The relationship between neuropsychological

and ecological measurements of executive

functioning in childhood and the prediction of
mathematics performance. A pilot study.

Lorena Zorrilla-Silvestre1, María Jesús Presentación-

Herrero 2, Jesús Gil-Gómez 3.
1
Department of Education, University Jaume I, Castellón.
2
Department of developmental, educational, social and methodology
Psychology, University Jaume I, Castellón.
3
Department of Education, University Jaume I, Castellón.

Spain

Correspondencia: Lorena Zorrilla Silvestre. Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales, Departamento de Edu-
cación.Universidad Jaume I, Av. de Vicent Sos Baynat, s/n (Campus de Riu Sec) 12071 Castellón (España).
E-mail: [email protected]

© Education & Psychology I+D+i and E Ilustre Colegio Oficial de la Psicología de Andalucía Orientall EOS
(Spain)
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 Lorena Zorrilla Silvestre

Abstract

Introduction. This study explored the variables of executive functioning (EF) that permitted
the evaluation of EF both at home and at school. The objective was to compare the results of
the evaluations of these functions in children aged 5 to 6 years, and see to what extent these
variables predicted mathematics performance best.

Method. Sixty-six third year early childhood education students took part, who were given
verbal memory and visuospatial tests, of inhibition, of estimation of mathematical perfor-
mance and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), carrying out a cor-
relational and descriptive study.

Results. The results showed correlations between the evaluation of children with neuropsy-
chological tests and the ecological assessments of teachers and parents; and between the
BRIEF evaluations, in the metacognitive domain.

Conclusion. The measurement that best predicted mathematics performance was the teacher
BRIEF, especially in working memory.

Keywords: Executive Function, BRIEF, neuropsychological tests, mathematics achievement,

preschool education.

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The relation between neuropsychological and ecological measures of executive functioning in childhood and its prediction of
mathematics performance. A pilot study

Relación entre medidas neuropsicológicas y ecológicas de

funcionamiento ejecutivo en Preescolares y su predicción del
rendimiento matemático. Un Estudio Piloto
Resumen
Introducción. En este estudio se exploraron las variables de funcionamiento ejecutivo (FE)
que permitieron evaluar el FE tanto en el hogar como en el colegio. El objetivo fue comparar
los resultados obtenidos en las evaluaciones de estas funciones en niños de 5 a 6 años, y com-
probar qué medida de estas variables predice mejor el rendimiento matemático.

Método. Participaron 66 alumnos de tercer curso de Educación Infantil a los que se les admi-
nistraron pruebas de memoria verbal y viso-espacial, de inhibición, de estimación del rendi-
miento matemático y el Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), llevando a
cabo un estudio correlacional y descriptivo.

Resultados. Los resultados mostraron correlaciones entre la evaluación de los niños con
pruebas neuropsicológicas y las valoraciones ecológicas de profesores y padres; y entre las
valoraciones del BRIEF, en el dominio de metacognición.

Conclusión. La medida que mejor predijo el rendimiento matemático fue el BRIEF de profe-
sores, especialmente en la memoria de trabajo.

Palabras Clave: Funcionamiento ejecutivo, BRIEF, pruebas neuropsicológicas, rendimiento

matemático, educación infantil.

Recibido: 07.09.15 Aceptación Inicial: 12.10.15 Aceptación final: 21.06.16

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 Lorena Zorrilla Silvestre

Introduction

Executive functions (EF) have been defined as the processes that associate ideas,
movements and simple actions that guide the resolution of complex behaviors with the finali-
ty of reaching an objective (Anderson, Jacobs, & Anderson, 2008; Flores-Lázaro, Castillo-
Preciado, & Jiménez-Miramonte, 2014; Meltzer, 2013). In this regard, different authors such
as Diamond (2013), Korzeniowski (2011), Luria (1988), Stuss, & Benson (1986), Van De
Voorde, Roeyers, Verté, & Wiersema (2010), and Welsh, & Pennington (1988) considered EF
to encompass a series of cognitive processes among which anticipation, choosing objectives,
planning, the choice of conduct, self-regulation, self-control and the use of feedback stand
out. This said capacity included functions of regulation or of management such as the possi-
bility of initiating behavior and regulating emotions, inhibiting the actions of stimuli, select-
ing goal directed actions, planning and organizing a means to solve complex problems using
flexible problem solving strategies such as necessary and evaluating behavior.

