Friction

Friction is the force resisting the relative

motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and
material elements sliding against each
other.[2][3] Types of friction include dry,
fluid, lubricated, skin, and internal -- an
incomplete list. The study of the processes
involved is called tribology, and has a
history of more than 2000 years.[4]

Friction can have dramatic consequences, as

illustrated by the use of friction created by
rubbing pieces of wood together to start a
fire. Another important consequence of
many types of friction can be wear, which
Friction between two objects. The blue one has more friction
may lead to performance degradation or
against the sloped surface than the green one.
damage to components. It is known that
frictional energy losses account for about
20% of the total energy expenditure of the world.[5][6]

As briefly discussed later, there are many different

contributors to the retarding force in friction, ranging
from asperity deformation to the generation of
charges and changes in local structure. Friction is not
itself a fundamental force, it is a non-conservative
force – work done against friction is path dependent. Simulated blocks with fractal rough surfaces,
In the presence of friction, some mechanical energy is exhibiting static frictional interactions[1]
transformed to heat as well as the free energy of the
structural changes and other types of dissipation, so
mechanical energy is not conserved. The complexity of the interactions involved makes the calculation of
friction from first principles difficult and it is often easier to use empirical methods for analysis and the
development of theory.[3][2]

Types
There are several types of friction:

Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in
contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction ("stiction") between non-moving
surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces. With the exception of atomic or
molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features,
known as asperities (see Figure).
 Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving
relative to each other.[7][8]
Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid
surfaces.[9][10][11]
Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the
surface of a body.
Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid
material while it undergoes deformation.[8][4]

History
Many ancient authors including Aristotle, Vitruvius, and Pliny the Elder, were interested in the cause and
mitigation of friction.[12] They were aware of differences between static and kinetic friction with
Themistius stating in 350 A.D. that "it is easier to further the motion of a moving body than to move a
body at rest".[12][13][14][15]

The classic laws of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci in 1493, a pioneer in tribology,
but the laws documented in his notebooks were not published and remained
unknown.[16][17][18][19][20][21] These laws were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons in 1699[22] and
became known as Amonton's three laws of dry friction. Amontons presented the nature of friction in
terms of surface irregularities and the force required to raise the weight pressing the surfaces together.
This view was further elaborated by Bernard Forest de Bélidor[23] and Leonhard Euler (1750), who
derived the angle of repose of a weight on an inclined plane and first distinguished between static and
kinetic friction.[24] John Theophilus Desaguliers (1734) first recognized the role of adhesion in
friction.[25] Microscopic forces cause surfaces to stick together; he proposed that friction was the force
necessary to tear the adhering surfaces apart.

The understanding of friction was further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785).[22]

Coulomb investigated the influence of four main factors on friction: the nature of the materials in contact
and their surface coatings; the extent of the surface area; the normal pressure (or load); and the length of
time that the surfaces remained in contact (time of repose).[16] Coulomb further considered the influence
of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, in order to decide between the different explanations on the
nature of friction that had been proposed. The distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in
Coulomb's friction law (see below), although this distinction was already drawn by Johann Andreas von
Segner in 1758.[16] The effect of the time of repose was explained by Pieter van Musschenbroek (1762)
by considering the surfaces of fibrous materials, with fibers meshing together, which takes a finite time in
which the friction increases.

John Leslie (1766–1832) noted a weakness in the views of Amontons and Coulomb: If friction arises
from a weight being drawn up the inclined plane of successive asperities, then why is it not balanced
through descending the opposite slope? Leslie was equally skeptical about the role of adhesion proposed
by Desaguliers, which should on the whole have the same tendency to accelerate as to retard the
motion.[16] In Leslie's view, friction should be seen as a time-dependent process of flattening, pressing
down asperities, which creates new obstacles in what were cavities before.
In the long course of the development of the law of conservation
of energy and of the first law of thermodynamics, friction was
recognised as a mode of conversion of mechanical work into heat.
In 1798, Benjamin Thompson reported on cannon boring
experiments.[26]

Arthur Jules Morin (1833) developed the concept of sliding versus

rolling friction.

