1

Engineering Wallah
Short Notes
Subject: Basics of Environment & Pollution
Control/i;kZoj.k ,oa çnw"k.k fu;a=.k dh ewy ckrsa
Environment/i;kZoj.k
• The word "environment" comes from the French word
"environia," which means "to surround”.
'kCn Þi;kZoj.kÞ Ýspa 'kCn Þ,uok;jksfu;kÞ ls vk;k gS]
ftldk vFkZ gS Þ?ksjukÞA
• The environment refers to anything that surrounds or
affects an organism during its lifetime. The
environment can be defined as “the sum total of living,
non-living components; influences and events,
surrounding an organism”. All organisms (from virus to
man) are obligatorily dependent on the other organisms
and environment for food, energy, water, oxygen,
shelter and for other needs. Abiotic Components/vtSfod ?kVd
i;kZoj.k ls rkRi;Z fdlh Hkh ,slh pht ls gS tks fdlh tho • Light - Sunlight is a source of energy. Photosynthesis is
dks mlds thoudky esa ?ksjrh gS ;k çHkkfor djrh gSA the process through which green plants synthesize
i;kZoj.k dks Þtho ds pkjksa vksj jgus okys thfor] futÊo nourishment for themselves and all other living beings.
?kVdksa( çHkkoksa vkSj ?kVukvksa ds ;ksxÞ ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr çdk'k & lw;Z dk çdk'k ÅtkZ dk ,d lzkrs gSA çdk'k
fd;k tk ldrk gSA lHkh tho ¼ok;jl ls ysdj euq"; rd½ la'ys"k.k og çfØ;k gS ftlds ekè;e ls gjs ikSèks vius vkSj
Hkkstu] ÅtkZ] ikuh] v‚Dlhtu] vkJ; vkSj vU; t:jrksa ds vU; lHkh thfor çkf.k;ksa ds fy, iks"k.k dk la'ys"k.k djrs
fy, vfuok;Z :i ls vU; thoksa vkSj i;kZoj.k ij fuHkZj gSaA gSaA
• Rainfall - All living things require water to survive. In
Components of the environment/i;kZoj.k ds ?kVd an aqueous medium, the majority of biological
• The interaction and relationship between organisms and processes take place. Water aids in the regulation of
environment is extremely complicated. body temperature. Further, water bodies form the
thoksa vkSj i;kZoj.k ds chp ckrphr vkSj lacaèk csgn tfVy gSaA habitat for many aquatic plants and animals.
• Following are the components of the environment: o"kkZ & lHkh thfor phtksa dks thfor jgus ds fy, ikuh dh
i;kZoj.k ds ?kVd fuEufyf[kr gSa% vko';drk gksrh gSA tyh; ekè;e esa] vfèkdka'k tSfod
• Abiotic: A non-living condition or thing, such as çfØ;k,¡ gksrh gSaA ikuh 'kjhj ds rkieku dks fu;af=r djus
climate or habitat that influences or affects an esa lgk;rk djrk gSA blds vykok] ty fudk; dà tyh;
ecosystem and the organisms in it. ikSèkksa vkSj tkuojksa ds fy, vkokl cukrs gSaA
vtSfod% ,d futÊo fLFkfr ;k pht] tSls fd tyok;q ;k • Temperature - Temperature is a vital environmental
vkokl tks ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= vkSj mlesa jgus okys thoksa dks component that has a significant impact on organism
çHkkfor ;k çHkkfor djrk gSA survival. Organisms can endure only a limited range of
• Biotic: A living thing, such as an animal or plant that temperature and humidity.
influences or affects an ecosystem. rkieku & rkieku ,d egRoiw.kZ i;kZoj.kh; ?kVd gS
tSfod% ,d thfor pht] tSls fd tkuoj ;k ikSèkk tks ftldk thoksa ds vfLrRo ij egRoiw.kZ çHkko iM+rk gSA tho
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= dks çHkkfor ;k çHkkfor djrk gSA dsoy lhfer rkieku vkSj vkæZrk dks gh lgu dj ldrs
gSaA
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• Atmosphere - The atmosphere of the earth is made up ifj.kkeLo:i] thfor thoksa dks thfor jgus ds fy,
of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 0.038% carbon i;kZoj.k ds vtSfod vkSj tSfod nksuksa ?kVdksa dh
dioxide. The remaining are inert gases (0.93% Argon,
vko';drk gksrh gSA thfor thoksa vkSj muds i;kZoj.k ds
Neon etc).
ok;qeaMy & i`Foh dk ok;qeaMy 21% v‚Dlhtu] 78% chp ,d uktqd :i ls larqfyr lacèa k muds vfLrRo ds
ukbVªkt
s u vkSj 0-038% dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM ls cuk gSA 'ks"k fy, egRoiw.kZ gSA
vfØ; xSlsa ¼0-93% vkxZu] fu;‚u vkfn½ gSaA
• Substratum (soil, river/sea bed) - Organisms can be Salient Features/eq[; fo'ks"krk,a
either terrestrial or aquatic in nature. Soil covers the • Environment can be defined as the surroundings or
land and is home to a broad range of microbes, conditions in which an organism lives or operates.
protozoa, fungi, and tiny animals (invertebrates). Roots
of plants pierce through the soil to tap water and
i;kZoj.k dks ml ifjos'k ;k ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr
nutrients. Terrestrial animals are those that dwell on fd;k tk ldrk gS ftlesa dksà tho jgrk gS ;k dke djrk
land. Aquatic plants, animals, and bacteria may exist in gSA
both fresh and salt water. Microbes can even be found • Components of environment includes non-living
in hot water vents beneath the sea.
(abiotic) and living (biotic) components.
lClVªsV ¼feêh] unh@leqæ ry½ & tho ç—fr esa LFkyh;
;k tyh; gks ldrs gSaA feêh Hkwfe dks <drh gS vkSj ;g i;kZoj.k ds ?kVdksa esa futÊo ¼vtSfod½ vkSj ltho ¼tSfod½
lw{ethoksa] çksVkstksvk] dod vkSj NksVs tkuojksa ¼vd'ks#dh½ ?kVd 'kkfey gSaA
dh ,d foLr`r J`a[kyk dk ?kj gSA ikSèkksa dh tM+sa feêh dks • Abiotic Components – Light, air, temperature, soil, etc.
Nsndj ikuh vkSj iks"kd rRoksa dks çkIr djrh gSaA LFkyh; vtSfod ?kVd & çdk'k] ok;q] rkieku] feêh] vkfnA
tkuoj os gksrs gSa tks t+ehu ij jgrs gSaA tyh; ikSèks] tkuoj
• Biotic Components – animals, plants, fungi, etc.
vkSj cSDVhfj;k rkts vkSj [kkjs ikuh nksuksa esa ekStwn gks ldrs
gSaA lw{etho leqæ ds uhps xeZ ikuh ds >jks[kksa esa Hkh ik, tSfod ?kVd & tkuoj] ikSèks] dod] vkfnA
tk ldrs gSaA
Ecology/ikfjfLFkfrdh
Biotic Components/tSfod ?kVd
• The term Ecology was first coined by a German
• Green Plants - Prepare food for all living organisms
through photosynthesis. zoologist Ernst Haeckel. It is derived from the Greek
gjs ikSèks & çdk'k la'ys"k.k ds ekè;e ls lHkh thfor thoksa word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined with the word
ds fy, Hkkstu rS;kj djrs gSaA ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of’ or ‘the study of ’.
• Animals - Individuals of the same species are found in Ecology can be defined as the study of organisms, the
the same environment. They also coexist with other
environment and how the organisms interact with each
species. One species forms food for another. Micro-
organisms and fungi decompose dead plants and other and their environment.
animals releasing nutrients locked in bodies of dead ikfjfLFkfrdh 'kCn lcls igys teZu çk.kh foKkuh vuZLV
organisms for reuse by the growing plants. gsdsy }kjk x<+k x;k FkkA ;g xzhd 'kCn *vksbdksl* ls fy;k
tkuoj & ,d gh çtkfr ds O;fä ,d gh okrkoj.k esa ik, x;k gS ftldk vFkZ gS *?kj*] ftls *y‚th* 'kCn ls tksM+k
tkrs gSaA os vU; çtkfr;ksa ds lkFk lg&vfLrRo esa Hkh jgrs
gSaA ,d çtkfr nwljh çtkfr ds fy, Hkkstu cukrh gSA x;k gS ftldk vFkZ gS *foKku* ;k *vè;;u*A ikfjfLFkfrdh
lw{etho vkSj dod e`r ikSèkksa vkSj tkuojksa dks fo?kfVr dks thoksa] i;kZoj.k vkSj thoksa ds ,d&nwljs vkSj muds
djrs gSa vkSj e`r thoksa ds 'kjhj esa can iks"kd rRoksa dks c<+rs i;kZoj.k ds lkFk dSls ckrphr djrs gSa] ds vè;;u ds :i
ikSèkksa }kjk iqu% mi;ksx ds fy, NksM+rs gSaA esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
• As a result, living organisms require both abiotic and
biotic components of the environment to survive. A
delicately balanced relationship between living
organisms and their environment is critically important
for their survival.
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The Earth / i`Foh Origin and Evolution of Life on Earth/i`Foh ij thou dh

mRifÙk vkSj fodkl
• To begin with, the earth's environment were hostile to
life. Methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
were the main gases in the early atmosphere. The
atmosphere was loaded with water vapor, but there was
no free oxygen. This resulted in a decreasing
atmosphere in which no life could survive.
'kq: es]a i`Foh dk okrkoj.k thou ds fy, çfrdwy FkkA
'kq#vkrh ok;qeaMy esa ehFksu] veksfu;k] dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM
vkSj gkbMªkts u eq[; xSlsa FkÈA ok;qeaMy ty ok"i ls Hkjk
gqvk Fkk] ysfdu eqä v‚Dlhtu ugÈ FkhA blds
ifj.kkeLo:i ok;qeaMy de gksrk x;k ftlesa dksà Hkh thou
thfor ugÈ jg ldkA

