EE – 302

Electromagnetic Field & Materials

B. Tech. -Electrical Engineering (Grading System)
III-Semester

Poonam Sarawgi
[email protected]
Assistant Professor, Electrical Engineering Department

GYAN GANGA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLGY & SCIENCES, JABALPUR

 SYLLA
Unit –1
BUS
RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL
New Scheme Based On AICTE Flexible Curriculum
Electrical Engineering, III-Semester
EE302 Electromagnetic Field & Materials
Gauss law, its integral and differential forms and its applications, multipoles, potential energy, energy density in an electric field, dielectrics , electric
polarization, polarizability, permittivity, Clausius – mossotti equation, electric displacement, Gauss’s law in dielectrics, dielectric materials, dielectric
function, refractive index and absorption coefficient, dielectric relaxation and losses. Maxwell’s first equation, Divergence, poisson’s and Laplace equation
and their solutions. Capacitance, electrostatic energy conduction at a boundary between dielectrics.
Unit –2
Fields due to moving charge, magnetic field, Ampere’s law, particles motion in E and B fields, Hall Effect, electro-static and magnetic focusing, magnetic
materials: dia, para and ferromagnetic, soft and hard magnetic materials, B,M and H vectors, Ampere’s law for magnetic materials, hysteresis, magnetic
circuits.
Unit –3
Electromagnetic waves, plane electromagnetic waves, wave equation and solution, Poynting vector, wave propagation through dielectric and conductors,
phase velocity, reflection and refraction absorption skin depth, and energy flow density of a wave. Boundary conditions.
Unit –4
Semiconducting materials, band theory of semiconductors, band-to-band transitions, theory of p-n junction and p-n devices, mobility of charge carriers.
Unit –5
Conductivity of metals, electron scattering and resistivity of metals, heat developed in a current – carrying conductor, superconductivity.
Text Books :
1. A.J.Dekkar, “ Electrical Engg. Materails”, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Limited, 2005.
2. 2. C.S. Indulkar, ”Electrical Engineering Materials”, S.Chand & Company Limited, 2008.
3. 3. E.C. Jordan, K.G. Balmain, “Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems”, second edition, Prentice Hall, 1968.
Reference Books :
1. William Hart Hayt, John A. Buck, “Engineering Electromagnetics”, eight edition, Mcgraw-Hill, 2012.
2. Matthew N.O. Sadiku, “Elements of Electromagnetics”, fifth edition Oxford University Press, 2010.
3. Bhag Singh Guru, Huseyin, “Electromagnetic Field Theory Fundamentals”, second edition, Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Prof. Poonam Sarawgi, EED, GGITS Jabalpur 2

 TEXT & REFERENCE BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS
1. A.J. Dekkar, “ Electrical Engg. Materails”, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Limited, 2005.
2. C.S. Indulkar, ”Electrical Engineering Materials”, S. Chand & Company Limited, 2008.
3. E.C. Jordan, K.G. Balmain, “Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems”, second
edition, Prentice Hall, 1968.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. William Hart Hayt, John A. Buck, “Engineering Electromagnetics”, eight edition,
Mcgraw-Hill, 2012.
2. Matthew N.O. Sadiku, “Elements of Electromagnetics”, fifth edition Oxford University
Press, 2010.
3. Bhag Singh Guru, Huseyin, “Electromagnetic Field Theory Fundamentals”, second
edition, Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Prof. Poonam Sarawgi, EED, GGITS Jabalpur 3

 Unit – 5

Conductivity of metals, electron scattering and

resistivity of metals, heat developed in a current –
carrying conductor, superconductivity.

Prof. Poonam Sarawgi, EED,

4
GGITS Jabalpur
 CONDUCTIVITY

❑ Conductivity
❑ Superconductivity

5
 Mechanisms of conduction and origin of resistance
❑ Conduction by electrons and ions (including protons).
❑ Any impediment to motion gives rise to resistance. The relevant material
property is resistivity.
❑ Scattering of the moving electron under a potential gradient from various
sources (atoms, phonons, etc.) lead to resistance in electronic conductors.
❑ Spin dependent electron scattering is also possible (e.g. in the GMR effect).
Repeated scattering can lead to phenomena like Anderson localization.
❑ For conduction: (i) driving field is required and (ii) energy levels should be
available for electrons to be promoted to. The issue of cross coupling terms.
❑ In conductors the field leads to current. In dielectrics (insulators) it may
cause polarization.
❑ Conductivity depends on the number of charge carries and their mobility.
❑ Field and current are vectors and hence resistivity (ρij) and conductivity (σij)
are second order tensors.