In 1842, Julius Robert Mayer frictionally generated heat in paper

pulp and measured the temperature rise.[27] In 1845, Joule
published a paper entitled The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, in Heat by friction captured by a
which he specified a numerical value for the amount of mechanical thermal camera
work required to "produce a unit of heat", based on the friction of
an electric current passing through a resistor, and on the friction of
a paddle wheel rotating in a vat of water.[28]

Osborne Reynolds (1866) derived the equation of viscous flow. This completed the classic empirical
model of friction (static, kinetic, and fluid) commonly used today in engineering.[17] In 1877, Fleeming
Jenkin and J. A. Ewing investigated the continuity between static and kinetic friction.[29]

In 1907, G.H. Bryan published an investigation of the foundations of thermodynamics, Thermodynamics:

an Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications. He noted that
for a rough body driven over a rough surface, the mechanical work done by the driver exceeds the
mechanical work received by the surface. The lost work is accounted for by heat generated by friction.[30]

Over the years, for example in his 1879 thesis, but particularly in 1926, Planck advocated regarding the
generation of heat by rubbing as the most specific way to define heat, and the prime example of an
irreversible thermodynamic process.[31]

The focus of research during the 20th century has been to understand the physical mechanisms behind
friction. Frank Philip Bowden and David Tabor (1950) showed that, at a microscopic level, the actual area
of contact between surfaces is a very small fraction of the apparent area.[18] This actual area of contact,
caused by asperities increases with pressure. The development of the atomic force microscope (ca. 1986)
enabled scientists to study friction at the atomic scale,[17] showing that, on that scale, dry friction is the
product of the inter-surface shear stress and the contact area. These two discoveries explain Amonton's
first law (below); the macroscopic proportionality between normal force and static frictional force
between dry surfaces.

Laws of dry friction

The elementary property of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment in the 15th to 18th
centuries and were expressed as three empirical laws:

Amontons' First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.
Amontons' Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of
contact.
 Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.

Dry friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of dry friction
are 'static friction' ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes called
sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.

Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is an approximate model used to calculate
the force of dry friction. It is governed by the model:

where

is the force of friction exerted by each surface on the other. It is parallel to the surface, in
a direction opposite to the net applied force.
is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials,
is the normal force exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular (normal)
to the surface.
The Coulomb friction may take any value from zero up to , and the direction of the frictional
force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction.
Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion between
the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In this case, rather than providing an
estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this
force, above which motion would commence. This maximum force is known as traction.

The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or
potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a curling stone sliding
along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the
drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the
wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the
direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and
road.

Normal force
The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together, and its direction
is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal surface, the only
component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where . In this case, conditions of
equilibrium tell us that the magnitude of the friction force is zero, . In fact, the friction force
always satisfies , with equality reached only at a critical ramp angle (given by ) that is
steep enough to initiate sliding.

The friction coefficient is an empirical (experimentally measured) structural property that depends only
on various aspects of the contacting materials, such as surface roughness. The coefficient of friction is not
a function of mass or volume. For instance, a large aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as
a small aluminum block. However, the magnitude of the friction force
itself depends on the normal force, and hence on the mass of the
block.

Depending on the situation, the calculation of the normal force

might include forces other than gravity. If an object is on a level
surface and subjected to an external force tending to cause it to
slide, then the normal force between the object and the surface is just
, where is the block's weight and is the
downward component of the external force. Prior to sliding, this
friction force is , where is the horizontal component of
the external force. Thus, in general. Sliding commences
only after this frictional force reaches the value . Until
then, friction is whatever it needs to be to provide equilibrium, so it
can be treated as simply a reaction.

If the object is on a tilted surface such as an inclined plane, the

normal force from gravity is smaller than , because less of the
force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane. The normal
force and the frictional force are ultimately determined using vector
Free-body diagram for a block
analysis, usually via a free body diagram. on a ramp. Arrows are vectors
indicating directions and
In general, process for solving any statics problem with friction is to magnitudes of forces. N is the
treat contacting surfaces tentatively as immovable so that the normal force, mg is the force of
corresponding tangential reaction force between them can be gravity, and Ff is the force of
calculated. If this frictional reaction force satisfies , then friction.
the tentative assumption was correct, and it is the actual frictional
force. Otherwise, the friction force must be set equal to ,
and then the resulting force imbalance would then determine the acceleration associated with slipping.

Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter μ, is a dimensionless scalar value
which equals the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together,
either during or at the onset of slipping. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for
example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of
friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one. The coefficient of friction
between two surfaces of similar metals is greater than that between two surfaces of different metals; for
example, brass has a higher coefficient of friction when moved against brass, but less if moved against
steel or aluminum.[32]

For surfaces at rest relative to each other, , where is the coefficient of static friction. This is
usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. The coefficient of static friction exhibited by a pair of
contacting surfaces depends upon the combined effects of material deformation characteristics and
surface roughness, both of which have their origins in the chemical bonding between atoms in each of the
bulk materials and between the material surfaces and any adsorbed material. The fractality of surfaces, a
parameter describing the scaling behavior of surface asperities, is known to play an important role in
determining the magnitude of the static friction.[1]

For surfaces in relative motion , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The Coulomb
friction is equal to , and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to its
motion relative to the other surface.

Arthur Morin introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the coefficient of friction.[16] The
coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement — it has to be measured experimentally, and cannot be
found through calculations.[33] Rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective values. Both static and
kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contact; for a given pair of surfaces, the
coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of kinetic friction; in some sets the two coefficients
are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon.

Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values outside
this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value of zero would
mean no friction at all, an elusive property. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction
coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that μ is always < 1, but this is not true. While in
most relevant applications μ < 1, a value above 1 merely implies that the force required to slide an object
along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the object. For example, silicone
rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than
1.

While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property", it is better categorized as a "system
property". Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield strength), the
COF for any two materials depends on system variables like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also
what are now popularly described as aging and deaging times; as well as on geometric properties of the
interface between the materials, namely surface structure.[1] For example, a copper pin sliding against a
thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6 at low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to
below 0.2 at high speeds when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter
speed, of course, does not determine the COF uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the
frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to
that of a 'low speed' test.

In systems with significant non-uniform stress fields, because local slip occurs before the system slides,
the macroscopic coefficient of static friction depends on the applied load, system size, or shape;
Amontons' law is not satisfied macroscopically.[34]
Approximate coefficients of friction

Static Friction, Kinetic/Sliding Friction,

Materials
Dry and
Dry and clean Lubricated Lubricated
clean

Aluminium Steel 0.61[35] 0.47[35]

Aluminium Aluminium 1.05–1.35[35] 0.3[35] 1.4[35]–1.5

Gold Gold 2.5

Platinum Platinum 1.2[35] 0.25[35] 3.0

Silver Silver 1.4[35] 0.55[35] 1.5

Silicon nitride
Alumina ceramic
ceramic 0.004 (wet)[36]

BAM (Ceramic Titanium boride

alloy AlMgB14) (TiB2) 0.04–0.05[37] 0.02[38][39]

Brass Steel 0.35–0.51[35] 0.19[35] 0.44[35]

Cast iron Copper 1.05[35] 0.29[35]

Cast iron Zinc 0.85[35] 0.21[35]

0.45–0.75
Concrete Rubber 1.0 0.30 (wet) 0.6–0.85[35]
(wet)[35]

Concrete Wood 0.62[35][40]

Copper Glass 0.68[41] 0.53[41]

Copper Steel 0.53[41] 0.36[35][41] 0.18[41]

0.005–
Glass Glass 0.9–1.0[35][41] 0.4[35][41] 0.09–0.116[41]
0.01[41]
Human synovial Human
fluid cartilage 0.01[42] 0.003[42]

Ice Ice 0.02–0.09[43]

Polyethene Steel 0.2[35][43] 0.2[35][43]

PTFE (Teflon) PTFE (Teflon) 0.04[35][43] 0.04[35][43] 0.04[35]

Steel Ice 0.03[43]

Steel PTFE (Teflon) 0.04[35]−0.2[43] 0.04[35] 0.04[35]

0.005– 0.42–
Steel Steel 0.74[35]−0.80[43] 0.029–0.19[41]
0.23[41][43] 0.62[35][41]
0.2
Wood Metal 0.2–0.6[35][40] 0.49[41] 0.075[41]
(wet)[35][40]
0.25– 0.2 0.32– 0.067–
Wood Wood
0.62[35][40][41] (wet)[35][40] 0.48[41] 0.167[41]