Biological evolution- From the simple organisms to

complex organisms/tSfod fodkl& ljy thoksa ls tfVy
thoksa rd
• Water vapor condensed into liquid water when the earth
cooled. Rains poured down, forming water bodies on
• The "BIG BANG" theory is the most commonly the surface of the planet. The molecules of life were
accepted theory of the universe's genesis. According to formed in the water. Bacteria, the oldest and most
this theory, the universe began with a massive explosion simple organism, emerged from the molecules of life.
that filled the entire space with substance (dust and The earliest fossils of bacteria, the world's first living
gases). The earth broke off about 4.5 billion years ago species, have been discovered in 3-5 billion-year-old
with an explosion. Our home planet is the third planet rocks. Bacteria of various types have existed on Earth
from the Sun and the only planet we know of where life for about two billion years. Chlorophyll, a green
exist. The name Earth has been around for at least 1,000 pigment, was developed by one of these bacteria’s.
years. Except for Earth, all of the planets were named These chlorophyll-containing bacteria utilized carbon
after Greek and Roman gods and goddesses. Earth, on dioxide and water to produce oxygen, which they then
the other hand, is a Germanic term that simply means released into the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
"ground." Despite being the fifth biggest planet in the tc i`Foh BaMh gqà rks ty ok"i rjy ikuh esa la?kfur gks
system, Earth is the only planet in our solar system x;kA ckfj'k gqÃ] ftlls xzg dh lrg ij ty fudk; cu
containing liquid water on its surface.
x,A thou ds v.kq ikuh esa cusA cSDVhfj;k] lcls iqjkuk
Þfcx cSaxÞ fl)kar czãkaM dh mRifÙk dk lcls vke rkSj ij
vkSj lcls ljy tho] thou ds v.kqvksa ls mHkjkA cSDVhfj;k
Loh—r fl)kar gSA bl fl)kar ds vuqlkj] czãkaM dh
'kq#vkr ,d cM+s foLQksV ls gqà ftlus iwjs varfj{k dks ds lcls iqjkus thok'e] nqfu;k dh igyh thfor çtkfr]
inkFkZ ¼èkwy vkSj xSlksa½ ls Hkj fn;kA i`Foh yxHkx 4-5 vjc 3&5 vjc lky iqjkuh pêkuksa esa [kksts x, gSaA fofHkUu çdkj
lky igys ,d foLQksV ds lkFk VwV xà FkhA gekjk x`g ds cSDVhfj;k yxHkx nks vjc o"kksZ ls i`Foh ij ekStwn gSaA
xzg lw;Z ls rhljk xzg gS vkSj ,dek= ,slk xzg gS ftlds DyksjksfQy] ,d gjk jaxæO;] buesa ls ,d cSDVhfj;k }kjk
ckjs esa ge tkurs gSa fd thou ekStwn gSA i`Foh uke de ls fodflr fd;k x;k FkkA bu DyksjksfQy ;qä cSDVhfj;k us
de 1]000 o"kksZ ls çpyu esa gSA i`Foh dks NksM+dj] lHkh v‚Dlhtu dk mRiknu djus ds fy, dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM
xzgksa dk uke xzhd vkSj jkseu nsoh&nsorkvksa ds uke ij j[kk vkSj ikuh dk mi;ksx fd;k] ftls mUgksua s fQj çdk'k
x;k FkkA nwljh vksj] i`Foh ,d teZfud 'kCn gS ftldk
la'ys"k.k ds ekè;e ls ok;qeaMy esa NksM+kA
lhèkk vFkZ gS ÞtehuAÞ flLVe esa ik¡pok¡ lcls cM+k xzg gksus
ds ckotwn] i`Foh gekjs lkSj eaMy dk ,dek= ,slk xzg gS
ftldh lrg ij rjy ikuh gSA
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• Such bacteria's continued photosynthesis gradually • Continued photosynthesis increased the amount of
increased the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. As oxygen resulting in reducing to oxidizing atmosphere.
a result, the atmosphere began to shift from reducing to fujarj çdk'k la'ys"k.k us v‚Dlhtu dh ek=k esa o`f) dh]
oxidizing. At one point in time, the oxygen ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i v‚Dlhdj.k djus okyk okrkoj.k de
concentration in the atmosphere reached 21%. These gks x;kA
alterations acted as a major catalyst for biological
evolution to begin and proceed, resulting in the invasion Principles of Ecology / ikfjfLFkfrdh ds fl)kar
of land by living organisms.
• Certain basic fundamental ecological principles which
,sls cSDVhfj;k ds fujarj çdk'k la'ys"k.k us èkhjs&èkhjs describe various aspects of living organisms e.g.
ok;qeaMy esa v‚Dlhtu dh ek=k c<+k nhA ifj.kkeLo:i] evolution and distribution of plants and animals,
ok;qeaMy vip;u ls v‚Dlhdj.k dh vksj LFkkukarfjr gksus different components of biological communities,
yxkA ,d le; ij] ok;qeaMy esa v‚Dlhtu dh lkaærk 21% ecological succession, adaptation among species,
rd igq¡p xÃA ;s ifjorZu tSfod fodkl dks 'kq: djus habitat and organism, and interactions and inter-
vkSj vkxs c<+kus ds fy, ,d çeq[k mRçsjd ds :i esa dk;Z relationships among the organisms and between
djrs gSa] ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i thfor thoksa }kjk Hkwfe ij organisms and physical environment, etc.
vkØe.k gqvkA dqN cqfu;knh ekSfyd ikfjfLFkfrd fl)kar tks thfor thoksa
ds fofHkUu igyqvksa dk o.kZu djrs gSa tSls ikSèkksa vkSj tkuojksa
Salient Features / eq[; fo'ks"krk,a dk fodkl vkSj forj.k] tSfod leqnk;ksa ds fofHkUu ?kVd]
• Ecology is the study of organisms and environment; and ikfjfLFkfrd mÙkjkfèkdkj] çtkfr;ksa] vkokl vkSj thoksa ds
how the organisms interact with each other and with chp vuqdwyu] vkSj thoksa ds chp vkSj thoksa vkSj HkkSfrd
their environment. i;kZoj.k ds chp ckrphr vkSj varj&lacèa k] vkfnA
ikfjfLFkfrdh thoksa vkSj i;kZoj.k dk vè;;u gS( vkSj tho Ecological Levels of Organizations / laxBuksa ds
,d nwljs ds lkFk vkSj vius i;kZoj.k ds lkFk dSls ckrphr ikfjfLFkfrd Lrj
djrs gSaA • Individual - An organism that has the capability of
• Earth is a Germanic term meaning “ground”; it is the acting or functioning independently is known as an
only planet where life exists. individual. It can be an animal, bacteria, fungi or a plant.
i`Foh ,d teZfud 'kCn gS ftldk vFkZ gS ÞtehuÞ( ;g It is the basic unit of study.
,dek= ,slk xzg gS tgk¡ thou ekStwn gSA O;fä & ,d tho tks Lora= :i ls dk;Z djus ;k dke
• Methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen were djus dh {kerk j[krk gS mls O;fä ds :i esa tkuk tkrk
the main gases in the early atmosphere. gSA ;g ,d tkuoj] cSDVhfj;k] dod ;k ,d ikSèkk gks
ehFksu] veksfu;k] dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM vkSj gkbMªkt
s u ldrk gSA ;g vè;;u dh ewy bdkà gSA
çkjafHkd ok;qeaMy esa eq[; xSlsa FkÈA • Population - It is defined as a group of freely
• Earth’s atmosphere was filled with water vapor and no interbreeding individuals of the same species present in
free oxygen because of which no life could survive. a specific area at a given time.
i`Foh dk ok;qeaMy tyok"i ls Hkjk gqvk Fkk vkSj blesa eqä tula[;k & bls ,d fuf'pr le; esa ,d fof'k"V {ks= esa
v‚Dlhtu ugÈ Fkh] ftlds dkj.k dksà Hkh thou thfor ekStwn ,d gh çtkfr ds Lora= :i ls ijLij çtuu djus
ugÈ jg ldrk FkkA okys O;fä;ksa ds lewg ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gSA
• Chlorophyll, a green pigment, was developed by • Community - A group of organisms consisting of
bacteria which utilized carbon dioxide and water to several different species that live in an area and interact
produce oxygen, and released it into the atmosphere with each other.
through photosynthesis. leqnk; & thoksa dk ,d lewg ftlesa dà vyx&vyx
DyksjksfQy] ,d gjk jaxæO;] cSDVhfj;k }kjk fodflr fd;k çtkfr;k¡ 'kkfey gSa tks ,d {ks= esa jgrs gSa vkSj ,d nwljs
x;k Fkk] tks v‚Dlhtu dk mRiknu djus ds fy, dkcZu ds lkFk ckrphr djrs gSaA
Mkbv‚DlkbM vkSj ikuh dk mi;ksx djrk Fkk] vkSj bls
çdk'k la'ys"k.k ds ekè;e ls ok;qeaMy esa NksM+rk FkkA
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• Ecosystem - A community of organisms and their • Aquatic Biomes: Aquatic biomes are grouped into two,
physical environment interacting as an ecological unit. Freshwater Biomes (lakes and ponds, rivers and
It acts as a functional unit of nature and varies from a streams, wetlands) and Marine Biomes (oceans, coral
small pond to a large forest or a sea. reefs and estuaries).
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= & thoksa vkSj muds HkkSfrd i;kZoj.k dk tyh; ck;kse% tyh; ck;kse dks nks lewgksa esa ckaVk x;k gS]
,d leqnk; tks ,d ikfjfLFkfrd bdkà ds :i esa ckrphr ehBs ikuh ds ck;kse ¼>hysa vkSj rkykc] ufn;k¡ vkSj èkkjk,¡]
djrk gSA ;g ç—fr dh ,d dk;kZRed bdkà ds :i esa vkæZHkwfe½ vkSj leqæh ck;kse ¼egklkxj] çoky fHkfÙk;k¡ vkSj
eqgkuk½A
dk;Z djrk gS vkSj ,d NksVs rkykc ls ysdj ,d cM+s taxy
• Forest Biomes: There are three main biomes that
;k leqæ rd fHkUu gksrk gSA makeup Forest Biomes. These are the Tropical
Rainforest, Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called
Ecosystem / ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= the Taiga).
• An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals ou ck;kse% rhu eq[; ck;kse gSa tks ou ck;kse cukrs gSaA ;s
interacting with each other in a given area, and also with m".kdfVcaèkh; o"kkZou] le'khrks".k vkSj cksfj;y ou ¼ftUgsa
the abiotic components of the environment such as air, VSxk Hkh dgk tkrk gS½ gSaA
water, sun and soil. The ecosystem relates to the way • Grassland Biomes: There are two main types of
that all these different organisms live and interact with grassland biomes: the Savanna Grasslands and the
each other. It is a place like a forest, Taiga, Grassland, Temperate Grasslands.
desert, coral reefs, stillwater, or a river stream. ?kkl ds eSnku ds ck;kse% ?kkl ds eSnku ds ck;kse ds nks
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ikSèkksa vkSj tkuojksa dk ,d leqnk; gS tks eq[; çdkj gSa% lokuk ?kkl ds eSnku vkSj le'khrks".k ?kkl
fdlh fn, x, {ks= esa ,d nwljs ds lkFk vkSj lkFk gh ds eSnkuA
i;kZoj.k ds vtSfod ?kVdksa tSls gok] ikuh] lwjt vkSj feêh • Tundra Biomes: There are two major tundra biomes—
ds lkFk ckrphr djrs gSaA ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= bu lHkh The Arctic Tundra and the Alpine Tundra.
vyx&vyx thoksa ds jgus vkSj ,d nwljs ds lkFk ckrphr VqaMªk ck;kse% nks çeq[k VqaMªk ck;kse gSa& vkdZfVd VqaMªk vkSj
djus ds rjhds ls lacafèkr gSA ;g ,d taxy] VSxk] ?kkl vYikbu VqaMªkA
dk eSnku] jsfxLrku] çoky fHkfÙk;k¡] fLFkj ty ;k unh dh
èkkjk tSlh txg gSA Biosphere / thoeaMy
• The biosphere refers to the realm of living organisms
Biome / ck;kse and their interactions with the environment i.e.
• Biomes are very large ecological units characterized by atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. It contains all
a major vegetation type and associated fauna adapting life forms on earth.
to a specific climate zone. thoeaMy thfor thoksa ds nk;js vkSj i;kZoj.k ;kuh
ck;kse cgqr cM+h ikfjfLFkfrd bdkb;k¡ gSa ftudh fo'ks"krk ok;qeaMy] tyeaMy vkSj LFkyeaMy ds lkFk mudh
,d çeq[k ouLifr çdkj vkSj lacfa èkr tho gSa tks ,d var%fØ;kvksa dks lanÆHkr djrk gSA blesa i`Foh ij lHkh
fof'k"V tyok;q {ks= ds vuqdwy gksrs gSaA thou :i 'kkfey gSaA
• Many units of an ecosystem may be found in one biome.
,d ck;kse esa ,d ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= dh dà bdkb;k¡ ikÃ
tk ldrh gSaA
• Biomes play a crucial role in sustaining life on earth.
ck;kse i`Foh ij thou dks cuk, j[kus esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk
fuHkkrs gSaA
• Classification of Biomes: / ck;kse dk oxÊdj.k%
• There are five major categories of biomes on earth.
i`Foh ij ck;kse dh ik¡p çeq[k Jsf.k;k¡ gSaA
• Desert Biomes: They are the Hot and Dry Deserts,
Semi-Arid Deserts, Coastal Deserts and Cold Deserts.
jsfxLrkuh ck;kse% os xeZ vkSj 'kq"d jsfxLrku] vèkZ&'kq"d
jsfxLrku] rVh; jsfxLrku vkSj BaMs jsfxLrku gSaA
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Division of Biosphere / thoeaMy dk foHkktu • Thermosphere: The thermosphere lies above the
Atmosphere / ok;qeaMy mesopause and is a region in which temperatures again
• The term ‘atmosphere’ refers to the layer of gases, increase with height. This temperature increase is
commonly known as air, which surrounds the earth. It caused by the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-
is one of the necessary conditions for the existence of Ray radiation from the sun. This region of the
life. It encompasses the earth from all sides and is held atmosphere above about 80 km is also called the
by the earth’s gravity. The atmosphere protects us from “ionosphere”, since the energetic solar radiation knocks
harmful rays, regulates temperature between day and electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into
night and warms the surface of the earth to ensure that “ions” with a positive charge.
the earth remains habitable. FkeksZLQh;j% FkeksZLQh;j eslksi‚t+ ds Åij fLFkr gS vkSj ;g
*ok;qeaMy* 'kCn dk vFkZ xSlksa dh ijr ls gS] ftls vkerkSj ,d ,slk {ks= gS ftlesa špkà ds lkFk rkieku fQj ls
ij gok ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gS] tks i`Foh dks ?ksjs gq, gSA c<+rk gSA ;g rkieku o`f) lw;Z ls ÅtkZoku ijkcSaxuh vkSj
;g thou ds vfLrRo ds fy, vko';d 'krksZ esa ls ,d gSA ,Dl&js fofdj.k ds vo'kks"k.k ds dkj.k gksrh gSA yxHkx
;g i`Foh dks pkjksa vksj ls ?ksjs gq, gS vkSj i`Foh ds 80 fdyksehVj ls Åij ok;qeaMy ds bl {ks= dks
xq#Rokd"kZ.k }kjk èkkj.k fd;k tkrk gSA ok;qeaMy gesa Þvk;uksLQh;jÞ Hkh dgk tkrk gS] D;ksfa d ÅtkZoku lkSj
gkfudkjd fdj.kksa ls cpkrk gS] fnu vkSj jkr ds chp fofdj.k v.kqvksa vkSj ijek.kqvksa ls bysDVª‚uksa dks gVk nsrk
rkieku dks fu;af=r djrk gS vkSj i`Foh dh lrg dks xeZ gS] ftlls os ldkjkRed pktZ okys Þvk;uÞ esa cny tkrs
djrk gS rkfd ;g lqfuf'pr gks lds fd i`Foh jgus ;ksX; gSaA
cuh jgsA • Exosphere: The exosphere is the uppermost region of
Earth’s atmosphere as it gradually fades into the
Structure of Atmosphere / ok;qeaMy dh lajpuk vacuum of space. The exosphere is the very edge of our
• Troposphere: The lowermost layer of the atmosphere is atmosphere. This layer separates the rest of the
the ‘Troposphere’. The layer contains dust particles and atmosphere from outer space. The exosphere has gases
water vapour. All climate and weather changes take like hydrogen and helium, but they are very spread out.
place in this region. ,DlksLQh;j% ,DlksLQh;j i`Foh ds ok;qeaMy dk lcls
{kksHkeaMy% ok;qeaMy dh lcls fupyh ijr *{kksHkeaMy* gSA Åijh {ks= gS D;ksafd ;g èkhjs&èkhjs varfj{k ds fuokZr esa yqIr
bl ijr esa èkwy ds d.k vkSj ty ok"i gksrs gSaA lHkh gks tkrk gSA ,DlksLQh;j gekjs ok;qeaMy dk lcls fdukjk
tyok;q vkSj ekSle ifjorZu blh {ks= esa gksrs gSaA gSA ;g ijr ckdh ok;qeaMy dks ckgjh varfj{k ls vyx
• Stratosphere: The Stratosphere lies above the djrh gSA ,DlksLQh;j esa gkbMªkstu vkSj ghfy;e tSlh xSlsa
tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km. Ozone gSa] ysfdu os cgqr QSyh gqà gSaA
layer lies in the stratosphere which shields us from
harmful ultraviolet radiations. Hydrosphere / tyeaMy
lerkieaMy% lerkieaMy {kksHkeaMy ds Åij fLFkr gS vkSj • Water is a vital component for all forms of life that exist
50 fdeh dh špkà rd QSyk gqvk gSA lerkieaMy esa on the surface of the earth.
vkstksu ijr fLFkr gS tks gesa gkfudkjd ijkcSaxuh fofdj.kksa i`Foh dh lrg ij ekStwn lHkh çdkj ds thou ds fy, ikuh
ls cpkrh gSA ,d egRoiw.kZ ?kVd gSA
• Mesosphere: Above stratosphere, the mesosphere • The Hydrosphere includes the oceans, seas, lakes,
extends up to a height of 80 km. The temperature, in this ponds, rivers and streams. It covers about 70% of the
layer, starts decreasing with increase in altitude and surface of the Earth.
reaches up to minus 100°C at the height of 80 km. tyeaMy esa egklkxj] leqæ] >hysa] rkykc] ufn;k¡ vkSj
eè;eaMy% lerkieaMy ds Åij] eè;eaMy 80 fdeh dh èkkjk,¡ 'kkfey gSaA ;g i`Foh dh lrg dk yxHkx 70% fgLlk
špkà rd QSyk gqvk gSA bl ijr esa] špkà c<+us ds lkFk doj djrk gSA
rkieku de gksus yxrk gS vkSj 80 fdyksehVj dh Å¡pkà • The characteristics of the ocean which affects the
ij ekbul 100 fMxzh lsfYl;l rd igq¡p tkrk gSA motion of the currents are its
egklkxj dh fo'ks"krk,¡ tks èkkjkvksa dh xfr dks çHkkfor
djrh gSa] os gSa
 7