6
 Free Electron Theory

❑ Outermost electrons of the atoms take part in conduction.

❑ These electrons are assumed to be free to move through the whole solid
🢣 Free electron cloud / gas, Fermi gas.
❑ Potential field due to ion-cores is assumed constant ⇒ potential energy
of electrons is not a function of the position (constant negative
potential).
❑ The kinetic energy of the electron is much lower than that of bound
electrons in an isolated atom.

7
 I. Introduction
1. Static Electricity: The build up of electrical charge; it does not flow.
Lightning is an example of static electricity being “discharged” after
having been built up.
2. Current Electricity: Moving electrical charge, usually electrons.
Current electricity flows through a completed circuit.
Electricity flows through some materials better than others:
1. Conductors: Materials that freely allow the movement of electrons
through them.
2. Nonconductors: Materials that resist the flow of electricity
3. Semiconductors: Materials that allow small currents to flow.
● Metals have many free electrons that can easily move and are
therefore good conductors. This is why wires are made of metals
like copper.
● Nonconductors are also called insulators. Materials like
Styrofoam and plastic are non-conductors. Electrons do not
readily flow through these materials.
● Semiconductors sometimes conduct electricity and sometimes
don’t. Silicon is the most common material used in
semiconductors.
 Concept of Conductivity

The conductivity of a material depends on the presence of free

electrons. The materials which conduct electricity due to free
electrons when an electric potential difference is applied
across them are known as conducting materials. The
conducting materials play an important role in Engineering
and Technology. Conducting materials are good conductors
of electricity and heat. Gold, silver, copper, aluminium are
the examples of conducting materials.
 Classical Free Electron Theory
Assumptions of Free electron gas model:
❑ A metal contains a large number of free electrons which are free to move about in
entire volume of the metal like the molecules of a gas in a container.
❑ The free electrons move in random directions and collide with either positive ions
fixed in the lattice or other free electrons. All the electrons are elastic and there is
no loss of energy.
❑ The velocity and the energy distribution of free electrons obey the classical
Maxwell Boltzmann statistics.
❑ The free electrons are moving in a completely uniform potential field due to the
ions fixed in the lattice.
❑ In the absence of electric field the random motion of free electrons is equally
probable in all directions so that the current density vector is zero.
❑ When the external electric field is applied across the ends of a metal, the electrons
drift slowly with some average velocity known as drift velocity in the direction
opposite to that of electric field.
❑ This drift velocity is superimposed over the random velocity. This drift velocity is
responsible for the flow of electric current in a metal.
 PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTING MATERIALS

1. Tensile Strength:
Strength of a material is defined as the ability to resist load without failure.
Tensile strength is therefore tie ability of the material resist a stretching
(tensile) load without fracture. Therefore the tensile strength gives an
indication of the conductor limit within which it has to be used and beyond
which excessive deformation or fracture takes place. It is expressed in load
per unit cross sectional area. (tonnes / cm2).
2. Ductility:
It is the ability of the material to be deformed plastically without rupture
under tensile load. A ductile material can be drawn out into a fine wire
without fracture and can also be bent, twisted or changed in shape without
fracture. Gold, silver, copper, aluminium, nickel, tin, lead etc., are ductile
materials.
 PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTING MATERIALS
3. Corrosion Resistance:

Corrosion is a gradual process in a material due to electro-chemical attack. Due to the chemicals present in
the atmosphere and if the material is exposed, the metal is generally converted into an oxide, salt or some
other compound, thus the metal- does not serve the purpose it is intended to. It may also occur in elevated
temperature in media which are inert when near or below the room temperature.

4. Effect of Alloying on Resistivity:

Any impurity whether metallic or non-metallic increases resistivity. The effect of metal impurities on
resistivity of a given metal is dependent on the nature of alloy formed. When the metal differs widely in
atomic volumes and melting points the alloy comprises of crystals of both metals. Such alloys are called
mechanical mixtures. The resistivity and temperature coefficient of resistivity in these alloys vary linearly
with percentage content of impurity.

When the atomic volumes of both do not differ by more than 15% the alloy comprises of single crystal in
structure in which the crystal lattice accommodates the atoms of both metals. This is called solid solution
alloy. In this type of alloy, the resistivity increases and temperature coefficient decreases upon certain
percentage of impurity content. After this, if the impurity is increased the resistivity decreases and
temperature coefficient increases.

