CHAPTER 5

Understanding Data and Ways

to Systematically Collect Data
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this study, the
students should be able to:
•Describe
a. qualitative research design
 b. varied forms of
qualitative sampling
c. the kinds of data
collection
d. analysis procedure
•Explain
a. data analysis according
to research design
b. generic steps in data
analysis; and
•Apply imaginatively
art/design principles to
create artwork.
 LESSON 3
Data Collection
and Analysis
Procedure
Primary Data
Collection
Techniques
1. Interview
2. Participant Observation
3. Focused Group interview
4. Observational Evaluation
5. Biography/Autobiography
6. Questionnaire
INTERVIEW
Research participants
are prodded to talk
about their experiences,
feelings, beliefs,
outlooks, etc.
It can take form of
informal
conversations, open-
ended, interviews or in-
depth discussions.
It can be one-time interview,
multiple interview with the
same participants, multiple
interviews with various
participants, or group
interviews.
It can be structured,
unstructured,
, in
accordance to the
research design used.
Structured interviews use a
set of questions prepared
by the researcher. During
the course of interview, the
researcher or the interviewer
codes the responses.
Unstructured interviews
use open-ended
questions which the
interviewee or research
participant answers
freely.
Semi-structured
Interviews use both
closed and open-ended
questions.
When interviewing face to face, the
researcher and the participant
engage in a conversation, which is
usually audio recorded and the
recording is transformed into
written text, ready for analysis,
through a process of transcription.
The same basic procedure
applies for telephone
interviews; virtual
interviews via Skype have
also been explored, or via
instant messaging or chat.
Interviews are ideally suited for
experienced type of research
questions (Braun and Clarke,
2013). Examples would be
experiences of OFW’s, miners,
college drop-outs, inventors,
entrepreneur, and the like.
PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
 The researcher immerses
himself/herself in the natural setting of
the research participant. This can be a
home, an office, an institution, etc. The
researcher’s immersion in the natural
setting of research participant’s enables
him/her to see, hear, feel, and
experience the research participant’s
daily life.
The participant observes
and participates fully in
the activities of the group,
the members of which are
aware that the participant
observer is a researcher.
FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEW
6-8 persons participate in
the interview. The advantage
of this is that critical issues
or sensitive ones can be
more freely discussed with
a group.
Because of the variety and depth of
opinions, vies, perspectives expressed,
this type of interview is a very rich source
of data. Needless to say, the moderator or
researcher must be skilled in facilitating
such group discussion, and stay focused
on the goal and topic of the said interview.
OBSERVATION
AL
EVALUATION
The researcher may or
may not participate in
activities of the group
being observed.
But mostly, observes and records
both the verbal and non-verbal
behavior of a person or group of
persons. Some researchers use
especially designed evaluation
instruments to collect
observational data.
BIOGRAPHY /
AUTOBIOGRAP
HY
Personal biographies
offer a rich source of data
or evidence that can shed
light or provide tentative
answers to research
questions.
Perhaps even diaries can
be added here, just like the
diary of Ann Frank that
offered much information
or evidence on Nazi
atrocities.
Basic Types
of Data
Collection
Cresswell (2003)
cites four basic
types of data
collection
procedures in
qualitative
research
OBSERVATION
S
The researcher takes field
notes on the behavior and
activities of research
participants at the research
site or in their natural
setting.
S/he records, in an unstructured or
semi-structured (using prior questions
that the researcher wants to know) way
activities at the research site. The
qualitative observer (researcher) may
take the role of a non participant
observer or complete participant.
INTERVIEWS
Here the researchers may:
a.Conduct a face-to-face
interviews with participants
b.Do telephone interviews or
c.Engage in focus group interviews,
with 6-8 interviewees.
DOCUMENTS
This can take the form of public
documents (newspapers, minutes of
the meetings, official reports) or
private documents (personal
journals, diaries, letters, emails) which
are all collected during the research
process.
AUDIO AND
VISUAL
MATERIALS
May take the form of
photographs, art
objects, videotapes, or
any forms of sound.
Cresswell (2003) adds that
the interviewer
(researcher) must equip
himself/herself with an
interview protocol, so that
interview will remain
focused, either face-to-
face, or focused group
The interview protocol may include the following
components:
• Heading
• Instruction to the interviewer, such as opening
statements
• The key research questions
• Probes to follow key questions
• Transition messages for the interviewer
• Space for recording the interviewer’s comments, and
space in which the researcher records reflective notes
 Data
Analysis
Procedures
CODING
In this procedure, the research analyst
reads the data, and mark segments
within the data; this may be done at
different times throughout the process.
Each segment is labeled with a “code” –
usually a word or a short word phrase
that suggests how the associated data
segments inform the research objectives.
When coding is complete, the analyst
prepares reports via a mix of
summarizing the prevalence of codes,
discussing similarities and differences in
related codes across distinct original
sources/context, or comparing the
relationship between one or more
codes.
Some highly structured qualitative
data, which are close ended
responses form surveys or tightly
defined interview questions, are
typically coded without additional
segmenting of the content.
In this cases, codes are often applied as
a layer on top of the data. The most
common form of coding is open-ended
coding; the other form is a more
structured technique called axial coding
or integration (Strauss and Corbin,
1990).
 EXAMPLES OF LINE-BY-LINE CODING