• Temperature: Warm water is less dense or lighter and Habitat / fuokl

therefore tends to move up toward the surface, while • Habitat is the physical environment in which an
colder water is denser or heavier and therefore tends to organism lives.
sink towards the bottom. fuokl og HkkSfrd okrkoj.k gS ftlesa dksà tho jgrk gSA
rkieku% xeZ ikuh de ?kuk ;k gYdk gksrk gS vkSj blfy, • For example, the habitat of an elephant would be a
lrg dh vksj Åij dh vksj c<+rk gS] tcfd BaMk ikuh forest, habitat of a tapeworm is the human gut. Forests,
vfèkd ?kuk ;k Hkkjh gksrk gS vkSj blfy, uhps dh vksj oceans, rivers, etc. are habitats of various organisms.
Mwcrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] gkFkh dk fuokl LFkku taxy gksxk] VsioeZ
dk fuokl LFkku ekuo vkar gSA taxy] egklkxj] ufn;k¡
• Salinity: Salty water is also denser or heavier and thus
vkfn fofHkUu thoksa ds fuokl LFkku gSaA
tends to sink, while fresh or less salty water is less dense
• Earth has four major habitats: Terrestrial, Freshwater,
or lighter and thus tends to rise toward the surface.
Estuarine and Ocean.
yo.krk% uedhu ikuh Hkh vfèkd ?kuk ;k Hkkjh gksrk gS vkSj i`Foh ij pkj çeq[k fuokl LFkku gSa% LFkyh;] ehBs ikuh]
blfy, Mwcrk gS] tcfd rkt+k ;k de uedhu ikuh de eqgkuk vkSj egklkxjA
?kuk ;k gYdk gksrk gS vkSj blfy, lrg dh vksj Åij
mBrk gSA Biotic Components (Living) / tSfod ?kVd ¼thfor½
• Winds: The energy in the wind gets transferred to the Producers (Autotrophs) / mRiknd ¼v‚VksVª‚¶+l½
ocean at the ocean surface affecting the motion of the • These are organisms which manufacture their own food
water there. The effect of wind is largest at the ocean and thus for the entire ecosystem through the process of
surface. photosynthesis. They are also called Autotrophs (i.e.
gok,¡% gok esa ekStwn ÅtkZ leqæ dh lrg ij leqæ esa self-nourishment or self-feeding). In Photosynthesis,
LFkkukarfjr gks tkrh gS] ftlls ogk¡ ikuh dh xfr çHkkfor green plants, carrying chlorophyll, absorb water and
nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and
gksrh gSA gok dk çHkko leqæ dh lrg ij lcls T+;knk
capture solar energy for this process.
gksrk gSA ;s ,sls tho gSa tks çdk'k la'ys"k.k dh çfØ;k ds ekè;e ls
• Gravity: The earth’s own gravity combined with the viuk vkSj bl çdkj iwjs ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds fy, Hkkstu
Sun’s and the Moon’s affect the motion of the Ocean cukrs gSaA bUgsa v‚VksVª‚¶+l ¼;kuh Lo&iks"k.k ;k Lo&Hkkstu½
currents. Hkh dgk tkrk gSA çdk'k la'ys"k.k esa] gjs ikSèks] DyksjksfQy
xq#Rokd"kZ.k% i`Foh dk viuk xq#Rokd"kZ.k lw;Z vkSj paæek ys tkrs gSa] feêh ls ikuh vkSj iks"kd rRoksa dks vo'kksf"kr
ds xq#Rokd"kZ.k ds lkFk feydj leqæh èkkjkvksa dh xfr dks djrs gSa] gok ls dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM ysrs gSa vkSj bl çfØ;k
çHkkfor djrk gSA ds fy, lkSj ÅtkZ dks idM+rs gSaA
• Some producers manufacture food through
Lithosphere / LFkyeaMy chemosynthesis, using the energy released from
chemical reactions instead of the energy of sunlight.
• Lithosphere is the rigid outermost shell or the hard top
Bacteria living in aphotic areas (less sunlight area) of
layer of the earth. It is made up of rocks and minerals
the ocean are able to survive by chemosynthesis.
and covered by a thin layer of soil. It is an irregular
dqN mRiknd jklk;fud çfrfØ;kvksa ls fudyus okyh ÅtkZ
surface with various landforms such as mountains,
plateaus, plains and valleys. The lithosphere is broken dk mi;ksx djds jlk;u foKku ds ekè;e ls Hkkstu cukrs
up into large and small plates. gSa] lw;Z ds çdk'k dh ÅtkZ ds ctk;A leqæ ds vQ+ksfVd
LFkyeaMy i`Foh dk lcls dBksj ckgjh vkoj.k ;k dBksj {ks=ksa ¼de èkwi okys {ks=½ esa jgus okys cSDVhfj;k jlk;u
Åijh ijr gSA ;g pêkuksa vkSj [kfutksa ls cuk gS vkSj feêh foKku ds ekè;e ls thfor jgus esa l{ke gSaA
dh ,d iryh ijr ls <dk gqvk gSA ;g ,d vfu;fer
lrg gS ftlesa igkM+] iBkj] eSnku vkSj ?kkfV;k¡ tSls fofHkUu Consumers (Heterotrophs) / miHkksäk ¼fo"keiks"kh½
Hkw&vk—fr;k¡ gSaA LFkyeaMy cM+h vkSj NksVh IysVksa esa • Those organisms which are incapable of manufacturing
foHkkftr gSA their own food and thus they rely on others. They
depend on producers directly or indirectly for their
food. Consumers obtain energy by ingesting other
organisms or by absorbing food molecules.
 8

os tho tks viuk Hkkstu cukus esa vleFkZ gSa vkSj bl çdkj organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion.
os nwljksa ij fuHkZj gSaA os vius Hkkstu ds fy, çR;{k ;k These are usually multicellular animals such as
vçR;{k :i ls mRikndksa ij fuHkZj gSaA miHkksäk vU; thoksa earthworms, crabs, slugs, or vultures. They not only
dks [kkdj ;k [kk| v.kqvksa dks vo'kksf"kr djds ÅtkZ çkIr feed on dead organic matter but often fragment it as
djrs gSaA well, making it more available for bacterial or fungal
decomposers.
• Consumers can again be grouped into three categories
according to their food preferences:
e`rthoh thok.kq vkSj dod e`r dkcZfud inkFkksZ esa dkcZu
miHkksäkvksa dks fQj ls mudh [kk| çkFkfedrkvksa ds vuqlkj ;kSfxdksa dks rksM+rs gSa vkSj ukbVªkstu tSls rRoksa dks
rhu Jsf.k;ksa esa ckaVk tk ldrk gS% ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa NksM+rs gSa&ftldk mi;ksx fQj ls vU;
thoksa }kjk fd;k tkrk gSA vU; vi?kVd vijnHk{kh gksrs gSa
• Herbivores: Those consumers who are directly
dependent on producers as they eat plant leaves,
& vijnHk{kh ;k eyck [kkus okys tks vkarfjd ikpu }kjk
flowers, stems, roots and foliage from trees. vijn ls dkcZfud iks"kd rRo çkIr djrs gSaA ;s vkerkSj
'kkdkgkjh% os miHkksäk tks lhèks mRikndksa ij fuHkZj gksrs gSa ij cgqdksf'kdh; tkuoj gksrs gSa tSls dspa qvk] dsdM+k] Lyx
D;ksfa d os ikSèkksa dh ifÙk;k¡] Qwy] rus] tM+as vkSj isM+kas ls iÙks ;k fx)A os u dsoy e`r dkcZfud inkFkksZ dks [kkrs gSa cfYd
[kkrs gSaA vDlj bls [kafMr Hkh djrs gSa] ftlls ;g thok.kq ;k dod
• Carnivores: Also called as secondary consumers, these vi?kVdksa ds fy, vfèkd miyCèk gks tkrk gSA
are animals that eat herbivores. They don’t eat plants.
ekalkgkjh% bUgsa f}rh;d miHkksäk Hkh dgk tkrk gS] ;s os Natural Ecosystem / çk—frd ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=
tkuoj gSa tks 'kkdkgkjh [kkrs gSaA os ikSèks ugÈ [kkrsA • Natural ecosystem is a community of living and non-
• Omnivores: These are the animals that can eat plants as living organisms, where each component interacts
well as other animals. Some examples of omnivorous together as a unit through biological, physical and
animals are rats, human beings, etc that eat both plants chemical processes.
and animals. çk—frd ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= thfor vkSj futÊo thoksa dk
lokZgkjh% ;s os tkuoj gSa tks ikSèkksa ds lkFk&lkFk vU; ,d leqnk; gS] tgk¡ çR;sd ?kVd tSfod] HkkSfrd vkSj
tkuojksa dks Hkh [kk ldrs gSaA lokZgkjh tkuojksa ds dqN jklk;fud çfØ;kvksa ds ekè;e ls ,d bdkà ds :i esa ,d
mnkgj.k pwgs] euq"; vkfn gSa tks ikSèks vkSj tkuoj nksuksa lkFk ijLij fØ;k djrk gSA
[kkrs gSaA
Terrestrial Ecosystem / LFkyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=
Decomposers (Saprotrophs) / Mhdaikstj ¼lSçksVª‚¶+l½ • Terrestrial ecosystems are those ecosystems that are
• Organisms produce waste in large quantities of organic found on the land i.e. the interactions between the living
matter, such as dead leaves (and other parts of plants); and the non-living parts of an ecosystem takes place on
feathers, hairs and other parts of an animal’s body and the land masses. Major terrestrial ecosystems are of four
faeces from animals. It becomes toxic if it is following types:
accumulated. So, decomposers use it as a source of LFkyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= os ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= gSa tks Hkwfe
nutrition and breaks dead and deceased organisms. ij ik, tkrs gSa ;kuh ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds thfor vkSj
tho cM+h ek=k esa dkcZfud inkFkZ tSls e`r iÙks ¼vkSj ikSèkksa futÊo Hkkxksa ds chp ijLij fØ;k Hkwfe æO;eku ij gksrh
ds vU; Hkkx½( ia[k] cky vkSj tkuojksa ds 'kjhj ds vU; gSA çeq[k LFkyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= fuEufyf[kr pkj çdkj
Hkkx vkSj tkuojksa ds ey dk vif'k"V mRiUu djrs gSaA ds gksrs gSa%
vxj ;g tek gks tk, rks ;g tgjhyk gks tkrk gSA blfy,]
Mhdaikstj bls iks"k.k ds lzkrs ds :i esa mi;ksx djrs gSa Forest Ecosystem / ou ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=
vkSj e`r vkSj e`r thoksa dks rksM+rs gSaA • Forests is spread over approximately 30 percent of the
• Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi break down carbon world’s land and are those areas which support rich
compounds in dead organic matter and release elements growth of trees. Depending upon these factors, dense
such as nitrogen into the ecosystem-which are then used and open forests are grown. Forests can be divided
again by other organisms. Other decomposers are further into following different subgroups:
detritivores—detritus eaters or debris eaters that obtain
 9

