown in
the Figure .

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3. Record the time at the moment the ball crosses the line and also when it
comes to rest.
4. Measure the distance between the point at which the ball crosses the line and
the point where it comes to rest.
5. Three more students repeat the Activity
6. Record the measurements in the following Table
Time
Students Distance moved by Distance time
taken
label the ball (S) ratio (S/t)
(t)
Student 1
Student 2
Student 3
Student 4

Questions
From your observation,
1. Which student’s ball was fast?
2. Which student’s ball was slow?

From the data you recorded in the Table :

1. Compare the values under column4. Which value is higher? Which is lower?
2. Which value in column 4 is associated with the fastest ball and which is
associated with the slowest ball in your observation?
3. What can you say about the relation between values in column 4 and speed
of the balls?

When an object moves in a straight path, it changes its position from one place to
another. During its motion, the object travels a certain length of path in a unit time.
The total length of path traveled by an object is said to be distance. The distance
covered by an object in a unit time is called speed. For example, when we say a
body is moving with a speed of 10km/hr, it means that it will cover a distance of
10km in one hour. The average speed of an object is quantitatively expressed by
the following relation.

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Average Speed= Total distance traveled

Total time taken

Stot
Vav
t

Examples
1. Assume that the distance between your home and your school is 4000m. The
time it takes to arrive at the school is 50 seconds. Calculate your average speed
from home to school.
Given Required
S=4000m Vav=?

t=30 sec
Solution
Stot 4000m 80m/s
Vav= = =
t 50sec

2. To move from point A to point B, a girl walks 40m east, 20m south and 40m
west as shown in the Figure . If the time she took to reach point B is 20
seconds, calculate:
A. The distance she traveled
B. The average speed of the girl
40m
A

20m

B 40m

Solution
A. S= 40m+20m+40m=100m

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St ot
B. Vav = , where t = 20 s and St ot = 100m
t
100m
⇒ Vav = = 5m / s
20 s
7.3.2 Displacement and velocity
Activity 7.5

Consider the motion of the girl in the above example again and answer the
following questions.
1. Which direction could the girl move to reach point B by traveling a short
length of path?
2. What is the distance she traveled in that specific direction?
3. If she took 10 sec to reach point B in that specific direction, what would be
its speed?
40m
A

20m

B 40m

The concepts of displacement is different from that of distance in that the

displacement has a specific direction. Hence, displacement of a body can be
described as the distance traveled by a body in a specific direction.

Suppose you travel from point A to point B along two different paths ACB and
APRB as shown in Figure 7.2. Then, the distance you travelled along path ACB is
the sum of the length of lines AC and CB. Similarly, the distance along path APRB
is the sum of the length of lines AP, PR and RB. However, the displacement is the
shortest distance from A tob. This distance is the length of line AB.

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Figure 7.2: Distance and displacement

Velocity of a body on the other hand represents how fast the body moves in a
particular direction. The girl’s displacement in the Activity would be 20m down.
The relationship between velocity and displacement is expressed as:

Change of displacement
Average Velocity =
Time
→
→ ∆S
Vav =
∆t

Activity 7.6

The data of motions of two bodies A and B are measured and recorded in the
following Table s.
Motion A
S(m) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
t(sec) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
V(m/s)

Motion B
S(m) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
t(sec) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
V(m/s)

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Questions
1. Calculate the speed of the two bodies and record the results in the Table
s.
2. Draw the distance-time graphs of the two motions
3. Based on the graph you draw, discuss the difference between the two
motions.
4. Draw the speed-time graph of the two motions
5. Find the slope of distance-time graph. What do these slopes indicate?

7.3.3 Acceleration

Activity 7.7
1. The following statements describe different motions of a car. In which
motion does the car accelerates?
A. A car moving at 50km/hr in straight line road
B. A car just begins to move
C. A car moving around a curved road with 50km/hr
D. A car that uses brakes to stop
2. What would happen to the speed and direction of the car in the case/s
where the car is accelerating?