In global terms, EF enabled the establishment of structured thought of a very diverse

nature. They were like a constellation of cognitive abilities destined to resolve unexpected or
changing situations, and it was possible to group them into a series of dimensions or compo-
nents for their study (Bausela & Santos, 2006; Lezak, 1995; Stuss & Levine, 2000).

Executive functions were involved in cognitive function and in socio-emotional per-

formance, requiring adequate assessment as much as of the characteristics of the problem to
solve as of the immediate, medium and long-term consequences of the selected answer. While
this required the participation of the different sensory systems, EF were characterized by their
independence from the input, i.e., they coordinated and regulated responses according to what
desire was to be achieved independently from the available information (Verdejo-Garcia &
Bechara, 2010). In a similar vein, Liberman, Giesbrecht & Müller (2007) in their study, estab-
lished relationships between EF and emotional aspects from ecological measurements. They
considered children with good inhibitory and verbal ability regulated their emotions better.

EF in Infant Education

Traditionally, it was considered that EF could not be evaluated at early stages due to
their complexity and prolonged development. However, according to Anderson (2002), it was
possible to identify the emergence and development of EF in preschoolers including in babies.

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The relation between neuropsychological and ecological measures of executive functioning in childhood and its prediction of
mathematics performance. A pilot study

Baker, Rogers, Owen, Frith, Dolan, Frackowiak, & Robbins (1996) showed that children aged
4 to 8 years, progressively improved the number of moves they had to realise to complete
tasks thanks to an increase in the ability to form mental representations and manipulate them.
Similarly, Garcia-Molina, Enseñat-Cantallops, Tirapu-Ustárroz, & Roig-Rovira (2009) con-
cluded that children developed their EF during their first 5 years and this development would
influence positively or negatively their ability to cope with new situations and adapt to chang-
es in their daily lives. Several studies showed that children aged between 3 and a half and 4
and a half-years old had difficulties to guide their actions inhibiting the dominant response.
Although these improved with age, children of 6 had virtually no difficulties in carrying out
the action (Diamond, 2002; Gerstadt, Hong, & Diamond, 1994). These findings indicated that
at the ages of between three and four years progress of the inhibitory process of both the cog-
nitive and motor dominant responses existed, such as waiting responses with a motivational
content and that in children older than 4 these skills had practically been established. From
this, it was considered that inhibitory control may be a process that allowed the proper devel-
opment of other EF (Barkley, 1997).

Other research has shown that during infancy there was an important improvement in
working memory capacity as well as in the visuospatial and the listening and verbal modes,
which continued even beyond the ages of 6 and 7. Therefore, their development was later than
that of other processes, such as inhibitory control, with which it was related (Liberman,
Giesbrecht, & Muller, 2007). Lang & Perner (2002) concluded that preschool children be-
tween 3 and 5 years demonstrated a significant improvement in change activities that required
active information maintenance.

Executive functioning and Difficulties Learning Mathematics

Some longitudinal studies developed in the line of this present research have had the
aim of studying the predictive capacity of executive functions on mathematical achievement.
Thus finding, for example, significant relationships between planning measures, inhibitory
control, cognitive flexibility, attention control or working memory (WM) in the last year of
preschool and subsequent performance in mathematics. This highlighted the role that difficul-
ties in one or the other of these functions may play in the etiology of difficulties learning
mathematics (DLM) (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Bull, Espy, & Wiebe, 2008; Clark, Pritchard, &
Woodward, 2010; Rimm-Kaufman, Curby, Grimm Nathanson & Brock, 2009).

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 Lorena Zorrilla Silvestre

Recently, Toll, Van der Ven, Kroesbergen & Van Luit (2011) found that the executive
function that best predicted DLM was working memory, followed in importance by inhibi-
tion, while not finding any predictive power in cognitive flexibility. The most surprising thing
was that WM had a higher predictive value than those preparatory math skills. Many studies
have examined the contribution of EF in DLM using standardized neuropsychological tests,
but few proposals to assess them more ecologically comparing both measurements had been
made in the way that this study set out to do.