ou nqfu;k dh yxHkx 30 çfr'kr Hkwfe ij QSys gq, gSa vkSj very high but is concentrated in 3-4 months of wet
os {ks= gSa tks isMk+ sa dh le`) o`f) dk leFkZu djrs gSaA bu season. “Deciduous” means to fall off, or shed,
dkjdksa ds vkèkkj ij] ?kus vkSj [kqys taxy mxk, tkrs gSaA seasonally. The average annual rainfall is about 100-
ouksa dks fuEufyf[kr fofHkUu milewgksa esa foHkkftr fd;k 200 cm. The soil of these forests are very fertile as the
tk ldrk gS% soil absorbs the nutrients freed by the decomposition of
fallen leaves.
• Tropical Evergreen Forests: They are also known as the
tropical rainforests. These forests are found near the
m".kdfVcaèkh; i.kZikrh ou% bUgsa ekulwu ou Hkh dgk tkrk
equator and close to the tropics where the temperature gS vkSj ;s mu {ks=ksa esa ik, tkrs gSa tgk¡ ckjh&ckjh ls xhyk
is generally high and rainfall is heavy and continues vkSj lw[kk ekSle gksrk gSA ;gk¡ o"kkZ cgqr vfèkd gksrh gS
throughout the year. They are also called Evergreen ysfdu ;g 3&4 eghuksa ds xhys ekSle esa dsfa ær gksrh gSA
forests as the trees do not shed their leaves altogether Þi.kZikrhÞ dk vFkZ gS ekSleh :i ls fxjuk ;k fxjukA vkSlr
because there is no particular dry season. These okÆ"kd o"kkZ yxHkx 100&200 lseh gksrh gSA bu ouksa dh
ecosystems have average annual temperature of 25 feêh cgqr mitkÅ gksrh gS D;ksfa d feêh fxjs gq, iÙkksa ds
degree Celsius and average annual rainfall of about 250 lM+us ls eqä iks"kd rRoksa dks vo'kksf"kr dj ysrh gSA
cm. • In India, these forests are also known as Monsoon
m".kdfVcaèkh; lnkcgkj ou% bUgsa m".kdfVcaèkh; o"kkZou ds forests as they are the most widespread forests in India.
:i esa Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA ;s ou Hkweè; js[kk ds ikl vkSj These forests are found in the area receiving 70-200 cm
m".kdfVcaèkh; {ks=ksa ds djhc ik, tkrs gSa tgk¡ rkieku vke of rainfall. These forests can again be classified into two
rkSj ij vfèkd gksrk gS vkSj o"kkZ Hkkjh gksrh gS vkSj iwjs o"kZ groups based on amount of rainfall.
tkjh jgrh gSA bUgsa lnkcgkj ou Hkh dgk tkrk gS D;ksfa d Hkkjr esa] bu ouksa dks ekulwu ou ds :i esa Hkh tkuk tkrk
isM+ vius iÙks fcYdqy ugÈ fxjkrs D;ksafd dksà fo'ks"k 'kq"d gS D;ksafd ;s Hkkjr esa lcls O;kid ou gSaA ;s ou 70&200
ekSle ugÈ gksrk gSA bu ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa dk vkSlr okÆ"kd lseh o"kkZ okys {ks= esa ik, tkrs gSaA bu ouksa dks o"kkZ dh
rkieku 25 fMxzh lsfYl;l vkSj vkSlr okÆ"kd o"kkZ yxHkx ek=k ds vkèkkj ij fQj ls nks lewgksa esa oxÊ—r fd;k tk
250 lseh gksrh gSA ldrk gSA
• The largest tropical rainforests are in the Amazon Basin • Moist Deciduous: These are spread in areas receiving
of South America, in Western African countries, as well 100-200 cm of rainfall. For example: in the northeastern
as South Pacific countries such as Indonesia and the states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes
Philippines. of the Western Ghats and Odisha. Important species
lcls cM+s m".kdfVcaèkh; o"kkZou nf{k.k vesfjdk ds vest+Wu here are Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul,
csflu] if'peh vÝhdh ns'kksa vkSj lkFk gh baMksusf'k;k vkSj kusum, sandalwood, etc.
fQyhiÈl tSls nf{k.k ç'kkar ns'kksa esa gSaA ue i.kZikrh% ;s 100&200 lseh o"kkZ okys {ks=ksa esa QSys gq,
• In India, these types of forests are mainly found within gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy,% fgeky; dh rygVh] if'peh ?kkV
rainy slopes of the Western Ghats, plains of West vkSj vksfM'kk ds iwoÊ <ykuksa ds lkFk iwoksZÙkj jkT;ksa esAa ;gk¡
Bengal and Orissa and north-eastern India and include dh egRoiw.kZ çtkfr;k¡ lkxkSu] lky] 'kh'ke] gqjkZ] egqvk]
both tropical evergreen forests and tropical semi- vkaoyk] lsey] dqlqe] panu vkfn gSaA
evergreen forests. Ebony, mahogany and rosewood are • Dry Deciduous: These are spread in areas receiving 70-
the main trees of these forests. 100 cm of rainfall and cover large part of the country.
Hkkjr esa] bl çdkj ds ou eq[; :i ls if'peh ?kkV] if'pe For example: in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the
caxky vkSj mM+hlk ds eSnkuksa vkSj mÙkj&iwoÊ Hkkjr ds plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Important species
cjlkrh <ykuksa esa ik, tkrs gSa vkSj buesa m".kdfVcaèkh; here are Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc
lnkcgkj ou vkSj m".kdfVcaèkh; vèkZ&lnkcgkj ou nksuksa 'kq"d i.kZikrh% ;s 70&100 lseh o"kkZ okys {ks=ksa esa QSys gq,
'kkfey gSaA bu ouksa ds eq[; isM+ vkcuwl] egksxuh vkSj gSa vkSj ns'k ds cM+s fgLls dks doj djrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds
'kh'ke gSaA fy,% çk;}hi ds o"kkZ okys {ks=ksa vkSj mÙkj çns'k vkSj fcgkj
• Tropical Deciduous forests: These are also called ds eSnkuh bykdksa esAa ;gk¡ dh egRoiw.kZ çtkfr;k¡ rsan]w
monsoon forests and are found in those areas where iykl] veyrkl] csy] [kSj] ,DlyoqM vkfn gSa
there are alternate wet and dry seasons. Here rainfall is
 10

• Temperate Evergreen Forests: These forests are • These forests are also called as Taiga (or Boreal
characterized by rainfall spread throughout the year and Forests) and they represent the largest terrestrial biome.
relatively milder winter. These forests receive rainfall (Taiga means swampy moist forests in Russian
in the range of 100 to 175 cm and are dominated by the language). Due to extreme climatic conditions, the
broadleaved evergreen trees. biodiversity is very limited. These forests have
'khrks".k lnkcgkj ou% bu ouksa dh fo'ks"krk iwjs o"kZ o"kkZ Coniferous trees, needle-leaved trees that are usually
vkSj vis{kk—r gYdh lnÊ gSA bu ouksa esa 100 ls 175 lseh evergreen and shallow rooted and usually bear cones
which are very tolerant to the thin nutrient poor and
dh lhek esa o"kkZ gksrh gS vkSj buesa pkSM+h iÙkh okys lnkcgkj
acidic soils common in the extreme northern latitudes.
isM+ çeq[k gSaA bu ouksa dks VSxk ¼;k cksfj;y ou½ Hkh dgk tkrk gS vkSj ;s
• Temperate Deciduous Forests: These forests are located lcls cM+s LFkyh; ck;kse dk çfrfufèkRo djrs gSaA ¼:lh
in the mid-latitude areas with rainfall in the range of 75 Hkk"kk esa VSxk dk vFkZ nynyh ue ou gS½A pje tyok;q
to 150 cm, for example, in the eastern part of the United ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds dkj.k] tSo fofoèkrk cgqr lhfer gSA bu
States and Canada, most of Europe and parts of China ouksa esa 'kadqèkkjh o`{k] lqÃ&iÙkh okys o`{k gksrs gSa tks vkerkSj
and Japan. ij lnkcgkj vkSj mFkyh tM+sa okys gksrs gSa vkSj vkerkSj ij
'khrks".k i.kZikrh ou% ;s ou eè; v{kka'k {ks=ksa esa fLFkr gSa] 'kadq èkkj.k djrs gSa tks vR;fèkd mÙkjh v{kka'kksa esa vke rkSj
tgk¡ o"kkZ 75 ls 150 lseh ds chp gksrh gS] mnkgj.k ds ij iryh iks"kd rRoksa dh deh okyh vkSj vEyh; feêh ds
fy,] la;qä jkT; vesfjdk vkSj dukMk ds iwoÊ Hkkx] ;wjksi çfr cgqr lgu'khy gksrs gSaA
ds vfèkdka'k Hkkx vkSj phu vkSj tkiku ds dqN fgLlksa esaA • In India, these are found in higher reaches of Himalayas
between 1700 to 3000 meter altitudes. The coniferous
• In India, these are the montane forests found in the
trees rise up to 30-35 meter height and have evergreen
higher reaches of the western Himalayas between 1500-
canopy with needle like leaves which always remains
2400 meter altitudes. These forests are dominated by
green. The forests have many trees which have great
the Oak species which may grow up to 25-30 meter in economic value. These trees include pine (Pinus
height. Though, these trees do shed their leaves but not wallichiana) deodar (Cedrus deodara), Cypress
completely this makes them evergreen species. (Cypressus torulosa), Spruce (Picea simthiana) and
Epiphytes are also common here as the tree canopy is siver fir etc.
dense. Hkkjr es]a ;s fgeky; ds Å¡ps bykdksa esa 1700 ls 3000 ehVj
Hkkjr esa] ;s ioZrh; ou gSa tks if'peh fgeky; ds dh Å¡pkà ds chp ik, tkrs gSaA 'kadqèkkjh o`{k 30&35 ehVj
1500&2400 ehVj dh Å¡pkà ds chp mPp igq¡p esa ik, dh Å¡pkà rd c<+rs gSa vkSj budh Nrjh lnkcgkj gksrh gS
tkrs gSaA bu ouksa esa vksd çtkfr dk çHkqRo gS tks 25&30 ftlesa lqà tSlh ifÙk;k¡ gksrh gSa tks ges'kk gjh jgrh gSaA
ehVj dh Å¡pkà rd c<+ ldrs gSaA gkyk¡fd] ;s isM+ vius ouksa esa dà isM+ gSa ftudk vkÆFkd ewY; cgqr vfèkd gSA
iÙks fxjkrs gSa ysfdu iwjh rjg ls ugÈ] ftlls ;s lnkcgkj bu isM+ksa esa phM+ ¼fiul okfyfp;kuk½ nsonkj ¼lsMªl
çtkfr;k¡ cu tkrh gSaA ;gk¡ ,fiQkbV~l Hkh vke gSa D;ksfa d nsonkjk½] l: ¼lkbçsll Vks#ykslk½] Lçwl ¼fidk
flefFk;kuk½ vkSj floj fQ+j vkfn 'kkfey gSaA
isM+ksa dh Nrjh ?kuh gksrh gSA
• Coniferous Forests: These forests are found in the Grassland Ecosystem / ?kkl ds eSnku ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=
higher latitudes (50-70 degree latitudes). For example, • Grasslands are found in those region which have the
they are found in higher altitudes, for example in the ability to support vegetation but not to the extent of
Himalayas. The climate in these areas is extreme as supporting big trees. These are the intermediate stage
winter is long and severe (up to six months with mean (seral stage) of an ecological succession, culminating
temperatures below freezing) and short summers (50 to finally into forested areas. Classification of Grasslands
100 frost-free days). are as under:
'kadqèkkjh ou% ;s ou mPp v{kka'kksa ¼50&70 fMxzh v{kka'k½ esa ?kkl ds eSnku mu {ks=ksa esa ik, tkrs gSa ftuesa ouLifr dks
ik, tkrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy,] ;s mPp špkà ij ik, tkrs lgkjk nsus dh {kerk gksrh gS] ysfdu cM+s isM+ksa dks lgkjk
gSa] mnkgj.k ds fy, fgeky; esAa bu {ks=ksa esa tyok;q pje nsus dh lhek rd ugÈA ;s ikfjfLFkfrd mÙkjkfèkdkj ds
ij gksrh gS D;ksafd lnÊ yach vkSj dBksj gksrh gS ¼vkSlr eè;orÊ pj.k ¼lhjy pj.k½ gSa] tks varr% ou {ks=ksa esa ifj.kr
rkieku 'kwU; ls uhps Ng eghus rd½ vkSj xÆe;k¡ NksVh gksrs gSaA ?kkl ds eSnkuksa dk oxÊdj.k bl çdkj gS%
gksrh gSa ¼50 ls 100 Ba<&eqä fnu½A
 11