Acceleration can be described as the rate of change of velocity. It measures how

much the velocity of an object changes in a unit time. Acceleration has direction. The
direction of the acceleration is in the direction of the motion if the speed increases
and opposite to the direction of motion if the speed decreases. The acceleration of
a body changes if the magnitude of the velocity changes or the direction of motion
changes or if both changes. The acceleration of a body and its velocity is related by
the following expression.
Change of velocity
Acceleration =
Change of time
→
∆V
→
⇒ a=
∆t
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Example
1. A man starts from rest and accelerates to a speed of 20m/s in 8 seconds. What
is magnitude of the man’s acceleration?
Solution

∆V 20m / s − 0m / s
⇒ a= = = 2.5m / s 2
∆t 8s
Activity 7.8

Three students 1, 2 and 3 are running to their school. The data about their
motions are measured and recorded in the following Table s.
Student-1
V(m/s) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
t(se) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Student-2
V(m/s) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
t(se) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Student-3
V(m/s) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
t(se) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Questions
I. Calculate the accelerations of the three students.
II. Draw the speed-time graph of the motions of the three students.
III. Describe the speed-time graph of a motion with positive acceleration,
negative acceleration and zero acceleration

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7.4 Force

Activity 7.9

Assume that a ball is on a Table as shown in

the picture.
1. Is the object at rest or in motion? What
evidence can you give to support
your answer?
2. Will the object move by itself? When
will it move?
3. How can we make it move faster?
Move slower? Change its direction?
Or Stop?

Force is one of the important quantities in physics. It can be described as an

interaction between bodies in nature. For example, throwing a ball, holding a
textbook, walking or running on a floor, cutting a paper into pieces needs force.

Forces can be classified into two main groups. These are contact force and non-
contact force. Contact forces are forces that exert when two bodies are in physical
contact. For example, in Figure 7.3, the pushing and pulling forces are contact
forces.

Figure 7.3 Examples of contact forces

Non-contact forces on the other hand include forces exerted between bodies
which are not in contact. Force of gravity, magnetic force and electric force are

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examples of non-contact force. In each case, there is no physical contact between
the interacting bodies.

Figure 7.4 Examples of non-contact forces

7.4.1 Effects of force

Activity 7.10
The picture below shows a man kicking a ball. Assume that the ball rolls
across a horizontal surface and comes to rest.

1. What causes the ball to roll on the ground?

2. Does the speed of the ball decrease or increase immediatly after the
kick?
3. Why does the ball finally stop?
4. What force is acting on the ball
A. At the instant the ball is kicked by the man?
B. When the ball is rolling?

When a force is exerted on an object, it produces some effects on the object. Forces

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can change the state of motion. For example, a body which is at rest can begin
motion if force is exerted on it and will stop if force is acting on it. For example,
in the above Activity , the ball stops because of the friction force that is exerted on
the ball. Similarly, a moving body changes its speed (decreases or increases) as a
result of force acting on it. A force can also change the direction of motion or shape
of objects.

7.4.2 Force of gravity

Activity 7.11
1. A ball is dropped to the ground from a
building as shown in the picture below.
In which of the positions does gravity
act on the ball? Justify your answers.
A. Position 2 only
B. Positions 1 and 2 only
C. Positions 2 and 3 only
D. Positions 1, 2 and 3

2. If a similar ball is dropped from two

buildings of different heights as shown
in the following pictures, in which case
does force of gravity act more?
A. Big building
B. Small building
C. In both cases, force of gravity is the
same

Weight of a body can be defined as a force of gravity acted on the body. Earth
exerts a gravitational force of about 9.8N for every kilogram of mass on its surface.

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An object’s weight can change from place to place as it depends on the strength of
gravity acting on it. The weight of a body with mass ‘m’ is mathematically given
by:

W=Mg

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity which is equal to 9.8m/s2

Activity 7.12
1. Identify the forces acting on the ball
in the five different positions and
show their directions (ignore air
resistance).

7.4.2 Measuring force

An instrument used to measure force is called Newton meter. Newton meters
contain a spring connected to a metal hook. The spring stretches when a force is
applied to the hook. In addition to the spring and hook, regular Newton meters
have support and scale as shown in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5 Parts of Newton meter

If an object is suspended on the hook of the Newton meter as shown in Figure 7.6,
its spring stretches because of the weight of the object. The amount of stretch of the
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spring is proportional to the weight of the object suspended. The bigger the force
applied, the more the spring will stretch.

Figure 7.6 Measuring force

Activity 7.13
1. Measure the weight of 100g, 200g and 300g masses using Newton meter.
2. Calculate the weight of the masses.
3. Is there difference between the calculated and measured values? What
do you think the cause for this difference if any?

7.5 Force and motion

7.5.1 Newton’s first law of motion
Activity 7.14
1. Imagine you are in a bus moving with constant speed on a straight road.
What would happen to you if:
A. The bus stops suddenly?
B. The bus increases its speed suddenly?
C. The bus changes its direction suddenly?
D. How do you explain these incidences in terms of force and motion?