Objectives and hypothesis

The reason we focused on the study of EF in Early Childhood Education, specifically

planning, WM and inhibition, was the fact that it was at that stage where functions began to
develop that later mark the primary stage. For this, we considered it necessary to have a better
view of how these develop and show, both at school and in the family environment, so as, to
be able to improve their developmental conditions. In this sense, the following objectives for
study were established:
1. To compare the results of the neuropsychological assessment of EF in childhood with
the assessments made by parents and teachers.
2. To compare the BRIEF questionnaire results in its two versions. For parents and for
teachers, and know the existing relationships between the two assessments.
3. To find out which measurement of the EF variables (inhibition, change, emotional or
behavioral control, initiative, planning, WM, organisation of material and monitoring) best
predicts mathematics performance.

For their part, the advanced hypotheses were:

Hypothesis 1: There would be a significant correlation between the results of the neuro-
psychological assessment and that of the parents and teachers in the EF variables (inhibition,
change, emotional or behavioral control, initiative, planning, WM, organizing materials,
monotoring).
Hypothesis 2: There would be a significant correlation between the scores given by
teachers and parents.
Hypothesis 3. The measurement of the EF variables that predicted mathematical per-
formance best would be that of teachers.

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The relation between neuropsychological and ecological measures of executive functioning in childhood and its prediction of
mathematics performance. A pilot study

Method

Participants

The study was conducted with a sample of 66 preschool children, 37 boys and 29 girls
from different schools in the province of Castellón (6 public and 1 fee paying), randomly se-
lecting 6 students per classroom at the tutors' discretion. The exclusion criteria applied were
an Intelligent Quotient (IQ) less than 70 and greater than 130, students with special educa-
tional needs or evidence they may be present and late starters into the educational system. The
chronological age of the participants ranged between 5 and 6 years, and all were attending the
third year of primary education (P5). The equivalent IQ score of all the participants was ex-
tracted from a conversion table (Sattler, 1982) of the direct scores obtained in the cube and
vocabulary tests of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (hereafter
WPPSI-R).

Instruments

Verbal memory
Digit span subtest from the Weschler Intelligence Scale (1980). This consisted of two
tasks: direct and reverse digit memory recall. In the direct memory task the child had to
repeat the same series of numbers read orally by the evaluator. In the task of reverse
memory, the child had to repeat the sequence in reverse order of the numbers read orally
by the evaluator.
Memory Test Count (Case, Kurland, & Goldberg, 1982). This test consisted of a series
of cards with blue and yellow dots arranged randomly. The aim was to count the number
of blue points, say them out loud and then after having a series of cards, remember the
number of blue dots listed in the correct order.

Visual-spatial working memory

Odd -one out (Henry & MacLean, 2003). In this task the subject saw a card with three
figures presented in a row and had to identify which figure was different. At the end of
each trial, the child had to remember its right location by pointing at a board with blank
positions.

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Maze Test (Porteus, 2003). A maze was shown to the subject with a route drawn on it.
Then, the subject was asked to trace the same route on a blank maze otherwise identical
to the initial one.

Inhibition control and /or impulsivity.

Sun / moon task (Musso, 2009). This consisted of two conditions. In condition A, a
child was shown a page with 30 pictures of suns and moons randomly arranged in rows
and columns. Children were instructed to respond “sun” to images with sun and “moon”
to moon images as quickly as possible (within 45 seconds). Immediately after, condition
B was presented, in which they were asked to quickly respond “sun” when the assessor
showed a moon, and vice versa.

Tapping Test (NEPSY; Korkman, Keny, & Kirk, 2007). Two situations were present-
ed to the subject: In the first, congruent, situation, the subject had to do what the examin-
er does, when he/she gave one or two taps on the table; in the second, incongruous, test,
when the examiner tapped, the subject had to give two, and when the examiner gave two,
the subject had to give one.

BRIEF (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Gioia, Isquith, Guy, &
Kenworthy (1996)). This was a scale consisting of two questionnaires, one for parents
and one for teachers, designed to assess the behavioral aspects of EF at home and at
school, respectively. Each questionnaire contained 86 items that provided global infor-
mation on EF from two main domains: the behavioral control index composed of scales
of inhibition, emotional control and change; and the metacognition index composed of in-
itiative, WM, organization of materials, planning and monitoring , as well as a global EF
score.

IQ measurement

Subtest of the WPPSI -R (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence,

Wechsler, 1967).
Vocabulary subtest. This measured verbal fluency and vocabulary management and
required the subject to tell the meaning of 32 words of increasing difficulty.