When the metals combine chemically, it is called chemically combined alloy. The variation of resistivity and
temperature coefficient of resistivity with percentage of impurity content is very complicated. The alloying
will increase the mechanical strength to a considerable extent and the material will become hard.
 PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTING MATERIALS

5. Solderability:
Solder is a fusible alloy used to join the surfaces of metals. The
property is useful at places where the two pieces of metals are to be
joined as in the case of wires.
6. Brittleness:
It is opposite to the property of toughness and is the tendency of a
metal to break on receiving a hammer blow. The brittle material
has a poor resistance to shock loads.
 Drift velocity
The average velocity of the free electrons with which they move towards the
positive terminal under the influence of the electrical field.

Electrical Conductivity
 Mobility

It is defined as the drift velocity of the charge carrier per unit

applied electric field

Collision Time

• The average time taken by a free electron

between two successive collisions is called
collision time.
 Mean Free Path
The average distance travelled by a free electron between two
successive collisions is called mean free path.

Relaxation Time ()

• It is defined as the time taken by a free

electron to reach its equilibrium position
from the disturbed position in the
presence of an electric field.
Expression For The Electrical Conductivity
Conduction by free electrons

❑ If there are empty energy states above the Fermi level then in the presence of an electric field
there is a redistribution of the electron occupation of the energy levels.

EF Electric EF
E →

Field

k → k →

Force experienced by an electron

▪ m → mass of an electron
▪ E → applied electric field 22
Thermal Conductivity
Expression for Thermal Conductivity of a Metal
▪ Semi-insulators are: (i) doped semi-conductors with dopant
level near band edge or (ii) large band-gap semi-conductors
are referred to as semi-insulators.
▪ Semi-metals have an (i) overlap of valence and conduction
bands across ‘k’ values or (ii) valence band just touches the
conduction band.
▪ Graphene is not a semiconductor, not an insulator, and not
a metal,

26
Resistivity range in Ohm m 🢣 25 orders of magnitude

Metallic materials Semi-conductors

10−9 10− 7 10−5 10−3 10−1 101 103

Ag
Ni Sb Bi Ge
Cu Al Ge Si
Pb Graphite (doped)
Au
- Solid electrolytes -

Insulators

105 107 109 1011 1013 1015 1017

Window Porcelain
glass Diamond Lucite SiO2
Bakelite PVC
Ionic Rubber Mica (pure)
conductivity Polyethylene
27
28
 Metals

Classification Semi-metals
based on Semi-conductors
Band structure
Semi-insulator
Insulators
▪ Semi-insulators are: (i) doped
semi-conductors with dopant level near
band edge or (ii) large band-gap
semi-conductors are referred to as
semi-insulators.
▪ Semi-metals have an (i) overlap of valence
and conduction bands across ‘k’ values or
(ii) valence band just touches the
conduction band.

Material E.g. Conductivity dσ/dT Carrier Type

Metals Cu, Ag, Au High Small negative Electrons
Semi-conductors Ge, Si Intermediate Large positive Electrons (+holes)
Semi-insulators GaAs, ZrO2 “ Large positive Ions/Electrons
29
Insulators Al2O3 Low Very large, positive Ions /+ electrons
The density of states
❑ The number of energy states per unit energy is called the density of states (DOS, ρ(E)).
❑ DOS is obtained by differentiating S(E) w.r.t to E.
❑ The density of states increases with E.
❑ The highest filled energy level is called the Fermi level (EF).

30
A Comparison of Conductor, Semiconductor, and Insulator
Material properties
Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Conductivity High Moderate Low

Resistivity Low Moderate Very high

Forbidden gap No forbidden gap Small forbidden gap Large forbidden gap

Temperature coefficient Positive Negative Negative

Conduction Large number of electrons Very small number of Moderate number of

for conduction electrons for conduction electrons for conduction

Conductivity value Very high 10−7 mho/m Between those of Negligible like 10−13
conductors and insulators, mho/m
i.e., 10−7 mho/m to 10−13
mho/m

Resistivity value Negligible; less than 10−5 Between those of Very high; more than 105
Ω-m conductors and insulators, Ω-m
i.e., 105 Ω-m to 105 Ω-m

Current flow Due to free electrons Due to free electrons and Due to negligible free
holes electrons