• Tropical Grasslands: There are regions in the tropical Grasslands of India / Hkkjr ds ?kkl ds eSnku
area which do not receive enough rainfall to support • In India, grasslands are found as Village grazing
extensive tree cover, thus forming grasslands. These grounds for cattle as well as extensive low pasture lands
grasslands are also known as Savannah. These areas are in the dry regions of western India. These are also found
dry but not as much as the desert areas. Tropical in Himalaya above 3600 meter altitude (Alpine
grasslands are found mainly in the Sahel south of the Himalaya).
Sahara, in East Africa, and in Australia. Hkkjr esa] ?kkl ds eSnku eosf'k;ksa ds fy, xk¡o ds pjkxkg
m".kdfVcaèkh; ?kkl ds eSnku% m".kdfVcaèkh; {ks= esa ,sls {ks= ds :i esa ik, tkrs gSa vkSj lkFk gh if'peh Hkkjr ds 'kq"d
gSa tgk¡ O;kid o`{k vkoj.k dks lgkjk nsus ds fy, i;kZIr {ks=ksa esa O;kid de pjkxkg Hkwfe ds :i esa ik, tkrs gSaA ;s
o"kkZ ugÈ gksrh gS] bl çdkj ?kkl ds eSnku curs gSaA bu fgeky; esa 3600 ehVj dh Å¡pkà ¼vYikbu fgeky;½ ls Hkh
?kkl ds eSnkuksa dks lokuk ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA ;s vfèkd ik, tkrs gSaA
{ks= 'kq"d gSa] ysfdu jsfxLrkuh {ks=ksa ftrus ugÈA • Himalayan Pasture Belt: Himalayan pasture belt is
m".kdfVcaèkh; ?kkl ds eSnku eq[; :i ls lgkjk ds nf{k.k found up to the snow line, below which it exists with
esa lkgsy] iwoÊ vÝhdk vkSj v‚LVªsfy;k esa ik, tkrs gSaA broadleaved forests. Many animals migrate up to higher
• These areas are though dominated by tall grasses of 3 to altitude during the summer season where they can
6 feet in height, some drought-resistant, fire-resistant easily survive.
trees are also found. Here fire and drought prevent the fgeky;h pjkxkg csYV% fgeky;h pjkxkg csYV cQZ js[kk
proper development of trees. rd ikà tkrh gS] ftlds uhps pkSM+h iÙkh okys taxy gSaA
bu {ks=ksa esa 3 ls 6 QhV Åaph ?kklsa rks gSa gh] dqN dà tkuoj xeÊ ds ekSle esa Å¡pkà ij pys tkrs gSa tgk¡
lw[kk&çfrjksèkh] vkx&çfrjksèkh isM+ Hkh ik, tkrs gSaA ;gka os vklkuh ls thfor jg ldrs gSaA
vkx vkSj lw[kk isM+kas ds leqfpr fodkl esa ckèkk Mkyrs gSaA • Terai Belt: Terai region of northern India runs parallel
• Temperate Grasslands: These grasslands are found in to the lower ranges of the Himalayas. It stretches from
the mid latitude region and in the interior parts of the the Yamuna River in the west to the Brahmaputra River
continents where the rainfall is low to moderate. These in the east. This belt possesses tall elephant grasslands,
grasslands are known from different names in the with grasses growing to a height of about five meters
different regions of the world, for example pampas in which are interspersed with a Sal forest ecosystem.
Argentina, downs in Australia, Prairies in Central North rjkà csYV% mÙkjh Hkkjr dk rjkà {ks= fgeky; dh fupyh
America plains, Puszta in Hungary, Steppes in Russia, Jsf.k;ksa ds lekukarj pyrk gSA ;g if'pe esa ;equk unh ls
Veldts in South Africa. The annual precipitation ranges ysdj iwoZ esa czãiq= unh rd QSyk gqvk gSA bl csYV esa
from 25 cm to 75 cm, most of which is in the form of Å¡ph gkFkh ?kkl ds eSnku gSa] ftuesa yxHkx ik¡p ehVj dh
snow, and temperature variation is high as these regions špkà rd ?kkl mxrh gS] tks lky ds taxy ds
experience hot summer and cold winters.
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ls f?kjh gqà gSA
'khrks".k ?kkl ds eSnku% ;s ?kkl ds eSnku eè; v{kka'k {ks=
• Semi-arid plains of Western India, Central India and the
vkSj egk}hiksa ds vkarfjd Hkkxksa esa ik, tkrs gSa tgka o"kkZ
Deccan: As these areas are basically semi-arid, the
de ls eè;e gksrh gSA bu ?kkl ds eSnkuksa dks nqfu;k ds grasslands here are found interspersed with Thorny
vyx&vyx {ks=ksa esa vyx&vyx ukeksa ls tkuk tkrk gS] forests. In the Deccan region, grasses are found in wet
mnkgj.k ds fy, vtsZVhuk esa iEikl] v‚LVªsfy;k esa MkmUl] season.
eè; mÙkjh vesfjdk ds eSnkuksa esa çs;jht] gaxjh esa iqT+Vk] if'peh Hkkjr] eè; Hkkjr vkSj nôu ds vèkZ&'kq"d eSnku%
:l esa LVsIl] nf{k.k vÝhdk esa osYM~lA okÆ"kd o"kkZ 25 pw¡fd ;s {ks= ewyr% vèkZ&'kq"d gSa] blfy, ;gk¡ ?kkl ds eSnku
lseh ls 75 lseh rd gksrh gS] ftlesa ls vfèkdka'k cQZ ds dk¡Vsnkj taxyksa ds chp&chp esa ik, tkrs gSaA nôu {ks= esa
:i esa gksrh gS] vkSj rkieku esa cgqr vfèkd fHkUurk gksrh ?kklsa xhys ekSle esa ikà tkrh gSaA
gS D;ksfa d bu {ks=ksa esa xeZ xeÊ vkSj BaMh lÆn;k¡ gksrh gSaA • Shola Grasslands: These grasslands are called Shola
grasslands as these are found interspersed with the
Shola forests on hillslopes of the Western Ghats, Nilgiri
and Annamalai ranges. These grasslands are extremely
rich in biodiversity and also home to extremely rich
 12

wildlife. Many important birds are endemic to it, dunes. Though it is one the smallest desert in the world,
including black – orange flycatcher, Nilgiri pipit, it has the highest population density for a desert. Since
Nilgiri laughing thrush. Important animals found here the region has high heat and dryness with shifting sand-
include mammals like Nilgiri langoor and most dunes, it cannot support life. However, the Indira
endangered species Nilgiri Tahr. Gandhi Canal has been instrumental in supporting some
'kksyk ?kkl ds eSnku% bu ?kkl ds eSnkuksa dks 'kksyk ?kkl ds vegetation. The main crops of desert are bajra, millet,
eSnku dgk tkrk gS D;ksfa d ;s if'peh ?kkV] uhyfxfj vkSj wheat, barley, maize, jowar, guar etc. As for the animal
vUukeykà ioZrekyk dh igkfM+;ksa ij 'kksyk taxyksa ds species, the desert supports many threatened animals
chp&chp esa ik, tkrs gSaA ;s ?kkl ds eSnku tSo fofoèkrk including Asiatic lion.
esa csgn le`) gSa vkSj csgn le`) oU; thou dk ?kj Hkh Hkkjr esa] ;g jktLFkku ds Fkkj {ks= esa ik;k tkrk gS] tks
gSaA ;gk¡ dà egRoiw.kZ i{kh ik, tkrs gSa] ftuesa CySd&v‚jsat gfj;k.kk] iatkc vkSj xqtjkr ds dqN fgLlksa rd QSyk gqvk
¶ykÃdSpj] uhyfxfj fifiV] uhyfxfj ykÇQx Fkz'k 'kkfey gSA blesa jsr ds Vhyksa ds lkFk yacs jsrhys eSnku gSaA gkyk¡fd
gSaA ;gk¡ ik, tkus okys egRoiw.kZ tkuojksa esa uhyfxfj yaxwj ;g nqfu;k dk lcls NksVk jsfxLrku gS] ysfdu jsfxLrku ds
tSls Lruèkkjh vkSj lcls yqIrçk; çtkfr uhyfxfj rgj fglkc ls bldh tula[;k ?kuRo lcls T+;knk gSA pw¡fd
'kkfey gSaA bl {ks= esa cgqr xeÊ vkSj lw[kkiu gS vkSj jsr ds Vhys
cnyrs jgrs gSa] blfy, ;g thou dks lgkjk ugÈ ns ldrkA
Desert Ecosystem / jsfxLrkuh ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= gkyk¡fd] bafnjk xkaèkh ugj dqN ouLifr;ksa dks lgkjk nsus
• Deserts are those regions which receives an extremely esa lgk;d jgh gSA jsfxLrku dh eq[; Qlysa cktjk] xsgwa]
low amount of rainfall (less than 25 cm annually) tkS] eôk] Tokj] Xokj vkfn gSaA tgka rd i'kq çtkfr;ksa dk
resulting in less vegetation compared to humid areas. ç'u gS] jsfxLrku esa ,f'k;kà 'ksj lfgr dà ladVxzLr
They experience a wide range of temperature and tkuoj ik, tkrs gSaA
climate variation. The Desert ecosystem can again be
categorized into two types: Hot deserts and Cold Biotic Components / tSfod ?kVd
deserts. • Biotic components include living organisms
jsfxLrku os {ks= gSa tgk¡ cgqr de o"kkZ gksrh gS ¼lkykuk 25 comprising plants, animals and microbes and are
lseh ls de½ ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i vkæZ {ks=ksa dh rqyuk esa classified according to their functional attributes into
de ouLifr gksrh gSA os rkieku vkSj tyok;q ifjorZu dh producers and consumers.
,d foLr`r J`a[kyk dk vuqHko djrs gSaA jsfxLrkuh tSfod ?kVdksa esa ikSèks] tkuoj vkSj lw{e tho 'kkfey gSa vkSj
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= dks fQj ls nks çdkjksa esa oxÊ—r fd;k mUgsa muds dk;kZRed xq.kksa ds vuqlkj mRikndksa vkSj
tk ldrk gS% xeZ jsfxLrku vkSj BaMk jsfxLrkuA miHkksäkvksa esa oxÊ—r fd;k tkrk gSA
• Hot Deserts: Rainfall in these ecosystems are generally • Primary producers - Autotrophs (selfnourishing)
too low (below 25 cm) to support a proper vegetation. çkFkfed mRiknd & Loiks"kh ¼Loiks"kh½
The soil is also coarse with good drainage so most of • Primary producers are basically green plants (and
the rain water percolates into the soil. Examples of hot certain bacteria and algae).
deserts include Kalahari (south-west Africa), Sahara çkFkfed mRiknd ewy :i ls gjs ikSèks ¼vkSj dqN cSDVhfj;k
(North Africa), Monte (Argentina) etc. vkSj 'kSoky½ gksrs gSaA
xeZ jsfxLrku% bu ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa esa o"kkZ vke rkSj ij • They synthesise carbohydrate from simple inorganic
cgqr de ¼25 lseh ls de½ gksrh gS] ftlls mfpr ouLifr raw materials like carbon dioxide and water in the
ugÈ iui ikrhA feêh Hkh [kqjnjh gksrh gS vkSj ty fudklh presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis
vPNh gksrh gS] blfy, vfèkdka'k o"kkZ ty feêh esa fjl for themselves, and supply indirectly to other
tkrk gSA xeZ jsfxLrkuksa ds mnkgj.kksa esa dkykgkjh nonproducers.
¼nf{k.k&if'pe vÝhdk½] lgkjk ¼mÙkjh vÝhdk½] eksaVs os vius fy, çdk'k la'ys"k.k dh çfØ;k }kjk lw;Z ds çdk'k
¼vtsZaVhuk½ vkfn 'kkfey gSaA dh mifLFkfr esa dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM vkSj ikuh tSls ljy
• In India, it is found in the Thar region of Rajasthan, vdkcZfud dPps eky ls dkcksZgkbMªsV dk la'ys"k.k djrs gSa]
extending into some parts of Haryana, Punjab and vkSj vçR;{k :i ls vU; xSj&mRikndksa dks vkiwÆr djrs
Gujarat. It has long sandy plains with changing sand- gSaA
 13

• In terrestrial ecosystem, producers are basically Micro consumers - Saprotrophs (decomposers or

herbaceous and woody plants, while in aquatic osmotrophs) / lw{e miHkksäk & lçksVªks¶+l ¼Mhdaikstj ;k
ecosystem producers are various species of microscopic v‚LeksVªks¶+l½
algae. • They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and
LFkyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa] mRiknd ewy :i ls 'kkdkgkjh nutrients by decomposing dead organic substances
vkSj dk"Bh; ikSèks gksrs gSa] tcfd tyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= (detritus) of plant and animal origin.
esa mRiknd lw{e 'kSoky dh fofHkUu çtkfr;k¡ gksrh gSaA os cSDVhfj;k vkSj dod gSa tks ikSèks vkSj i'kq ewy ds e`r
• Consumers – Heterotrophs or phagotrophs (other dkcZfud inkFkksZa ¼fMfVªVl½ dks fo?kfVr djds ÅtkZ vkSj
nourishing) iks"kd rRo çkIr djrs gSaA
miHkksäk & fo"keiks"kh ;k Hk{kdiks"kh ¼vU; iks"kd½ • The products of decomposition such as inorganic
• Consumers are incapable of producing their own food nutrients which are released in the ecosystem are reused
(photosynthesis). by producers and thus recycled.
miHkksäk viuk Hkkstu Lo;a cukus esa vleFkZ gksrs gSa ¼çdk'k ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa tkjh gksus okys vdkcZfud iks"kd rRoksa
la'ys"k.k½A tSls vi?kVu ds mRiknksa dk mRikndksa }kjk iqu% mi;ksx fd;k
• They depend on organic food derived from plants, tkrk gS vkSj bl çdkj mudk iqupZØ.k fd;k tkrk gSA
animals or both. • Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such as
os ikSèkksa] tkuojksa ;k nksuksa ls çkIr tSfod Hkkstu ij fuHkZj nematodes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders and
gksrs gSaA help in the decomposition of organic matter and are
• Consumers can be divided into two broad groups called detrivores.
namely micro and macro consumers. dsp
a qvk vkSj dqN feêh ds tho ¼tSls usekVksM vkSj vkFkzksZiksM½
miHkksäkvksa dks nks O;kid lewgksa esa foHkkftr fd;k tk fMfVªVl QhMj gSa vkSj dkcZfud inkFkksZa ds vi?kVu esa enn
ldrk gS] vFkkZr~ lw{e vkSj LFkwy miHkksäkA djrs gSa vkSj mUgsa MsfVªokslZ dgk tkrk gSA

Macro consumers / LFkwy miHkksäk Ecotone / bdksVksu

• They feed on plants or animals or both and are • Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more
categorized on the basis of their food sources. diverse ecosystems. For e.g. the mangrove forests
os ikSèkksa ;k tkuojksa ;k nksuksa ij Hkkstu djrs gSa vkSj mUgsa represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial
muds Hkkstu lzksrksa ds vkèkkj ij oxÊ—r fd;k tkrk gSA ecosystem. Other examples are - grassland, estuary and
• Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly river bank.
on plants e.g. cow, rabbit. bdksVksu nks ;k vfèkd fofoèk ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa ds chp
'kkdkgkjh çkFkfed miHkksäk gksrs gSa tks eq[; :i ls ikSèkksa taD'ku dk ,d {ks= gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, eSaxzkos ou leqæh
ij Hkkstu djrs gSa] tSls xk;] [kjxks'kA vkSj LFkyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds chp ,d bdksVksu dk
• Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. çfrfufèkRo djrs gSaA vU; mnkgj.k gSa & ?kkl dk eSnku]
wolves. eqgkuk vkSj unh dk fdukjkA
f}rh;d miHkksäk çkFkfed miHkksäkvksa ij Hkkstu djrs gSa]
tSls HksfM+;sA Characteristics of Ecotone / bdksVksu dh fo'ks"krk,¡
• Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are • It may be very narrow or quite wide.
called tertiary consumers e.g. lions which can eat ;g cgqr ladh.kZ ;k dkQh pkSM+k gks ldrk gSA
wolves. • It has the conditions intermediate to the adjacent
ekalkgkjh tks f}rh;d miHkksäkvksa ij Hkkstu djrs gSa] mUgsa ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension.
r`rh;d miHkksäk dgk tkrk gS] tSls 'ksj tks HksfM+;ksa dks [kk blesa vklUu ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa ds eè;orÊ fLFkfr;k¡ gSaA
ldrs gSaA blfy, ;g ruko dk {ks= gSA
• Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants • It is linear as it shows progressive increase in species
and animals e.g. man, monkey. composition of one in coming community and a
lokZgkjh os tho gksrs gSa tks ikSèkksa vkSj tkuojksa nksuksa ij simultaneous decrease in species of the other out going
Hkkstu djrs gSa] tSls euq";] canjA adjoining community.
 14