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The relation between neuropsychological and ecological measures of executive functioning in childhood and its prediction of
mathematics performance. A pilot study

Cube subtest. The subject had to build cube drawings of increasing complexity. This
subtest assessed the ability to analyze, synthesize and reproduce abstract geometric de-
signs.

Assessing mathematics performance

Questionnaire for estimating the mathematics performance in infant education. It was

elaborated for this research starting in the infant curriculum. It consisted of 23 items di-
vided into 4 factors: numbering, basic operations, geometry and estimated size measure-
ment, and another teacher-evaluated item in terms of overall student math performance.

Procedure

After obtaining permission from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports and the
School Board at each school (Spain), the collection of data went ahead. The order of test ad-
ministration was identical at the seven schools, at the same period in the timetable and in dif-
ferent weeks. The EF tests were administered individually by the researcher in a dedicated
room in the school free from distraction. The BRIEF questionnaires were handed to teachers
and parents who filled them out with the help of the researcher when necessary. Once collect-
ed, the data was entered into the statistical program and analyses were carried out.

Statistical analysis

The research was characteristic of a descriptive correlational design study, since the
aim was to show the extent to which certain variables are related. The design included a pre-
dictive analysis, in order to determine which of all the EF variables best predicted mathemat-
ics performance.

The software used to perform all the analyses was the SPSS 19.0 program. Initially,
correlation analyses between the direct scores of the EF tests administered to the subjects with
the teacher assessments and correlation analyses of the direct scores along with the parent
assessments were carried out. Later, correlations between the parent and teacher assessments
given in the BRIEF were calculated. Finally, the measurement of EF variables that best pre-
dicted mathematics performance was examined, from the linear regression analysis between
numbering factors and the operations from the questionnaire that were completed by the
teacher, the sum of the aforesaid factors and the teacher evaluation on mathematics perfor-
mance with the neuropsychological testing and the parent and teacher BRIEF questionnaire.
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Results

Prior to this, the normalcy of the mathematics tests was analyzed with the Kolmogo-
rov-Smirnov test. Furthermore, the potential impacts of age, sex and IQ were controlled. No
statistically significant differences in any of the tasks assigned to the participants were found.

Relationship between the results obtained in the evaluation of the children and the parent
and teacher assessments for inhibition and WM.

There were statistically significant negative correlations between the direct scores of all
the neuropsychological tests with all the factors of initiative, working memory, planning,
and monitoring factors and, therefore, the domain of metacognition and with the global in-
dex of the scale, measured by the teachers. Working memory was the factor which reached
the highest values in inverse figures (r = -.505, p = .000). In the parents’ section, it was also
working memory which correlated significantly with the highest number of tests, especially
with the reverse figure span (r = -.335, p = .008). On the other hand, a low and negative cor-
relation between the sun / moon and the emotional control factor was observed (r = -.293, p
= .23) assessed by teachers, with no existing correlation between inhibition tests and the fac-
tor of inhibition, assessed by teachers and parents. Table 1 shows the correlations between
the EF of verbal WM, visual-spatial WM and inhibition evaluated in the child subjects and
the teacher and parent valuations of the same functions performed through the BRIEF.

Table 1
Correlations between the EF variables assessed by neuropsychological tests with those
evaluated by parents and teachers with the BRIEF questionnaire.
Inhibition WM
Sun/moon Tapping Digit Reverse Counting Odd
task test Span Digit One
Span Out
T Emotional
-.293* - - - - -.300*
e control
a Initiative -
- - -.483** -.443** -.290*
c .331**
h WM - -
- - ** -.505** -.412**
e .360 .361**
r Planning or-
ganization - - -.296* -.493** -.331** -.300*

Monitoring -
- - -.280* -.369** -.336**
.356**
- - - -.466** -.357** -
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The relation between neuropsychological and ecological measures of executive functioning in childhood and its prediction of
mathematics performance. A pilot study

Metacognition .321** .326**

Global compo-
- - -.282* -.406** -.297* -.300*
site index
P Shift - - -.271* - -.261* -
** * **
a WM -.354 -.272 -.335 -.256*
r Planning or-
e ganization - - -.305* - -.297* -.261*
n Metacognition
t - - -.281* - - -
Note. **. The correlation was significant at the level of 0.01 (bilateral).
*. The correlation was significant at the level of 0.05 (bilateral).