31
A Comparison of Conductor, Semiconductor, and Insulator Material
properties

Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Number of carriers at Very high Low Negligible

normal temperature

Band overlap Both conduction and Both bands are separated Both bands are separated
valence bands are by an energy gap of 1.1 eV by an energy gap of 6–10
overlapped eV

Zero Kelvin behavior Acts like an Acts like an insulator Acts like an insulator
superconductor

Formation Formed by metallic Formed by covalent Formed by ionic bonding

bonding bonding

Valence electrons One valence electron in Four valence electrons in Eight valence electrons in
outermost shell outermost shell outermost shell

Examples Copper, mercury, Germanium, silicon Wood, rubber, mica, paper

aluminum, silver

32
Energy Bands in Conductors
❑ The energy levels in conductors are continuous.
❑ In conductors reciprocal lattice points in ‘k’ space can be defined (π/a, 2π/a, 3π/a, etc.), but
these have no real significance.
❑ The information spread across reciprocal lattice points can be reduced within π/a the reduced
zone scheme).

Only one half of the

zones shown (e.g. the
first BZ extends from
−π/a to +π/a)

33
Fermi level
❑ At zero K the highest filled energy level (EF) is called the Fermi level.
❑ If EF is independent of temperature (valid for usual temperatures)
► Fermi level is that level which has 50% probability of occupation by an electron.
❑ EF is typically in the range of 2-12 eV.
❑ The kinetic energy of an electron gas is given by the Fermi-Dirac statistics. The probability
that a certain energy level is occupied by electrons is given by the Fermi function (F(E)).
❑ The energy range over which the function is smeared out (at a given T) is ΔE. ΔE is about
1% EF.
❑ At high energies (E >> EF) the upper end of the Fermi function can be approximated to the
Boltzmann distribution.

0K T>0K

T
P(E) →

g
is n
rea
c
In

E → 34
Population density
❑ The number of electrons per unit energy (N(E), the electron population density) is calculated
as a product of number of possible energy levels and the probability for their occupation.
Further, each state can be occupied by 2 electrons (up and down spin).
❑ At zero Kelvin, N(E)=2ρ(E).
❑ The area below the curve is the number of electrons (N*), which have energy less than or
equal to En.

35
Fermi surface (2D)
❑ In 2D the Fermi surfaces are curves. At low energies these are circles, but close to the BZ
boundary their shape changes (figure below).

Brillouin zone boundary

36
❑ In the presence of the field the electron velocity increases by an amount (above its usual
velocity) by an amount called the drift velocity.
❑ The velocity is lost on collision with obstacles.

Collisions

vd
▪ vd → Drift velocity
▪ τ → Average collision time
Velocity →

τ time →
37
The flux due to flow of electrons → Current density (Je) → [charge/area/time]

▪ n → number of free electrons

~ Ohm’s law

Actually n has to be
replaced by n* and m
by m*.

n* is the number of electrons

38
at the Fermi level
Mean free path (MFP) (l) of an electron
The mean distance travelled by an electron between successive collisions is called the mean
free path (MFP, l). 🢣 l = vd τ.
For an ideal crystal with no imperfections (or impurities) the MFP at 0 K is ∞.
Ideal crystal ⇒ there are no collisions and the conductivity is ∞.
Scattering centres → MFP↓ , τ↓ ⇒ ↓σ , ↑ρ.

Scattering centres

Thermal vibration → Phonons

Sources of
Solute / impurity atoms
Electron Scattering
Defects
Dislocations
Grain boundaries
Etc. 39
Thermal scattering
At T > 0K → atomic vibration scatters electrons → Phonon scattering
⇒T↑→σ↓→ρ↑
Low T
🢣 MFP ∝ 1 / T3
🢣 τ ∝ 1 / T3
High T
🢣 MFP ∝ 1 / T
🢣τ ∝1/T

Impurity scattering

Resistivity of the alloy is higher than that of the pure metal at all T
The increase in resistivity is ∝ the amount of alloying element added!