Under certain conditions some materials have very low friction coefficients. An example is (highly
ordered pyrolytic) graphite which can have a friction coefficient below 0.01.[44] This ultralow-friction
regime is called superlubricity.
Static friction
Static friction is friction between two
or more solid objects that are not
moving relative to each other. For
example, static friction can prevent an
object from sliding down a sloped
surface. The coefficient of static
friction, typically denoted as μs, is
usually higher than the coefficient of
kinetic friction. Static friction is
considered to arise as the result of
surface roughness features across
multiple length scales at solid
surfaces. These features, known as
When the mass is not moving, the object experiences static
asperities are present down to nano- friction. The friction increases as the applied force increases until
scale dimensions and result in true the block moves. After the block moves, it experiences kinetic
solid to solid contact existing only at a friction, which is less than the maximum static friction.
limited number of points accounting
for only a fraction of the apparent or
nominal contact area.[45] The linearity between applied load and true contact area, arising from asperity
deformation, gives rise to the linearity between static frictional force and normal force, found for typical
Amonton–Coulomb type friction.[46]

The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move. The maximum
possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of
static friction and the normal force: . When there is no sliding occurring, the friction force
can have any value from zero up to . Any force smaller than attempting to slide one surface
over the other is opposed by a frictional force of equal magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger
than overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to occur. The instant sliding occurs,
static friction is no longer applicable—the friction between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction.
However, an apparent static friction can be observed even in the case when the true static friction is
zero.[47]

An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the ground.
Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative
to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction. Upon slipping, the wheel friction changes to
kinetic friction. An anti-lock braking system operates on the principle of allowing a locked wheel to
resume rotating so that the car maintains static friction.

The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as limiting
friction,[48] although this term is not used universally.[7]

Kinetic friction
Kinetic friction, also known as dynamic friction or sliding friction, occurs when two objects are
moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic
friction is typically denoted as μk, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same
materials.[49][50] However, Richard Feynman comments that "with dry metals it is very hard to show any
difference."[51] The friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the
coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force: . This is responsible for the Coulomb
damping of an oscillating or vibrating system.

New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction.[52] In many
other cases roughness effects are dominant, for example in rubber to road friction.[52] Surface roughness
and contact area affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces
dominate inertial forces.[53]

The origin of kinetic friction at nanoscale can be rationalized by an energy model.[54] During sliding, a
new surface forms at the back of a sliding true contact, and existing surface disappears at the front of it.
Since all surfaces involve the thermodynamic surface energy, work must be spent in creating the new
surface, and energy is released as heat in removing the surface. Thus, a force is required to move the back
of the contact, and frictional heat is released at the front.

Angle of friction
For certain applications, it is more useful to define static friction in
terms of the maximum angle before which one of the items will
begin sliding. This is called the angle of friction or friction angle.
It is defined as:

and thus: Angle of friction, θ, when block just

starts to slide.

where is the angle from horizontal and μs is the static coefficient

of friction between the objects.[55] This formula can also be used to calculate μs from empirical
measurements of the friction angle.

Friction at the atomic level

Determining the forces required to move atoms past each other is a challenge in designing nanomachines.
In 2008 scientists for the first time were able to move a single atom across a surface, and measure the
forces required. Using ultrahigh vacuum and nearly zero temperature (5 K), a modified atomic force
microscope was used to drag a cobalt atom, and a carbon monoxide molecule, across surfaces of copper
and platinum.[56]

Limitations of the Coulomb model

The Coulomb approximation follows from the assumptions that: surfaces are in atomically close contact
only over a small fraction of their overall area; that this contact area is proportional to the normal force
(until saturation, which takes place when all area is in atomic contact); and that the frictional force is
proportional to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area. The Coulomb approximation
is fundamentally an empirical construct. It is a rule-of-thumb describing the approximate outcome of an
extremely complicated physical interaction. The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and
versatility. Though the relationship between normal force and frictional force is not exactly linear (and so
the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces), the Coulomb
approximation is an adequate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical systems.

When the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for example,
adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal force). In this case,
the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact. Some drag racing tires are adhesive for
this reason. However, despite the complexity of the fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships
are accurate enough to be useful in many applications.