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Procedures
1. Fill the cup with water
2. Put the hard paper on the Table
3. Put the cup filled with water over
the hard paper
4. Pull the hard paper slowly. Observe
the motion of the cup carefully
(observation 1)
5. Pull the hard paper very quickly. 
Observe the motion of the cup
again (observation 2)

Questions
1. What differences have you observed in the two observations?
2. What do you think is the cause of the difference between the two observations?

Activity 7.15

Do the following simple Experiment and answer the questions below.

Equipment and materials
 Small cup (glass or metal)
 Water
 Hard paper

Newton’s first law of motion is often called the Law of Inertia. Inertia is the
tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion. So, Newton’s first law
of motion is about how an object maintains its state of motion. Newton’s first law
of motion states that “an object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion
will remain in motion at a constant velocity unless a net external force is acted up
on it.”.

This law has two parts. The first part is that an object at rest will remain at rest
unless acted upon by a net external force. This implies that an object that remains
at rest will have a net external force of zero acting on it. But, this does not mean
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that there are no forces acting on it. It means that when you add up all the forces,
you get a value of zero.

The second part is that an object in motion will maintain its motion at constant
velocity unless acted upon by a net external force. This means that an object in
motion will maintain a constant speed and direction unless acted upon by a net
external force. Again, this does not mean that there are no forces acting on the
object. It means that the sum of the external forces is zero.

7.5.2 Newton’s second law of motion

Activity 7. 16
1. What makes cars move on a level road?
2. What did you experience from a car moving on a muddy road on a rainy
day?
3. What factors can affect the acceleration of a body?

Activity 7. 17

Do the Experiment by following the given procedures, collect and analyze the
data to determine the relation between mass, acceleration and force.
Equipment and materials
 Cart
 Pulley
 String
 Stopwatch
 Different hanging masses

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Procedures
1. Set up a system consisting of a cart and hanging mass as shown in the
picture
2. Measure the mass of the cart
3. Measure the weight of the hanging mass (w=mg)
4. By increasing the weight of the hanging mass step by step, observe what
will happen to the acceleration of the cart (note that the acceleration of
the cart can be found by dividing the weight of the hanging mass by the
mass of the cart). Do this for six different weights.
5. Record the observed data in the following Table
Mass of cart =_______
Wt of hanging mass
Acceleration of cart
6. Draw force versus acceleration graph
Questions
1. What can you conclude about the relationship between acceleration and
force from the graph you draw?

Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of a body is directly proportional
to the net force acting on the body and inversely proportional to the mass of the
body. The direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force.
The relationship between acceleration, mass and net force is given by:

→ →
F net = m a
Examples

1. A force of 20N is acted on a mass of 5kg. If the velocity of the mass is 20m/s
after 4 seconds, what was its initial speed?

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Solution

F 20 N
a= = = 4m / s 2
m 5kg
∆V V f − Vi
⇒ but a = =
∆t t f − ti
⇒ V f = Vi + at or Vi = V f − at = 20m / s − (4m / s 2 )(4s) = 4m / s

7.5.3 Newton’s third law of motion

Activity 7. 18
1. Did you observe the movement of birds’ wings when they are flying up?
How do birds’ wings move? Why do birds move their wings in that way?
Demonstration
1. Fill the balloon with air, release it and observe what will happen to the
balloon. What causes the balloon to move?

Newton’s third law of motion tells us that if body 1 exerts an action on body 2,
then body 2 exerts a reaction on body 1 that is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. We can observe the application of this law on numerous activities in our
surroundings. For example, when we want to jump up, we push the ground. The
reaction of the ground is what makes us jump up. We move forward because our
feet push the road backward.

It should be noted that, although the pairs of action and reaction forces have the
same value and opposite directions, they do not cancel each other. This is because
action and reaction forces are acted on different bodies.

Figure 7.7 Pairs of action and reaction forces

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7.6 Energy

Activity 7. 19
1. Consider the following tasks and discus which task needs energy.
A. Cleaning teeth
B. Running
C. Writing
D. Cooking food using stove
E. Riding a bicycle
2. Where does the energy used to accomplish the tasks come from?