Relationships between the parent and teacher assessments using the BRIEF Questionnaire.

There existed a significant mean correlation in the factor of inhibition (r =.371, p

=.004) in the domain of behavior control, while in the domain of metacognition there was a
higher and significant correlation between the assessments made by parents and teachers,
especially in WM (r = .576, p =.000). Table 2 presents the correlations between the evalua-
tions given in the BRIEF questionnaire by teachers and parents.

Table 2
Correlation between parent and teacher rating using the BRIEF
Emotional Control

Global composite
Working Memory
Behavior Regula-
tion Index (BRI)

Organization of

Metacognicion
Monitoring
Inhibition

materials
Initiative

Planning
Change

index
Teachers
Parents-

.371** - - .272* .441** .576** .469** .266* .432** .478** .422**

Note. **. The correlation was significant at the level of 0.01 (bilateral).
*. The correlation was significant at the level of 0.05 (bilateral).

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 Lorena Zorrilla Silvestre

Prediction of mathematics achievement according to the measurements of the EF variables

Table 3 shows the contribution of EF measurement variables to the prediction of mathe-

matics performance from the results of linear regression analysis carried out with the number
factors and the operations of the questionnaire completed by teachers and the teacher as-
sessment of mathematics performance by the students. In this case, the IQ was introduced
into the first block and the measures of the EF variables into the second.

In all of the factors, the IQ was significant, in explanation along with other variables.
The numbering factor was predicted by the visual-spatial test, (∆R2 =.118; p =.011) that
along with IQ, (∆R2 =.175; p = .004) explained 29.3% of the total variance; by the IQ, the
WM and the organization of material evaluated by the teacher explained 67.7 % of the total
variance; and the WM was the only factor valued by the parents that explained 29.4% of the
variance.

The total variance of the mathematics operations was explained in 50.8 % by verbal
working memory tests such as the Reverse digit span and counting, in 53.5 % for the IQ and
the WM according to teacher evaluation and in 39.6% for the WM and inhibition as evaluat-
ed by parents. Finally, the reverse digit span, counting and IQ explained 42.9% of the teach-
er-given value of student mathematical performance, IQ and the initiative variable valued by
the teacher predicted a factor of 69.6%, and IQ, WM and inhibition with the parent ques-
tionnaire predicted 56%.

Table 3
Results for the linear regression analysis of EF variables on mathematics perfor-
mance
β R2 ∆R
2
p
Numbering factor
Neuro- IQ .185 .175 .175 .004
psychological Odd One
.415 .293 .118 .011
tests Out
IQ .234 .182 .182 .003
WM -.477 .617 .435 .000
Teacher Brief
Organization
-.313 .677 ,059 .007
of material
IQ .303 .172 .172 .005
Parent Brief
WM -.367 .294 .122 .010
Operation Factors
Neuro- IQ .229 .224 .224 .001
psychological Reverse Dig- .372 .433 .209 .000
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The relation between neuropsychological and ecological measures of executive functioning in childhood and its prediction of
mathematics performance. A pilot study

tests its
Counting .331 .508 .075 .016
IQ .299 .234 .234 .000
Teacher Brief
WM -.579 .535 .301 .000
IQ .269 .221 .221 .001
Parent Brief WM -.538 .367 .145 .003
Inhibition .299 .437 .071 .028
Teacher Evaluation
IQ .200 .191 .191 .000
Neuro- Reverse Dig-
.385 .358 .168 .000
psychological tests it Span
Counting .295 .429 .070 .010
IQ .206 .210 .210 .000
Teacher Brief
Initiative -.742 .696 .487 .000
IQ .271 .216 .216 .000
Parent Brief WM -.682 .494 .278 .000
Inhibition .291 .560 .060 .005

Discussion and conclusion

The term EF makes reference to processes and skills for carrying out a behavior (An-
derson, Jacobs, & Anderson, 2008; Flores-Lazarus, Castillo-Preciado, & Jimenez-
Miramonte, 2014; Meltzer, 2013) consisting of variables such as working memory, organiza-
tion and planning, inhibition response, cognitive flexibility, attention capacity or the control
of one’s own emotional state (Diamond, 2013; Korzeniowski, 2011; Van De Voorde,
Roeyers, Verte, & Wiersema, 2010). According to authors such as Garcia et al. (2013) and
Van der Ven, Kroesbergen, Boom, & Leseman (2013) the poor malfunctioning of these EF
was related to problems in mathematical thinking, so this study has investigated the relation-
ship existing between neuropsychological and ecological measures of executive functioning
in children and what measurement best predicted mathematical performance to act according-
ly.