"Negative" coefficient of friction

As of 2012, a single study has demonstrated the potential for an effectively negative coefficient of friction
in the low-load regime, meaning that a decrease in normal force leads to an increase in friction. This
contradicts everyday experience in which an increase in normal force leads to an increase in friction.[57]
This was reported in the journal Nature in October 2012 and involved the friction encountered by an
atomic force microscope stylus when dragged across a graphene sheet in the presence of graphene-
adsorbed oxygen.[57]

Numerical simulation of the Coulomb model

Despite being a simplified model of friction, the Coulomb model is useful in many numerical simulation
applications such as multibody systems and granular material. Even its most simple expression
encapsulates the fundamental effects of sticking and sliding which are required in many applied cases,
although specific algorithms have to be designed in order to efficiently numerically integrate mechanical
systems with Coulomb friction and bilateral or unilateral contact.[58][59][60][61][62] Some quite nonlinear
effects, such as the so-called Painlevé paradoxes, may be encountered with Coulomb friction.[63]

Dry friction and instabilities

Dry friction can induce several types of instabilities in mechanical systems which display a stable
behaviour in the absence of friction.[64] These instabilities may be caused by the decrease of the friction
force with an increasing velocity of sliding, by material expansion due to heat generation during friction
(the thermo-elastic instabilities), or by pure dynamic effects of sliding of two elastic materials (the
Adams–Martins instabilities). The latter were originally discovered in 1995 by George G. Adams and
João Arménio Correia Martins for smooth surfaces[65][66] and were later found in periodic rough
surfaces.[67] In particular, friction-related dynamical instabilities are thought to be responsible for brake
squeal and the 'song' of a glass harp,[68][69] phenomena which involve stick and slip, modelled as a drop
of friction coefficient with velocity.[70]

A practically important case is the self-oscillation of the strings of bowed instruments such as the violin,
cello, hurdy-gurdy, erhu, etc.

A connection between dry friction and flutter instability in a simple mechanical system has been
discovered,[71] watch the movie (http://www.ing.unitn.it/~bigoni/flutter.html) Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20150110065917/http://www.ing.unitn.it/~bigoni/flutter.html) 2015-01-10 at the Wayback
Machine for more details.
Frictional instabilities can lead to the formation of new self-organized patterns (or "secondary structures")
at the sliding interface, such as in-situ formed tribofilms which are utilized for the reduction of friction
and wear in so-called self-lubricating materials.[72]

Fluid friction
Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving relative to each other. This internal resistance
to flow is named viscosity. In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid is described as its "thickness". Thus,
water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. The less
viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.

All real fluids (except superfluids) offer some resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous. For
teaching and explanatory purposes it is helpful to use the concept of an inviscid fluid or an ideal fluid
which offers no resistance to shearing and so is not viscous.

Lubricated friction
Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces. Lubrication is a
technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity moving relative to each
another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the surfaces.

In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the frictional
viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate lubrication allows
smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without excessive stresses or
seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can rub destructively
over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure.

Skin friction
Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly related
to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows the drag
equation and rises with the square of the velocity.

Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are two ways to
decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible, like an airfoil.
The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the moving object as much as is
practicable.

Internal friction
Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it
undergoes deformation.
Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object.
This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature. The change of an
object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is called stress.

Elastic deformation in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object. Stress
does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces oppose the applied
force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may completely resist the applied force,
allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to return to its original shape when the force is
removed. This is known as elastic deformation or elasticity.

Radiation friction
As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein[73] in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation friction"
which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, "radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the
plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest. However, if it is in
motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than
on the back surface. The backward-acting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than
the force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force
that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this
resultant 'radiation friction' in brief."

Other types of friction

Rolling resistance
Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a surface
caused by deformations in the object or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance is less than that
associated with kinetic friction.[74] Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 0.001.[75]
One of the most common examples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road,
a process which generates heat and sound as by-products.[76]

Braking friction
Any wheel equipped with a brake is capable of generating a large retarding force, usually for the purpose
of slowing and stopping a vehicle or piece of rotating machinery. Braking friction differs from rolling
friction because the coefficient of friction for rolling friction is small whereas the coefficient of friction
for braking friction is designed to be large by choice of materials for brake pads.

Triboelectric effect
Rubbing two materials against each other can lead to charge transfer, either electrons or ions. The energy
required for this contributes to the friction. In addition, sliding can cause a build-up of electrostatic
charge, which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up
discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.
Belt friction
Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a pulley,
when one end is being pulled. The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can be modeled
by the belt friction equation.

In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction equation can be
compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a designer of such a rig to know how
many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from slipping. Mountain
climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge of belt friction when accomplishing basic
tasks.

Reduction

Devices
Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid bearings can
change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.

Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low friction
bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing imposed
load.[77] For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight grades are usually specified for heavy
duty or critical bearings.

Lubricants
A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is placed
between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction
and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the
application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.

Superlubricity, a recently discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial decrease of
friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount of frictional energy
would still be dissipated.

Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as
graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.

Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one of the
parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration noise, known as
dither.
Energy of friction
According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it may be
lost to the system of concern. Mechanical energy is transformed into heat. A sliding hockey puck comes
to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat which raises the internal energy of the puck
and the ice surface. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly
concluded that moving objects come to rest spontaneously.

When an object is pushed along a surface along a path C, the energy converted to heat is given by a line
integral, in accordance with the definition of work

where

is the friction force,

is the vector obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the normal force by a unit vector
pointing against the object's motion,
is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which is inside the integral because it may vary from
location to location (e.g. if the material changes along the path),
is the position of the object.
Dissipation of energy by friction in a process is a classic example of thermodynamic irreversibility.[31]

Work of friction
The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact
surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as in
polishing. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of friction
welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding surfaces occurs when work due to frictional forces
rise to unacceptable levels. Harder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces in relative motion
(fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. As surfaces are worn by work due to friction, fit and
surface finish of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly.[78] For example, bearing
seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction.

In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does no work, because there is
never displacement between the surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic friction is always in the
direction opposite the motion, and does negative work.[79] However, friction can do positive work in
certain frames of reference. One can see this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug
quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the frame
of reference in which the floor is stationary. Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates
the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing positive work.[80]

When sliding takes place between two rough bodies in contact, the algebraic sum of the works done is
different from zero, and the algebraic sum of the quantities of heat gained by the two bodies is equal to
the quantity of work lost by friction, and the total quantity of heat gained is positive.[81][82] In a natural
thermodynamic process, the work done by an agency in the surroundings of a thermodynamic system or
working body is greater than the work received by the body, because of friction. Thermodynamic work is
measured by changes in a body's state variables, sometimes called work-like variables, other than
temperature and entropy. Examples of work-like variables, which are ordinary macroscopic physical
variables and which occur in conjugate pairs, are pressure – volume, and electric field – electric
polarization. Temperature and entropy are a specifically thermodynamic conjugate pair of state variables.
They can be affected microscopically at an atomic level, by mechanisms such as friction, thermal
conduction, and radiation. The part of the work done by an agency in the surroundings that does not
change the volume of the working body but is dissipated in friction, is called isochoric work. It is
received as heat, by the working body and sometimes partly by a body in the surroundings. It is not
counted as thermodynamic work received by the working body.

Applications
Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.

Transportation
Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by converting its kinetic
energy into heat. Incidentally, dispersing this large amount of heat safely is one technical
challenge in designing brake systems. Disk brakes rely on friction between a disc and brake
pads that are squeezed transversely against the rotating disc. In drum brakes, brake shoes
or pads are pressed outwards against a rotating cylinder (brake drum) to create friction.
Since braking discs can be more efficiently cooled than drums, disc brakes have better
stopping performance.[83]
Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails, see Frictional contact
mechanics.
Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobiles[84]
Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on either
side of a car.
Road texture affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface.

Measurement
A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction on a surface.
A profilograph is a device used to measure pavement surface roughness.

Household usage
Friction is used to heat and ignite matchsticks (friction between the head of a matchstick
and the rubbing surface of the match box).[85]
Sticky pads are used to prevent object from slipping off smooth surfaces by effectively
increasing the friction coefficient between the surface and the object.

See also
Contact dynamics
 Contact mechanics
Factor of adhesion
Friction Acoustics
Frictionless plane
Galling
Lateral adhesion
Non-smooth mechanics
Normal contact stiffness
Stick-slip phenomenon
Transient friction loading
Triboelectric effect
Unilateral contact
Friction torque

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External links
"Friction" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Friction).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). 1911.
Coefficients of Friction (https://web.archive.org/web/20190201171526/http://www.roymech.c
o.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/co_of_frict.htm) – tables of coefficients, plus many links
 Measurement of friction power (https://www.enggstudy.com/2019/04/measurement-of-frictio
n-power-by-willans-line-method.html)
Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips (https://web.archive.org/web/2007060
1020244/http://www.physclips.unsw.edu.au/) from the University of New South Wales
Values for Coefficient of Friction (https://books.google.com/books?id=WDll8hA006AC&pg=P
T2503&lpg=PT2503) – CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
Coefficients of friction of various material pairs in atmosphere and vacuum (http://www.tribon
et.org/wiki/friction-coefficients-in-atmosphere-and-vacuum/).

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