All living things need energy to stay alive and perform different life processes.
For example, plants need energy from sunlight in order to make their food. Other
organisms get their energy from the food that they eat. Even if we can’t see energy,
we recognize its existence by observing the changes that the energy caused. This
implies that whenever there is a change, there is some form of energy causing the
change. Therefore, energy may be described as the ability to cause change. Table
7.1 shows some processes that use energy and their respective changes.
Table 7.1: examples of use of energy and associated changes
Things that use energy Associated changes
Turning on light in a dark room The room changes from dark to light
Riding bicycle The bicycle changes its state of motion
Cleaning teeth Movement of hand
Lifting book Change of position of the book

When energy is utilized, it will be converted from one form to another. For example,
when somebody is riding a bicycle or cleaning teeth, energy obtained from food
will be converted to motion energy. Hence energy can also be defined as a property
of matter that can be converted to different forms when it is utilized.

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7.6.1 Forms and conversion of energy

Activity 7.20

Assume that you are in a dark room at night.

A. Can you see objects found in the room?
B. How can you see at night?
C. What form of energy is used?
D. Describe the conversion of energy in the lighting of the room?

One of the easiest ways to recognize energy is to know the various forms it can
take. All energy is divided into two categories,. These are kinetic and potential
energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion and potential energy is energy that
is stored. The kinetic energy of a body depends on its mass (m) and speed (v). The
faster an object is moving, the more kinetic energy it has. And the more massive
an object is, the more kinetic energy it has. The kinetic energy of a body of mass m
moving with speed v is given by:
1
KE = mv 2
2

The potential energy of a body depends on its mass (m), height above the ground
(h) and acceleration due to gravity (g). Mathematically it is given by:
PE = mgh

Examples

1. How high is an object of mass 2kg from the ground if its potential energy is 40J?

Solution PE = mgh
PE 40 J
⇒h= = = 2m
mg (2kg )(10m / s 2 )

2. Find the kinetic energy of 4kg mass if it is moving with 4m/s.

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Solution
1 1
KE = mv 2 = (4kg )(4m / s ) 2 = 32 J
2 2
Energy can exist in different forms. Some of these forms are the following.

Electrical Energy: The energy associated with the movement of electrons.

Thermal Energy: The energy that results from the movement of atoms and
molecules.

Sound Energy: The energy produced by the vibration of matter in a medium.

Radiant Energy: It is an electromagnetic energy. Solar energy is an example of

radiant energy.

Chemical Energy: The energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules.

Nuclear Energy: The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.

Gravitational Energy: The energy associated with an object’s position in a

gravitational field.

Mechanical Energy: The energy acquired when work is done on objects.

Figure 7.8: Forms of energy

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Energy can be changed from one form to another. The change in the form of energy
is called energy conversions. For example:
• Plants change solar energy into starches and sugars (chemical energy).
• In an electric motor, electric energy is converted to mechanical energy.
• In a battery, chemical energy is converted into light energy.
• The mechanical energy of a waterfall is converted to electrical energy in a
generator.

Activity 7.21

Describe the different forms and conversion of energy in the following

phenomena
I. A ball is dropped from your hand and hits the ground
II. Clamping your hands
III. Cycling a bicycle

7.6.2 Source of energy

Activity 7.22
1. In section7.6, you have learned that energy is needed to accomplish
different activities. Where does our energy come from?
2. List down some forms of energy and their respective sources
3. Classify the sources of energy you mentioned into two groups based on
whether it can be replaced or not?

Many substances and organisms store energy which can then be used. We call them
energy sources. Energy sources have energy that is stored within them and can be
used to make something happen. For example,

energy stored in petrol can used to make a car to go. Similarly, the energy stored in
the foods we eat can help us to do different activities.
There are two main types of sources of energy. These are renewable and non-
renewable sources. The energy sources which are limited and will be exhausted
after using for a certain number of years is called

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Non-renewable sources. Examples of non-renewable sources include wood,
fossil fuels (crude oil, coal, natural gas) and nuclear fuels. The second type of
sources includes those which provide endless supply. This type of sources is called
renewable sources. Sun, wind and water are some examples of renewable energy
sources.

7.6.3 Wise use and conservation of energy

Activity 7.23
1. Why do we bother about conserving energy?
2. How can you conserve energy at your homes?

As mentioned earlier, non-renewable energy sources are available in a limited

amount. In addition, we are highly depends on these energy sources. As a result,
the energy from these sources will finish one day. Therefore, we should think on the
wise use and conservation of energy. Energy conservation includes any mechanisms
that results in the use of less energy. In addition, we are highly depends on these
energy sources. As a result, the energy from these sources will finish one day.
Therefore, we should think on the wise use and conservation of energy.