40
Cu, Cu-Ni alloy Increased phonon scattering

Resistivity (ρ) [x 10-8 Ohm m] →

5
m
Cu-3%Ni
p
4 u
r Cu-2%Ni
i
3 t
y
2 s
c
a With low density of
1 t imperfections
t Pure Cu
→ 0 as T→ 0K e
r 100 200 300
i T (K) →
n
g
Mattheissen rule ρ= ρT( + ρr
ρ
41
Net resistivity (approx.) = Thermal
r resistivity + Resistivity due to impurity scattering
)
Conductors

❑ Power transmission lines → low I2R loss → large cross sectional area
❑ Al used for long distance distribution lines
(Elastic ModulusAl increased by steel reinforcement)
❑ OFHC (Oxygen Free High Conductivity) Cu (more expensive) is used for
distribution lines and busbars.
► Fe, P, As in Cu degrade conductivity drastically

42
Electrical contacts

❑ Electrical contacts in switches, brushes and relays

❑ Properties:
► High electrical conductivity
► High thermal conductivity → heat dissipation
►High melting point → accidental overheating
► Good oxidation resistance
❑ Cu and Ag used
❑ Ag strengthened by dispersion strengthening by CdO
■ CdO
► Strengthens Ag
► Improves wear resistance
► If arcing occurs → decomposes (At MP of Ag) to
absorb the heat

43
Resistor

❑ Properties:
► Uniform resistivity → homogenous alloy
► Stable resistance → Avoid aging / stress relaxation / phase change
► Small T coefficient of resistance ( αR) → minimizes error in measurement
► Low thermoelectric potential wrt Cu
► Good corrosion resistance
❑ Manganin (87% Cu, 13% Mn, αR = 20 x 10−6 / K) and
Constantan (60% Cu, 40% Ni) are good as resistor materials
[αR (Cu) = 4000 x 10−6 / K]
❑ Low thermoelectric potential wrt to contact material (usually Cu) reduces error due to
temperature difference between junctions. For high precision dissimilar junctions should
be maintained at same temperature
❑ Ballast resistors are used in maintaining constant current →
I↑→T↑→R↑ ⇒ I↓
Requirement: high αR (71% Fe, 29% Ni → αR = 4500 x 10−6 / K)

44
Heating elements

❑ Properties:
► High melting point
► High resistivity
► Good oxidation resistance
► Good creep strength
► Resistance to thermal fatigue
🢣 low elastic modulus
🢣 low coefficient of thermal expansion
❑ ■ Upto 1300oC
Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Cr), Kanthal (69% Fe, 23% Cr, 6% Al, 2% Co)
■ Upto 1700oC: SiC & MoSi2
■ Upto 1800oC: Graphite
❑ Mo and Ta need protective atmosphere at high T
❑ W (MP = 3410oC) is used is used as filament in light bulbs → creep
resistance above 1500oC improved by dispersion hardening with ThO2
❑ Resistance thermometers: ► High temperature coefficient of resistivity
► Pure Pt

45
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

46
 What Is A Superconductivity?

Superconductivity is a set of physical properties observed

in certain materials where electrical resistance vanishes and
magnetic flux fields are expelled from the material. Any
material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor.
Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance
decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered even down
to near absolute zero, a superconductor has a characteristic
critical temperature below which the resistance drops
abruptly to zero. An electric current through a loop of
superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power
source.

47
 What Is A Superconductor?

A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity

or transport electrons from one atom to another with no
resistance. This means no heat, sound or any other form of
energy would be released from the material when it has
reached "critical temperature" (TC), or the temperature at
which the material becomes superconductive.
Unfortunately, most materials must be in an extremely low
energy state (very cold) in order to become superconductive.
Research is underway to develop compounds that become
superconductive at higher temperatures. Currently, an
excessive amount of energy must be used in the cooling
process making superconductors inefficient and
uneconomical.
48
Superconducting transition

Resistivity (ρ) [x 10-11 Ohm m] →

Resistivity (ρ) [x 10-11 Ohm m] →

10 Ag 20 Sn

5 10

0 10 20 0 Tc 5 10
T (K) → T (K) →

Superconducting transition temperature 49

Current carrying capacity

❑ The maximum current a superconductor can carry is limited by the magnetic field that it
produces at the surface of the superconductor

Hc / J c
Normal

Jc [Amp / m2] →
μ0 Hc [Wb / m2] →

Superconducting

T (K) → Tc

50
Meissner effect

❑ A superconductor is a perfect diamagnet (magnetic susceptibility χ = −1)

❑ Flux lines of the magnetic field are excluded out of the superconductor 🢣 Meissner effect

Normal Superconducting

51
Theory of low temperature superconductivity-
Bardeen-Cooper-Schreiffer (BCS) theory

❑ Three way interaction between an two electron and a phonon

❑ Phonon scattering due to lattice vibrations felt by one electron in the Cooper pair is
nullified by the other electron in the pair
⇒ the electron pair moves through the lattice without getting scattered by the lattice
vibrations
❑ The force of attraction between the electrons in the Cooper pair is stronger than the
repulsive force between the electrons when T < Tc

52
Properties of Superconductors
❑ Property 1: Critical temperature/Transition temperature

The temperature below which the material changes from conductors to superconductors is called critical
temperature or transition temperature. The transition from conductors to superconductors is sudden and complete.