The first objective of this study was to determine to what extent there was a signifi-
cant correlation in measuring EF variables by neuropsychological testing and teacher and
parent evaluation. The results show that while there was no relationship between the tests
which measured inhibition and the domain of behavioral control in the BRIEF, the relation-
ships between instruments that measured WM and the metacognitive domain were signifi-
cant, especially between the standardized tests and the teacher assessments. The results par-

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 Lorena Zorrilla Silvestre

tially replicated the findings of Liebermann, Giesbrecht & Müller (2007), in that there was no
relationship between the assessments provided by parents in emotional control and the scores
obtained with specific tests that measure EF. On the other hand, in accordance with previous
reports, in EF tasks in preschoolers (Carlson, 2005; Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, &
Wearing, 2004; Zelazo, Müller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003), the measurements of working
memory showed significant tendencies, whether measured in an everyday environment or
measured in the laboratory. This may have been because daily behaviors related to EF and
behavioral control may correspond to more general EF processes and not to more specific
aspects thereof. For this reason, it was difficult for parents and teachers to answer specific
behavioral questions from general impressions.

The second objective of the research focused on knowing the relationships between
the teachers and parent assessments of the executive functions of children. In relation to the
domain of metacognition a correlation did exist among all factors, highlighting a high score
on the working memory and planning. Yet, on the contrary, in the domain of behavioral con-
trol no correlation existed due to the factors of emotional change and control. This shows that
learners seemed to control their emotions better in the school context than in the family con-
text. Therefore, a complementary analysis of the information provided by observers of differ-
ent significant contexts to obtain a better understanding of child EF is considered necessary;
we would also propose that teachers provide guidance to parents on how to get children to
monitor and improve their emotions in the family context.

In light of the results referring to the third objective, the regression analyses carried
out with the EF variable measurements were notable. All measurements of the variables
along with IQ contributed to explain the performance of the chosen mathematical factors.
Specifically, the measurement that most predicted each factor was the teacher-completed
BRIEF followed by the parent-completed ones. Surprisingly, the neuropsychological tests
were those that least predicted basic mathematics skills. This data indicates that a clear pre-
diction of good mathematical competence in preschool by multiple measurements from inde-
pendent sources can be acquired (Clark, Pritchar, & Woodward, 2010).

The first finding of note was the statistically significant correlation between the test of
verbal working memory, the reverse digit span, and the teacher and parent assessment espe-
cially in WM, planning and monitoring. However, none of the inhibition tests correlated sig-
nificantly with the domain of behavioral control in the BRIEF. These results confirmed the

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The relation between neuropsychological and ecological measures of executive functioning in childhood and its prediction of
mathematics performance. A pilot study

validity of ecological evidence such as the BRIEF for the measurement of metacognition, it
being more reliable than the assessment by the teacher. Another noteworthy finding was the
non-correlation between the teacher-provided scores on the behavioral and emotional control
of the child and those provided by the parents. This may have been because children adopt a
certain behavior or another depending on the context in which they find themselves and the
norms established in them, creating different perceptions of their behavior. This partially re-
jects the hypothesis established in the study insofar as the assessments by teacher and parent
evaluations coincided in all variables.

The last finding to highlight was the importance of teacher evaluation as a predictor
of mathematics performance, just as was established in our hypothesis. The results showed
that teacher evaluation was the best predictor of the numbering operations factor and the
overall factor of evaluation, even more so than with standardized neuropsychological tests.
Thus, by only administering the metacognition domain part of the BRIEF carried out by
teachers this study predicted between 53.5 % and 69.6 % of mathematics performance in
children aged 5. However, assessing the findings should consider certain limitations, such as
the small sample size and the fact the questionnaire estimating mathematics performance in
Infant School was completed by the teachers without a previous pilot study that analyzed its
validity and reliability.

Acknowledgment

This work has been possible thanks to the grant received from the Spanish Ministry of
Economy and Competivity and EDU2012-37452 titled “A longitudinal study of the contri-
bution to DLM of executive functions, motivation and mathematics basic skills”.
In memory of Maria Luisa Sanchiz Ruiz.

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