;g jSf[kd gS D;ksafd ;g vkus okys leqnk; esa ,d dh • Food niche – what is eats or decomposes & what
çtkfr lajpuk esa çxfr'khy o`f) vkSj lkFk gh lkFk ckgj species it competes with
tkus okys nwljs leqnk; dh çtkfr;ksa esa deh n'kkZrk gSA [kk| vkyk & ;g D;k [kkrk gS ;k lM+rk gS vkSj ;g fdl
• A well developed ecotones contain some organisms çtkfr ds lkFk çfrLièkkZ djrk gS
which are entirely different from that of the adjoining • Reproductive niche – how and when it reproduces.
communities. çtuu vkyk & ;g dSls vkSj dc çtuu djrk gSA
,d vPNh rjg ls fodflr bdksVksu esa dqN tho gksrs gSa • Physical & chemical niche – temperature, land shape,
tks vkl&ikl ds leqnk;ksa ls iwjh rjg ls vyx gksrs gSaA land slope, humidity & other requirement.
• Sometimes the number of species and the population HkkSfrd vkSj jklk;fud vkyk & rkieku] Hkwfe dk vkdkj]
density of some of the species is much greater in this Hkwfe <yku] vkæZrk vkSj vU; vko';drk,¡A
zone than either community. This is called edge effect.
The organisms which occur primarily or most
Name
abundantly in this zone are known as edge species. In Flora and
S.No. of Region
the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially Fauna
Biome
applicable to birds.
dHkh&dHkh bl {ks= esa çtkfr;ksa dh la[;k vkSj dqN 1. Tundra Northern and Devoid of trees
çtkfr;ksa dh tula[;k ?kuRo fdlh Hkh leqnk; dh rqyuk Southern most except stunted
esa cgqr vfèkd gksrh gSA bls ,t bQ+sDV dgk tkrk gSA bl region of world shrubs in the
{ks= esa eq[; :i ls ;k lcls vfèkd ek=k esa ik, tkus okys adjoining the ice southern
thoksa dks ,t Lih'kht ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA LFkyh; bound poles part of tundra
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa ,t bQ+sDV fo'ks"k :i ls if{k;ksa ij biome, ground
ykxw gksrk gSA flora includes
• For example the density of birds is greater in the mixed lichen, mosses
habitat of the ecotone between the forest and the desert. and sedges. The
mnkgj.k ds fy,] taxy vkSj jsfxLrku ds chp bdksVksu ds typical animals
fefJr vkokl esa if{k;ksa dk ?kuRo vfèkd gksrk gSA are reindeer,
arctic fox, polar
Niche / vkyk bear, snowy owl,
• A niche is the unique functional role or place of a lemming, arctic
species in an ecosystem. It is a description of all the hare, ptarmigan.
biological, physical and chemical factors that a species
Reptiles and
needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce.
amphibians are
,d vkyk ,d ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa ,d çtkfr dh vf}rh;
almost absent.
dk;kZRed Hkwfedk ;k LFkku gSA ;g mu lHkh tSfod] HkkSfrd
vkSj jklk;fud dkjdksa dk o.kZu gS ftudh ,d çtkfr dks 2. Taiga Northern Europe, The dominating
thfor jgus] LoLFk jgus vkSj çtuu djus ds fy, Asia and North vegetation is
vko';drk gksrh gSA America. Moderate coniferous
• A niche is unique for a species, which means no two temperature than evergreen mostly
species have exact identical niches. Niche plays an tundra. Also known spruce, with
important role in conservation of organisms. as boreal forest. some pine and
,d vkyk ,d çtkfr ds fy, vf}rh; gS] ftldk vFkZ gS firs. The fauna
fd nks çtkfr;ksa ds ikl fcYdqy leku vkyk ugÈ gSA thoksa consists of birds,
ds laj{k.k esa vkyk ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA hawks, fur
bearing
Types of Niche / vkyk ds çdkj carnivores, little
• Habitat niche – where it lives/ mink, elks,
vkokl vkyk & tgk¡ ;g jgrk gS puma, Siberian
 15

tiger, wolverine, include lion,

wolves etc. cheetah, hyena;
and mongoose,
3. Temper Extends over The flora and many
ate Central and includes trees rodents.
Deciduo Southern Europe, like beech, oak,
6. Grassla North America, Grasses dominate
us Eastern North maple and
nd Ukraine, etc. the vegetation.
Forest America, Western cherry.
Temperate The fauna
China, Japan, New Most animals are
conditions with low include large
Zealand etc. the familiar
rainfall herbivores like
Moderate average vertebrates and bison, antelope,
temperature and invertebrates. cattle, rodents,
abundant rainfall. These are prairie dog,
generally the wolves, and a
most productive rich and diverse
agricultural areas array of ground
of the earth nesting bird.
4. Tropical Tropical areas in the Tropical 7. Desert Continental interiors The flora is
rain equatorial regions, rainforest covers with very low and drought
forest which is abound about 7% of the sporadic rainfall resistance such as
with life. earth's surface & with low humidity. cactus,
Temperature and 40% of the The days are very euphorbias,
rainfall high. world's plant and hot but nights are sagebrush.
animal species. cold. Fauna: Reptiles,
Multiple storey Small Mammals
of broad-leafed and birds.
evergreen tree
species are in Ø- ck;kse dk
abundance. Most {ks= ouLifr vkSj tho
la- uke
animals and
epiphytic plants 1. VqaMªk cQZ ls f?kjs èkzqoksa VqaMªk ck;kse ds
are concentrated ls lVk nqfu;k nf{k.kh Hkkx esa
in the canopy or dk lcls mÙkjh NksV& s NksVs >kfM+;ksa
tree top zones. vkSj nf{k.kh {ks= dks NksM+dj isM+ksa ls
jfgr] t+ehuh
5. Savanna Tropical region: Grasses with ouLifr;ksa esa
h Savannah is most scattered trees ykbdsu] dkà vkSj
extensive in Africa. and fire resisting lst 'kkfey gSaA
thorny shrubs. ;gk¡ ds fof'k"V
The fauna tkuoj ckjgÇlxk]
include a great vkdZfVd ykseM+h]
diversity of èkzqoh; Hkkyw] cQÊyk
grazers and
mYyw] ysÇex]
browsers such as
antelopes, vkdZfVd [kjxks'k]
buffaloes, zebras, rhrj gSaA ljhl`i
elephants and vkSj mHk;pj
rhinoceros; the yxHkx vuqifLFkr
carnivores gSaA
 16

2. VSxk mÙkjh ;wjksi] ;gk¡ dh çeq[k 5. Lokuk m".kdfVcaèkh; ;gk¡ ?kkl ds eSnku
,f'k;k vkSj ouLifr 'kadqèkkjh {ks=% lokuk gSa] ftuesa fc[kjs gq,
mÙkjh vesfjdkA lnkcgkj gS] ftlesa vÝhdk esa lcls isM+ vkSj vkx dks
VqaMªk dh rqyuk T+;knkrj Lçwl gS] foLr`r gSA jksdus okyh
esa eè;e lkFk gh dqN phM+ dkaVsnkj >kfM+;k¡ gSaA
rkiekuA bls vkSj nsonkj Hkh gSaA ;gk¡ ds thoksa esa
cksfj;y ou ds ;gk¡ ds thoksa esa pjus okys vkSj
:i esa Hkh tkuk i{kh] ckt] Qj okys [kkus okys tkuojksa
tkrk gSA ekalkgkjh] NksVs dh ,d cM+h
Çed] ,Yd] I;wek] fofoèkrk 'kkfey gS]
lkbcsfj;u ck?k] tSls e`x] HkSal]
owYofju] HksfM+;s t+scjk] gkFkh vkSj
vkfn 'kkfey gSaA xSaM(s ekalkgkjh
tkuojksa esa 'ksj]
3. 'khrks".k eè; vkSj nf{k.kh ouLifr esa chp]
phrk] ydM+cX?kk]
i.kZikrh ou ;wjksi] iwoÊ mÙkjh vksd] esiy vkSj
usoyk vkSj dà —
vesfjdk] if'peh psjh tSls isM+
ard 'kkfey gSaA
phu] tkiku] 'kkfey gSaA
U;wthySaM vkfn vfèkdka'k tkuoj 6. ?kkl dk eSnku mÙkjh vesfjdk] ?kkl ouLifr ij
esa QSyk gqvk gSA ifjfpr d'ks#dh ;wØsu] vkfnA gkoh gSA thoksa esa
eè;e vkSlr vkSj vd'ks#dh gSaA de o"kkZ okyh ckblu] e`x] eos'kh]
rkieku vkSj ;s vke rkSj ij le'khrks".k —ard] çs;jh M‚x]
çpqj o"kkZA i`Foh ds lcls ifjfLFkfr;k¡ HksfM+;s tSls cM+s
vfèkd mRiknd — 'kkdkgkjh tkuoj
f"k {ks= gSa vkSj tehu ij
?kksl
a yk cukus okys
4. m".kdfVcaèkh; Hkweè;js[kh; {ks=ksa m".kdfVcaèkh; if{k;ksa dh ,d
o"kkZ ou esa m".kdfVcaèkh; o"kkZou i`Foh dh le`) vkSj fofoèk
{ks=] tgk¡ thou lrg ds yxHkx 7% J`a[kyk 'kkfey gSA
çpqj ek=k esa gSA
vkSj nqfu;k ds ikSèkksa
rkieku vkSj o"kkZ 7. jsfxLrku egk}hih; ouLifr;k¡ lw[kk
vkSj tkuojksa dh
mPp gSA van:uh Hkkx] çfrjksèkh gksrh gSa]
çtkfr;ksa ds 40% dks tgk¡ cgqr de tSls dSDVl]
doj djrk gSA vkSj fNViqV o"kkZ ;wQksjfc;k] lstcz'kA
pkSM+h iÙkh okys gksrh gS vkSj ueh tho% ljhl`i] NksVs
lnkcgkj o`{kksa dh Hkh de gksrh gSA Lruèkkjh vkSj i{khA
dà eaft+ysa fnu cgqr xeZ
cgqrk;r esa gSaA gksrs gSa] ysfdu
vfèkdka'k tkuoj jkrsa BaMh gksrh
vkSj ,fiQkbfVd gSaA
ikSèks N= ;k isM+ ds
'kh"kZ {ks=ksa esa dsfa ær
gSaA
 17

Biosphere / thoeaMy Trophic level interaction / Vª‚fQd Lrj dh var%fØ;k

• Biosphere is a part of the earth where life can exist. • Trophic level interaction deals with how the members
Biosphere represents a highly integrated and interacting of an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional
zone comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere needs.
(water) and lithosphere (land). Vª‚fQd Lrj dh var%fØ;k bl ckr ls lacfa èkr gS fd iks"k.k
thoeaMy i`Foh dk ,d fgLlk gS tgk¡ thou ekStwn gks lacèa kh vko';drkvksa ds vkèkkj ij ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds
ldrk gSA thoeaMy ok;qeaMy ¼ok;q½] tyeaMy ¼ty½ vkSj lnL; fdl çdkj tqM+s gq, gSaA
LFkyeaMy ¼Hkwfe½ ls feydj ,d vR;fèkd ,dh—r vkSj Trophic levels (Trophe = nourishment)
ijLij fØ;k'khy {ks= dk çfrfufèkRo djrk gSA
• Life in the biosphere is abundant between 200 metres I Autotrophs Green plants (producers)
(660 feet) below the surface of the ocean and about II Heterotrophs Herbivore
6,000 metres (20,000 feet) above sea level. (primary consumers)
thoeaMy esa thou leqæ dh lrg ls 200 ehVj ¼660 QhV½
uhps vkSj leqæ ry ls yxHkx 6]000 ehVj ¼20]000 QhV½ III Heterotrophs Carnivores
Åij çpqj ek=k esa gSA (secondary consumers)
• Environmental Information System (ENVIS), a Central IV Heterotrophs Carnivore
Sector Scheme of the Ministry has been implemented (tertiary consumers)
since 1982. The purpose of the scheme is to integrate
country-wide efforts in environmental information V Heterotrophs Top carnivores
collection, collation, storage, retrieval and (Quarternary consumers)
dissemination through ENVIS websites, which are
dedicated to different interesting themes.
Vª‚fQd Lrj ¼Vª‚Qh ¾ iks"k.k½
i;kZoj.k lwpuk ç.kkyh ¼ENVIS½] ea=ky; dh ,d dsæa h;
{ks= ;kstuk gS ftls 1982 ls ykxw fd;k x;k gSA bl ;kstuk I v‚VksVª‚¶+l gjs ikSèks ¼mRiknd½
dk mís'; ENVIS osclkbVksa ds ekè;e ls i;kZoj.k lwpuk
II gsVjksVª‚¶+l 'kkdkgkjh
laxzg] feyku] HkaMkj.k] iquçkZfIr vkSj çlkj esa ns'kO;kih
¼çkFkfed miHkksäk½
ç;klksa dks ,dh—r djuk gS] tks fofHkUu fnypLi fo"k;ksa
ds fy, leÆir gSaA III gsVjksVª‚¶+l ekalkgkjh
¼f}rh;d miHkksäk½
Functions of an Ecosystem / ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds dk;Z
IV gsVjksVª‚¶+l ekalkgkjh
• The function of an ecosystem is a broad, vast and
complete dynamic system. It can be studied under the ¼r`rh;d miHkksäk½
following three heads. V gsVjksVª‚¶+l 'kh"kZ ekalkgkjh
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= dk dk;Z ,d O;kid] fo'kky vkSj iw.kZ ¼prqFkZd miHkksäk½
xfr'khy ç.kkyh gSA bldk vè;;u fuEufyf[kr rhu
'kh"kZdksa ds rgr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
• Energy flows through the trophic levels: from producers
• Energy flow
to subsequent trophic levels. This energy always flows
ÅtkZ çokg
from lower (producer) to higher (herbivore, carnivore
• Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) etc.) trophic level. It never flows in the reverse direction
iks"kd pØ.k ¼tSo&Hkw&jklk;fud pؽ that is from carnivores to herbivores to producers.
• Ecological succession or ecosystem development ÅtkZ Vª‚fQd Lrjksa ls gksdj cgrh gS% mRikndksa ls ysdj
ikfjfLFkfrd mÙkjkfèkdkj ;k ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= fodkl vxys Vª‚fQd Lrjksa rdA ;g ÅtkZ ges'kk fupys ¼mRiknd½
ls mPp ¼'kkdkgkjh] ekalkgkjh vkfn½ Vª‚fQd Lrj rd cgrh
gSA ;g dHkh Hkh foijhr fn'kk esa ugÈ cgrh gS] ;kuh
ekalkgkjh ls 'kkdkgkjh vkSj fQj mRikndksa dh vksjA
 18