❑ Property 2: Zero Electric Resistance/Infinite Conductivity

In the superconducting state, the material has zero resistance. When the temperature of the material is reduced
below the critical temperature, its resistance suddenly reduces to zero. Mercury is an example of a superconductor
that shows zero resistance below 4 kelvin.

❑ Property 3: Expulsion of Magnetic Field

Below the critical temperature, superconductors do not allow the magnetic field to penetrate inside it. This
phenomenon is called Meisser Effect.

❑ Property 4: Critical Magnetic Field

The certain value of the magnetic field beyond which the superconductors return to conducting state is called the
critical magnetic field. The value of the critical magnetic field is inversely proportional to the temperature. As the
temperature increases, the value of the critical magnetic field decreases. 53
Type I and Type II superconductors

54
 Type I Superconductors

A type I superconductor consists of basic conductive elements

that are used in everything from electrical wiring to computer
microchips. At present, type I superconductors have Tcs between
0.000325 °K and 7.8 °K at standard pressure. Some type I
superconductors require incredible amounts of pressure in order
to reach the superconductive state. One such material is sulfur
which, requires a pressure of 9.3 million atmospheres (9.4 x 1011
N/m2) and a temperature of 17 °K to reach superconductivity.
Some other examples of type I superconductors include Mercury
- 4.15 °K, Lead - 7.2 °K, Aluminum - 1.175 °K and Zinc - 0.85 °
K. Roughly half of the elements in the periodic table are known
to be superconductive.
55
56
Type I (Ideal) superconductors

▪ Type I SC placed in a magnetic field totally repels the flux lines till the magnetic field attains
the critical value Hc

Type I
−M →

Normal
Superconducting
57
H → Hc
 Type II Superconductors

A type II superconductor is composed of metallic compounds

such as copper or lead. They reach a superconductive state at
much higher temperatures when compared to type I
superconductors. The cause of this dramatic increase in
temperature is not fully understood. The highest Tc reached at
stardard pressure, to date, is 135 °K or -138 °C by a compound
(HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8) that falls into a group of superconductors
known as cuprate perovskites. This group of superconductors
generally has a ratio of 2 copper atoms to 3 oxygen atoms, and is
considered to be a ceramic. Type II superconductors can also be
penetrated by a magnetic field whereas a type I can not.

58
Type II (Hard) superconductors

▪ Type II SC has three regions

Type I
Vortex Region
Gradual penetration of the
magnetic flux lines
−M →

Super
Vortex
conducting Normal
59
H → Hc1 Hc Hc2
▪ As type II SC can carry high current densities (Jc) they are of great practical
importance
▪ The penetration characteristics of the magnetic flux lines (between Hc1 and
Hc2) is a function of the microstructure of the material 🢣 presence of
pinning centres in the material
▪ Pinning centres:
🢣 Cell walls of high dislocation density
(cold worked/recovery annealed)
🢣 Grain boundaries
(Fine grained material)
🢣 Precipitates
(Dispersion of very fine precipitates with interparticle spacing ~ 300 Å)
▪ Jc ↑ as Hc2 ↑

60
Nb – 40%Ti alloy, T = 4.2 K, Magnetic field strength = 0.9 Hc2
Microsctructure Jc (A / m2)
Recrystallized 105
Cold worked and recovery annealed 107
Cold worked and precipitation hardened 108

61
Potential Applications

❑ Strong magnetic fields → 50 Tesla

(without heating, without large power input)
❑ Logic and storage functions in computers
Josephson junction → fast switching times (~ 10 ps)
❑ Magnetic levitation (arising from Meissner effect)
❑ Power transmission

62
 High Tc superconductivity

Compound Tc Comments
Nb3Ge 23 K Till 1986
La-Ba-Cu-O 34 K Bednorz and Mueller (1986)
YBa2Cu3O7-x 90 K > Boiling point of Liquid N2
Tl (Bi)-Ba(Sr)-Ca-Cu-O 125 K

63