Shifting symptoms, If you have lupus, I

having inconsistent mean one day it’s my
days liver; one day it’s my
joints; and one day
it’s my head and…
 EXAMPLES OF LINE-BY-LINE CODING
Interpreting images of It’s like people really
self-given by others think you’re a
hypochondriac if you
keep complaining
about different
ailments.
 EXAMPLES OF LINE-BY-LINE CODING
Avoiding disclosure It’s like you don’t want
to say anything
Predicting rejection because people are
going to start thinking,
you know, God, don’t
go near her...
 EXAMPLES OF LINE-BY-LINE CODING
Keeping others And I think that’s why I
unaware never said anything
because I feel like
Seeing symptoms as everything I have is
connected related to one way or
another to the lupus…
 EXAMPLES OF LINE-BY-LINE CODING
Anticipating disbelief But most of the people don’t
know I have lupus, and even
Controlling other’s views those that do are not going to
believe that ten different
ailments are the same thing.
Avoiding stigma And I don’t want anybody
saying, you know (that) they
Assessing potential losses don’t want to come around me
and risks of disclosing because I complain.
 RECURSIVE
ABSTRACTION
Some qualitative data sets are
analyzed without coding;
instead, recursive abstractions
are used. In this kind of analysis,
databases are summarized. The
further summarized, and so on.
The end result is a more
compact summary that would
have been difficult to
accurately discern without the
preceding steps of distillation.
 CONTENT
DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
The most basic technique is
counting of words phrases or
coincidences of tokens within
the data.
Other similar techniques are the
analyses of phrases and exchanges in
conversational analyses. Content
analyses is frequently used in Sociology
to explore relationships, such as change
in perceptions of race over time
(Morning, 2008) or the lifestyle of
temporal contractions (Evans, et. Al.
2004)
 CONTENT-
ASSISTED
QUALITATIVE
DATA
ANALYSIS
SOFTWARE
This has replaced the detailed hand
coding and labeling of the past
decades. These programs enhance
the analyst’s efficiency at data
storage/retrieval and at applying the
codes to the data.
Many programs offer
efficiencies in editing, revising
and coding which allow for
work sharing, peer review and
recursive examination of data.
Common qualitative data
analysis software includes:
MAXQDA QDA MINER,
ATLAS.ti, Dedoose (mixed
methods) and Nvivo.
Generic
Steps in
Data
Prepared by: Ms. Cyrile R. Francia - For LSPU Use Only
Cresswell (1998)
also suggests
generic steps to
follow in data
analysis
Organize and prepare the data for analysis
This involves following steps:
1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis
2. Read through all the data.
3. Begin detailed analysis with coding process.
4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or
people as well as categories or themes for analysis.
5. Decide how the description and themes will be represented.
6. A final step in data analysis involves making an interpretation of data,
that is, what Lincoln and Guba (1985) call “lessons learned”.
 The ‘lesson learned’ could be:
The researcher’s personal
interpretations, expressed in the
individual understanding that the
researcher brings to the study from
his/her own culture, history and
experiences.
 The ‘lesson learned’ could be:
A meaning derived from a
comparison of findings with
information gleaned from the
literature or extent theories.
 The ‘lesson learned’ could be:
Suggestions for new questions
that need to be asked – questions
the researcher had not foreseen
earlier in the study.
Data Analysis
According to
Research
Design
Cresswell (1998) says that
analysis / interpretation must
be closely linked to the
research design chosen.
 Grounded Theory for
example, has systematic
steps to follow according to
Strauss and Corbin (1990,
1998):
•Generating categories of information (open
coding)
•Selecting one of the categories and
positioning it within a theoretical model
(axial coding)
•Explicating a story from the interconnection
of these categories (selective coding)
•In ideal cases, initial codes and broad
themes merge into a grounded theory.
Case Study and Ethnography
Research involve a detailed
description of the setting or
individuals, followed by
analysis of the data for themes
or issues (Stake, 1995).
Phenomenological Research uses
the analysis of
•Significant statements
•The generalization of meaning units
and
•Development of an “essence”
description (Moustakas, 1994)
Narrative Research employs
restorying the participants’
stories, using structural elements
such as plot, setting, activities,
climax and denouement
(Clandinin and Connelly, 2000)