Energy conservation includes any mechanisms that results in the use of less energy.
Energy can be conserved at home, working place, schools, roads and so on For
example, when you wash your school uniform and other clothes at home, soak
them in water overnight. It will be easier to you to wash them in the morning and
consequently, you will save your energy. Likewise, you can also save the electric
energy you used in schools and at home by the use of energy efficient light bulbs
and heaters.

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Summary
 Motion is defined as the change in position of an object with respect to
reference fame.
 Based on the paths followed, motion can be classified into four: Linear
(rectilinear) motion, oscillatory (vibratory) motion, curvilinear motion
and rotational motion.
 Linear (rectilinear) motion is a motion of a body in a straight line.
 Oscillatory (vibratory) motion is a motion of a body about its mean potion.
 Curvilinear motion is a motion that is taking place in a curved path.
 Rotational motion is a spinning motion of a body about an axis
 Distance, displacement, speed, velocity and accelerations are some of the
physical quantities used to describe motion.
 The total length of a journey that a moving object covers is said to be
distance. Displacement on the other hand, refers to the objects change in
position.
 Speed is defined as the rate at which an object covers distance. It is a
scalar quantity.
 Velocity is a vector quantity which refers to the rate at which an object
changes its position.
 Acceleration is defined as the rate at which an object changes its velocity.
If the velocity is changing by a constant amount each second, the
acceleration is called constant acceleration
 Force represents interaction between bodies in nature
 Forces can be classified into two: contact and non contact force
 Contact forces are forces that exerted when two bodies are in contact
 Non-contact forces include forces exerted between bodies which are not
in contact
 Force can change state of motion of a body, size and shape of objects
 All living things need energy to perform different life processes
 Energy can be defined as the property of matter that can be converted into
different forms when it is used.
 Energy can exist in different forms such as chemical energy, mechanical

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energy (kinetic and potential), nuclear energy, sound energy, heat energy,
radiant energy
 There are two main sources of energy: renewable and non-renewable
sources.
 Renewable sources are sources which can be replenished or reused
 Non-renewable sources cannot be reused since there is a limited amount
available
 Energy conservation involves use of lesser energy for the same level of
Activity .

Review questions and problems

I. Answer the following questions briefly and provide reasons for the ques-
tions that require justification

1. The graph below is the speed-time graph of a motion of a body. Answer the
following questions based on the graph
A. In which time interval/s the body was not accelerating?
B. In which time interval/s does the body accelerate?
C. In which time interval/s does the body have negative acceleration?
D. How much distance is traveled by the body in the time interval 2-10 seconds?
V(m/s)

40

0 2 10 12 t(s)

2. A ball of mass 0.5kg is released from a height of 10m above the ground as
shown in the picture below. Answer the following questions based on the
picture. Try to provide reasons for your answers.
A. In which position/s, the gravity acts on the ball?
b. In which position/s, the ball experiences a force other than gravity?

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3. If the kinetic energy of a body of mass 2kg is 16J, what is the speed of the
body?

4. A Lorry has twice the mass of an automobile, but the automobile drives twice
the speed of the lorry. Which vehicle has the highest kinetic energy?

5. Assume that you are playing a football game with your classmates. You are
the goalkeeper of your team output the ball on the ground and kick it to your
friend who is near the goal of the opposite team. Identify the events where
there was energy transfer in the incident. What energy transfers occur in the
events?

6. Fill the empty boxes in the following concept map with the correct words or
phrases.

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II- Chose the correct answer from the given alternatives

7 Which of the following decreases the acceleration of a body?

A. Decreasing force acting on the body
B. Increasing mass of the body
C. Decreasing mass of the body
D. Increasing both force and mass proportionally

8. Which of the following bodies has the largest kinetic energy?

A. Mass 3kg and speed 1m/s c. Mass 2kg and speed 3m/s
B. Mass 3kg and speed 2m/s d. Mass 1kg and speed 4m/s

9. A child sitting on a Table is reading a book as shown in the Figure . Consider

the following forces.
1. A downward force of gravity on the child.
2. A downward force of gravity on the book
3. An upward forces exerted by the chair.
4. A net downward force exerted by the air.

Which of the forces is (are) acting on the child?

A. (2) only B. (2) and (3)
C. (2), (3) and (4) D. (1), (2), (3) and (4) E. None of these

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