• There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable mnkgj.k ds fy,] LFkyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= es]a ?kkl dks
heat at each trophic level so that energy level decreases dSVjfiyj }kjk [kk;k tkrk gS] ftls fNidyh [kkrh gS vkSj
from the first trophic level upwards. fNidyh dks lk¡i [kkrk gSA
çR;sd Vª‚fQd Lrj ij vuqi;ksxh Å"ek ds :i esa dqN • In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplanktons (primary
ÅtkZ dk uqdlku gksrk gS] ftlls ÅtkZ dk Lrj igys producers) is eaten by zoo planktons which is eaten by
Vª‚fQd Lrj ls Åij dh vksj ?kVrk gSA fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans.
• The trophic level interaction involves three concepts tyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa QkbVksIykadVu ¼çkFkfed
namely:- mRiknd½ dks fpfM+;k?kj ds Iyod [kkrs gSa] ftls eNfy;k¡
Vª‚fQd Lrj dh var%fØ;k esa rhu voèkkj.kk,¡ 'kkfey gSa%& [kkrh gSa vkSj eNfy;ksa dks isfydu [kkrs gSaA
• Food Chain / [kk| J`a[kyk
• Food Web / [kk| tky Detritus food chain / fMfVªVl [kk| J`a[kyk
• Ecological Pyramids / ikfjfLFkfrd fijkfeM • It starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals
and plant bodies consumed by the micro-organisms and
Food Chain / [kk| J`a[kyk then to detritus feeding organism called detrivores or
• Organisms in the ecosystem are related to each other decomposer and to other predators.
through feeding mechanism or trophic levels, i.e. one ;g lM+rs gq, tkuojksa vkSj ikSèkksa ds 'kjhj ds e`r dkcZfud
organism becomes food for the other. A sequence of inkFkks± ls 'kq: gksrh gS] ftUgsa lw{e tho [kkrs gSa vkSj fQj
organisms that feed on one another, form a food chain. fMfVªVl [kkus okys thoksa ls 'kq: gksrh gS] ftUgsa fMfVªokslZ
A food chain starts with producers and ends with top ;k Mhdaikstj dgk tkrk gS vkSj vU; f'kdkfj;ksa rd igq¡prh
carnivores. gSA
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa tho ,d nwljs ls Hkkstu ra= ;k Vª‚fQd • The distinction between these two food chains is the
Lrjksa ds ekè;e ls lacafèkr gksrs gSa] ;kuh ,d tho nwljs ds source of energy for the first level consumers. In the
fy, Hkkstu cu tkrk gSA thoksa dk ,d Øe tks ,d nwljs grazing food chain the primary source of energy is
dks [kkrs gSa] ,d [kk| J`a[kyk cukrs gSaA ,d [kk| J`a[kyk living plant biomass while in the detritus food chain the
mRikndksa ls 'kq: gksrh gS vkSj 'kh"kZ ekalkgkfj;ksa ds lkFk source of energy is dead organic matter or detritus. The
lekIr gksrh gSA two food chains are linked. The initial energy source for
detritus food chain is the waste materials and dead
organic matter from the grazing food chain.
Types of Food Chains / [kk| J`a[kykvksa ds çdkj
bu nks [kk| J`a[kykvksa ds chp dk varj igys Lrj ds
• In nature, two main types of food chains have been
distinguished:
miHkksäkvksa ds fy, ÅtkZ dk lzkrs gSA pjkxkg [kk| J`a[kyk
ç—fr esa] nks eq[; çdkj dh [kk| J`a[kyk,¡ igpkuh xà gSa% esa ÅtkZ dk çkFkfed lzkrs thfor ikSèks ck;ksekl gS tcfd
MsfVªVl [kk| J`a[kyk esa ÅtkZ dk lzkrs e`r dkcZfud inkFkZ
Grazing food chain / pjkxkg [kk| J`a[kyk ;k MsfVªVl gSA nksuksa [kk| J`a[kyk,¡ vkil esa tqM+h gqà gSaA
• The consumers which start the food chain, utilising the
MsfVªVl [kk| J`a[kyk ds fy, çkjafHkd ÅtkZ lzkrs pjkxkg
plant or plant part as their food, constitute the grazing [kk| J`a[kyk ls vif'k"V inkFkZ vkSj e`r dkcZfud inkFkZ
food chain. This food chain begins from green plants at gSaA
the base and the primary consumer is herbivore.
[kk| J`a[kyk dh 'kq#vkr djus okys miHkksäk] ikSèks ;k ikSèks Food Web / [kk| osc
ds fgLls dks vius Hkkstu ds :i esa mi;ksx djrs gSa] pjkxkg • "A food web illustrates, all possible transfers of energy
[kk| J`a[kyk dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA ;g [kk| J`a[kyk vkèkkj and nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem,
ij gjs ikSèkksa ls 'kq: gksrh gS vkSj çkFkfed miHkksäk whereas a food chain traces only one pathway of the
'kkdkgkjh gksrs gSaA food".
Þ,d [kk| tky ,d ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa thoksa ds chp
• For example, In terestrial ecosystem, grass is eaten up
by caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard and lizard is ÅtkZ vkSj iks"kd rRoksa ds lHkh laHkkfor gLrkarj.k dks n'kkZrk
eaten by snake. gS] tcfd ,d [kk| J`a[kyk Hkkstu ds dsoy ,d ekxZ dk
irk yxkrh gSÞA
 19

Ecological PYR Amids / ikfjfLFkfrd fijkfeM ;g fofHkUu Lrjksa ds çkFkfed mRikndksa vkSj miHkksäkvksa dh
• The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic la[;k ds chp ds lacèa k ls lacafèkr gSA ;g ,d ikfjfLFkfrdh
way are referred as ecological pyramids. The food ra= esa çR;sd Vª‚fQd Lrj ls lacfa èkr fofHkUu çtkfr;ksa ds
producer forms the base of the pyramid and the top O;fä;ksa dh dqy la[;k dk ,d xzkfQd çfrfufèkRo gSA
carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic levels • Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of
are in between. numbers may not always be upright, and may even be
vkjs[kh; rjhds ls O;ä fd, x, Vª‚fQd Lrjksa ds pj.kksa completely inverted.
dks ikfjfLFkfrd fijkfeM dgk tkrk gSA [kk| mRiknd vkdkj vkSj ck;ksekl ds vkèkkj ij] la[;kvksa dk fijkfeM
fijkfeM dk vkèkkj cukrk gS vkSj 'kh"kZ ekalkgkjh 'kh"kZ cukrk ges'kk lhèkk ugÈ gks ldrk gS] vkSj iwjh rjg ls mYVk Hkh
gSA vU; miHkksäk Vª‚fQd Lrj chp esa gSaA gks ldrk gSA
• The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars
depicting specific trophic levels which are arranged Pyramid of numbers – upright / la[;kvksa dk fijkfeM &
sequentially from primary producer level through lhèkk
herbivore, carnivore onwards. The length of each bar • In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased
represents the total number of individuals at each from lower level to higher trophic level.
trophic level in an ecosystem. bl fijkfeM esa] O;fä;ksa dh la[;k fupys Lrj ls mPp
fijkfeM esa dà {kSfrt ifê;k¡ gksrh gSa tks fof'k"V Vª‚fQd Vª‚fQd Lrj rd de gks tkrh gSA
Lrjksa dks n'kkZrh gSa ftUgsa çkFkfed mRiknd Lrj ls
• This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland
'kkdkgkjh] ekalkgkjh ds ekè;e ls Øfed :i ls O;ofLFkr ecosystem.
fd;k tkrk gSA çR;sd iêh dh yackà ,d ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= bl çdkj ds fijkfeM dks ?kkl ds eSnku ds ikfjfLFkfrdh
esa çR;sd Vª‚fQd Lrj ij O;fä;ksa dh dqy la[;k dks n'kkZrh ra= esa ns[kk tk ldrk gSA
gSA
• The number, biomass and energy of organisms Pyramid of numbers – inverted / la[;kvksa dk fijkfeM &
gradually decrease with each step from the producer mYVk
level to the consumer level and the diagrammatic
• In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased
representation assumes a pyramid shape.
from lower level to higher trophic level.
thoksa dh la[;k] ck;ksekl vkSj ÅtkZ mRiknd Lrj ls
bl fijkfeM esa] O;fä;ksa dh la[;k fupys Lrj ls mPp
miHkksäk Lrj rd çR;sd pj.k ds lkFk èkhjs&èkhjs de gksrh
Vª‚fQd Lrj rd c<+ tkrh gSA
tkrh gS vkSj vkjs[kh; çfrfufèkRo ,d fijkfeM vkdkj xzg.k
• A count in a forest would have a small number of large
djrk gSA
producers, for e.g. few number of big trees.
• The ecological pyramids are of three categories. fdlh taxy esa fxurh esa cM+s mRikndksa dh la[;k de gksxh]
ikfjfLFkfrd fijkfeM rhu Jsf.k;ksa ds gksrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, cM+s isM+kas dh la[;k de gksxhA
• Pyramid of numbers,
• This is because the tree (primary producer) being few
la[;kvksa dk fijkfeM] in number and would represent the base of the pyramid
• Pyramid of biomass, and and the dependent herbivores (Example - Birds) in the
ck;ksekl dk fijkfeM] vkSj next higher trophic level and it is followed by parasites
• Pyramid of energy or productivity. in the next trophic level. Hyper parasites being at higher
ÅtkZ ;k mRikndrk dk fijkfeMA trophic level represents higher in number.
,slk blfy, gS D;ksafd isM+ ¼çkFkfed mRiknd½ la[;k esa
Pyramid of Numbers / la[;kvksa dk fijkfeM de gksrs gSa vkSj fijkfeM ds vkèkkj dk çfrfufèkRo djrs gSa
• This deals with the relationship between the numbers of vkSj vxys mPp Vª‚fQd Lrj ij vkfJr 'kkdkgkjh ¼mnkgj.k
primary producers and consumers of different levels. It & i{kh½ gksrs gSa vkSj blds ckn vxys Vª‚fQd Lrj ij
is a graphic representation of the total number of ijthoh gksrs gSaA gkbij ijthoh mPp Vª‚fQd Lrj ij gksus
individuals of different species, belonging to each ds dkj.k la[;k esa vfèkd gksrs gSaA
trophic level in an ecosystem.
 20

• And the resulting pyramid is in inverted shape. A Upward pyramid / Åij dh vksj fijkfeM
pyramid of numbers does not take into account the fact • For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass
that the size of organisms being counted in each trophic has a large base of primary producers with a smaller
level can vary. trophic level perched on top.
vkSj ifj.kkeh fijkfeM mYVs vkdkj dk gksrk gSA la[;kvksa Hkwfe ij vfèkdka'k ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa ds fy,] ck;ksekl ds
dk fijkfeM bl rF; dks è;ku esa ugÈ j[krk gS fd çR;sd fijkfeM esa çkFkfed mRikndksa dk ,d cM+k vkèkkj gksrk gS]
Vª‚fQd Lrj esa fxus tkus okys thoksa dk vkdkj vyx&vyx ftlds 'kh"kZ ij ,d NksVk Vª‚fQd Lrj gksrk gSA
gks ldrk gSA • The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the
• It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a maximum.
pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of number does mRikndksa ¼v‚VksVª‚¶+l½ dk ck;ksekl vfèkdre gksrk gSA
not completely define the trophic structure for an • The biomass of next trophic level i.e primary consumers
ecosystem. is less than the producers. The biomass of next higher
la[;kvksa ds fijkfeM esa lHkh thoksa dh fxurh djuk cgqr trophic level i.e secondary consumers is less than the
eqf'dy gS vkSj blfy, la[;k dk fijkfeM fdlh primary consumers. The top, high trophic level has very
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds fy, Vª‚fQd lajpuk dks iwjh rjg ls less amount of biomass.
ifjHkkf"kr ugÈ djrk gSA vxys Vª‚fQd Lrj ;kuh çkFkfed miHkksäkvksa dk ck;ksekl
mRikndksa ls de gksrk gSA vxys mPp Vª‚fQd Lrj ;kuh
Pyramid of Biomass / ck;ksekl dk fijkfeM f}rh;d miHkksäkvksa dk ck;ksekl çkFkfed miHkksäkvksa ls
• In order to overcome the shortcomings of pyramid of de gksrk gSA 'kh"kZ] mPp Vª‚fQd Lrj esa ck;ksekl dh ek=k
numbers, the pyramid of biomass is used. In this cgqr de gksrh gSA
approach individuals in each trophic level are weighed
instead of being counted. This gives us a pyramid of Inverted pyramid / mYVk fijkfeM
biomass, i.e., the total dry weight of all organisms at • In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of
each trophic level at a particular time. biomass may assume an inverted form.
la[;kvksa ds fijkfeM dh dfe;ksa dks nwj djus ds fy,] blds foijhr] dà tyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa esa] ck;ksekl
ck;ksekl ds fijkfeM dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bl dk fijkfeM mYVk :i èkkj.k dj ldrk gSA
–f"Vdks.k esa çR;sd Vª‚fQd Lrj esa O;fä;ksa dks fxuus ds • This is because the producers are tiny phytoplanktons
ctk; rkSyk tkrk gSA ;g gesa ck;ksekl dk fijkfeM nsrk that grow and reproduce rapidly. Here, the pyramid of
gS] ;kuh ,d fo'ks"k le; esa çR;sd Vª‚fQd Lrj ij lHkh biomass has a small base, with the consumer biomass at
thoksa dk dqy lw[kk otuA any instant actually exceeding the producer biomass
• Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting and the pyramid assumes inverted shape.
all organisms occupying each trophic level separately ,slk blfy, gS D;ksfa d mRiknd NksVs QkbVksIykadVu gksrs
and measuring their dry weight. This overcomes the gSa tks rsth ls c<+rs vkSj çtuu djrs gSaA ;gk¡] ck;ksekl
size difference problem because all kinds of organisms ds fijkfeM dk vkèkkj NksVk gksrk gS] ftlesa miHkksäk
at a trophic level are weighed. Biomass is measured in ck;ksekl fdlh Hkh le; okLro esa mRiknd ck;ksekl ls
g/m2. vfèkd gksrk gS vkSj fijkfeM mYVk vkdkj xzg.k djrk gSA
ck;ksekl dk fijkfeM vkerkSj ij çR;sd Vª‚fQd Lrj ij
jgus okys lHkh thoksa dks vyx&vyx bdëk djds vkSj Pyramid of Energy / ÅtkZ dk fijkfeM
muds 'kq"d Hkkj dks ekidj fuèkkZfjr fd;k tkrk gSA blls • To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in
vkdkj esa varj dh leL;k nwj gks tkrh gS D;ksafd Vª‚fQd an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable. An
Lrj ij lHkh çdkj ds thoksa dk otu fd;k tkrk gS A energy pyramid, reflects the laws of thermodynamics,
ck;ksekl dks g/m2 esa ekik tkrk gSA with conversion of solar energy to chemical energy and
heat energy at each trophic level and with loss of energy
being depicted at each transfer to another trophic level.
Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large
energy base at the bottom.
 21

ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa Vª‚fQd Lrjksa dh dk;kZRed Hkwfedkvksa • The genetic diversity gives us beautiful butterflies,
dh rqyuk djus ds fy,] ÅtkZ fijkfeM lcls mi;qä gSA roses, parakeets or coral in a myriad hues, shapes and
ÅtkZ fijkfeM] Å"eçoSfxdh ds fu;eksa dks n'kkZrk gS] ftlesa sizes.
çR;sd Vª‚fQd Lrj ij lkSj ÅtkZ dk jklk;fud ÅtkZ vkSj vkuqoaf'kd fofoèkrk gesa vla[; jaxksa] vk—fr;ksa vkSj vkdkjksa
Å"ek ÅtkZ esa :ikarj.k gksrk gS vkSj çR;sd Vª‚fQd Lrj esa lqanj frrfy;k¡] xqykc] rksrs ;k ewaxk nsrh gSA
ij ÅtkZ dh gkfu dks n'kkZ;k tkrk gSA blfy, fijkfeM
ges'kk Åij dh vksj gksrk gS] ftlds uhps ,d cM+k ÅtkZ Species diversity: / çtkfr fofoèkrk%
vkèkkj gksrk gSA • It refers to the variety of living organisms on earth.
;g i`Foh ij jgus okys thoksa dh fofoèkrk dks lanÆHkr djrk
Biodiversity / tSo fofoèkrk gSA
• Biodiversity is defined as ‘the variability among living • Species differ from one another, markedly in their
organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine genetic makeup, do not inter-breed in nature.
and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological çtkfr;k¡ ,d nwljs ls fHkUu gksrh gSa] muds vkuqoaf'kd
complexes of which they are a part; this includes esdvi esa Li"V :i ls fHkUurk gksrh gS] ç—fr esa vkil esa
diversity within species, between species and of çtuu ugÈ djrh gSaA
ecosystems’. • Closely-related species however have in common much
tSo fofoèkrk dks ^lHkh lzkrs ksa ls thfor thoksa ds chp of their hereditary characteristics. For instance, about
ifjorZu'khyrk ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk gS] ftlesa 98.4 per cent of the genes of humans and chimpanzees
LFkyh;] leqæh vkSj vU; tyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= vkSj os are the same.
ikfjfLFkfrd ifjlj 'kkfey gSa ftudk os fgLlk gSa( blesa gkykafd fudV ls lacfa èkr çtkfr;ksa esa mudh vfèkdka'k
çtkfr;ksa ds Hkhrj] çtkfr;ksa ds chp vkSj ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= vkuqoaf'kd fo'ks"krk,¡ leku gksrh gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy,]
dh fofoèkrk 'kkfey gS*A euq";ksa vkSj fpEikath ds yxHkx 98-4 çfr'kr thu leku
• - United Nations Earth Summit (1992) gSaA
la;qä jk"Vª i`Foh f'k[kj lEesyu ¼1992½ • It is the ratio of one species population over total
number of organisms across all species in the given
Levels of Biodiversity / tSo fofoèkrk ds Lrj biome.
Genetic diversity: / vkuqoaf'kd fofoèkrk% ;g fn, x, ck;kse esa lHkh çtkfr;ksa esa thoksa dh dqy
• It is concerned with the variation in genes within a la[;k ij ,d çtkfr dh vkcknh dk vuqikr gSA
particular species. • ‘Zero’ would be infinite diversity, and ‘one’ represents
;g fdlh fo'ks"k çtkfr ds Hkhrj thu esa fHkUurk ls lacafèkr only one species present.
gSA *'kwU;* vuar fofoèkrk gksxh] vkSj *,d* dsoy ,d çtkfr dks
• Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing n'kkZrk gSA
environments.
vkuqoaf'kd fofoèkrk çtkfr;ksa dks cnyrs okrkoj.k ds Ecosystem/ Community diversity: / ikfjfLFkfrdh
vuqdwy gksus dh vuqefr nsrh gSA ra=@leqnk; fofoèkrk%
• This diversity aims to ensure that some species survive • This refers to the different types of habitats. A habitat is
drastic changes and thus carry on desirable genes. the cumulative factor of the climate, vegetation and
bl fofoèkrk dk mís'; ;g lqfuf'pr djuk gS fd dqN geography of a region.
çtkfr;k¡ dBksj ifjorZuksa ls cp ldsa vkSj bl çdkj ;g fofHkUu çdkj ds vkoklksa dks lanÆHkr djrk gSA ,d
okaNuh; thu ys ldsAa vkokl fdlh {ks= dh tyok;q] ouLifr vkSj Hkwxksy dk
• The survival of individuals ensures the survival of the lap;h dkjd gSA
population. • There are several kinds of habitats around the world.
O;fä;ksa dk thfor jguk tula[;k ds vfLrRo dks Corals, grasslands, wetland, desert, mangrove and
lqfuf'pr djrk gSA tropical rain forests are examples of ecosystems.
 22

nqfu;k Hkj esa dà çdkj ds vkokl gSaA dksjy] ?kkl ds Beta diversity / chVk fofoèkrk
eSnku] vkæZHkwfe] jsfxLrku] eSaxzkos vkSj m".kdfVcaèkh; o"kkZ • It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems,
ou ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds mnkgj.k gSaA usually measured as the change in amount of species
• There are several kinds of habitats around the world. between the ecosystems.
Corals, grasslands, wetland, desert, mangrove and ;g ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa ds chp fofoèkrk dh rqyuk gS] ftls
tropical rain forests are examples of ecosystems. vkerkSj ij ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa ds chp çtkfr;ksa dh ek=k
nqfu;k Hkj esa dà çdkj ds vkokl gSaA dksjy] ?kkl ds esa ifjorZu ds :i esa ekik tkrk gSA
eSnku] vkæZHkwfe] jsfxLrku] eSaxzkos vkSj m".kdfVcaèkh; o"kkZ
ou ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds mnkgj.k gSaA Gamma diversity / xkek fofoèkrk
• Change in climatic conditions is accompanied by a • It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different
change in vegetation as well. Each species adapts itself ecosystems within a region.
to a particular kind of environment. ;g ,d {ks= ds Hkhrj fofHkUu ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=ksa ds fy,
tyok;q ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa ifjorZu ds lkFk&lkFk ouLifr esa lexz fofoèkrk dk eki gSA
Hkh ifjorZu gksrk gSA çR;sd çtkfr [kqn dks ,d fo'ks"k
çdkj ds okrkoj.k ds vuqdwy cukrh gSA Species evenness / çtkfr le:irk
• As the environment changes, species best adapted to • It measures the proportion of species at a given site, e.g.
that environment becomes predominant. Thus the low evenness indicates that a few species dominate the
variety or diversity of species in the ecosystem is site.
influenced by the nature of the ecosystem. ;g fdlh fn, x, LFkku ij çtkfr;ksa ds vuqikr dks ekirk
tSls&tSls i;kZoj.k cnyrk gS] ml i;kZoj.k ds fy, lcls gS] mnkgj.k ds fy, de le:irk ;g n'kkZrh gS fd dqN
vuqdwy çtkfr;k¡ çeq[k gks tkrh gSaA bl çdkj ikfjfLFkfrdh çtkfr;k¡ ml LFkku ij gkoh gSaA
ra= esa çtkfr;ksa dh fofoèkrk ;k fofoèkrk ikfjfLFkfrdh ra=
dh ç—fr ls çHkkfor gksrh gSA Services provided by Biodiversity / tSo fofoèkrk }kjk çnku
dh tkus okyh lsok,¡
Measurement of Biodiversity / tSo fofoèkrk dk ekiu • Biodiversity provides a number of natural services for
• Biodiversity is measured by two major components: human beings:
tSo fofoèkrk dks nks çeq[k ?kVdksa }kjk ekik tkrk gS% tSo fofoèkrk ekuo ds fy, dà çk—frd lsok,¡ çnku djrh
• species richness, and species evenness. gS%
çtkfr le`f)] vkSj çtkfr le:irkA
• Species richness Ecosystem services / ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= lsok,¡
çtkfr le`f) • Protection of water resources
• It is the measure of number of species found in a ty lalkèkuksa dh lqj{kk
community • Soils formation and protection
;g ,d leqnk; esa ikà tkus okyh çtkfr;ksa dh la[;k dk e`nk fuekZ.k vkSj lqj{kk
eki gS • Nutrient storage and recycling
iks"kd rRoksa dk HkaMkj.k vkSj iqupZØ.k
Alpha diversity / vYQk fofoèkrk • Pollution breakdown and absorption
• It refers to the diversity within a particular area or çnw"k.k dk VwVuk vkSj vo'kks"k.k
ecosystem, and is usually expressed by the number of • Contribution to climate stability
species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem. tyok;q fLFkjrk esa ;ksxnku
;g fdlh fo'ks"k {ks= ;k ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ds Hkhrj fofoèkrk • Maintenance of ecosystems
dks lanÆHkr djrk gS] vkSj vkerkSj ij ml ikfjfLFkfrdh ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= dk j[kj[kko
ra= esa çtkfr;ksa dh la[;k ¼;kuh] çtkfr le`f)½ }kjk O;ä • Recovery from unpredictable events
fd;k tkrk gSA vçR;kf'kr ?kVukvksa ls mcjuk
 23

Biological services / tSfod lsok,¡ • Conversion of rich bio-diversity site for human
• Food / Hkkstu settlement and industrial development
ekuo cLrh vkSj vkS|ksfxd fodkl ds fy, le`)
• Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
tSo&fofoèkrk okys LFky dk :ikarj.k
vkS"kèkh; lalkèku vkSj nokb;k¡ • Extension of agriculture / —f"k dk foLrkj
• Wood products / ydM+h ds mRikn • Pollution / çnw"k.k
• Ornamental plants / ltkoVh ikSèks • Filling up of wetlands / vkæZHkwfe dk Hkj tkuk
• Breeding stocks / çtuu LV‚d • Destruction of coastal areas / rVh; {ks=ksa dk fouk'k
• Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
thu] çtkfr;k¡ vkSj ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa fofoèkrk Biodiversity conservation / tSo fofoèkrk laj{k.k
Modes of Conservation / laj{k.k ds rjhds
Social services / lkekftd lsok,¡ • Ex-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity outside
• Research, education and monitoring the areas where they naturally occur is known as exsitu
vuqlaèkku] f'k{kk vkSj fuxjkuh conservation.
• Recreation and tourism ,Dl&lhVw laj{k.k% mu {ks=ksa ds ckgj tSo fofoèkrk dk
euksjatu vkSj i;ZVu laj{k.k djuk tgk¡ os LokHkkfod :i ls ik, tkrs gSa]
• Cultural values ,Dl&lhVw laj{k.k ds :i esa tkuk tkrk gSA
lkaL—frd ewY; • Here, animals are reared or plants are cultivated like
zoological parks or botanical gardens. Reintroduction
Social services / lkekftd lsok,¡ of an animal or plant into the habitat from where it has
• Research, education and monitoring become extinct is another form of exsitu conservation.
vuqlaèkku] f'k{kk vkSj fuxjkuh ;gk¡] tkuojksa dks ikyk tkrk gS ;k ikSèkksa dh [ksrh dh tkrh
• Recreation and tourism gS tSls fd çkf.k m|ku ;k ouLifr m|kuA fdlh tkuoj
euksjatu vkSj i;ZVu ;k ikSèks dks ml vkokl esa fQj ls ykuk tgk¡ ls og foyqIr
• Cultural values gks x;k gS] ,Dl&lhVw laj{k.k dk nwljk :i gSA
lkaL—frd ewY; • For example, the Gangetic gharial has been
reintroduced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Causes for Biodiversity Loss / tSo fofoèkrk gkfu Pradesh and Rajasthan where it had become extinct.
ds dkj.k mnkgj.k ds fy,] xaxk ds ?kfM+;ky dks mÙkj çns'k] eè;
Natural causes / çk—frd dkj.k
çns'k vkSj jktLFkku dh ufn;ksa esa fQj ls yk;k x;k gS
tgk¡ ;g foyqIr gks x;k FkkA
• floods, / ck<+]
• Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational
• earthquakes, / Hkwdai]
gardens are important centres for ex-situ conservation.
• landslides, / HkwL[kyu]
cht cSad] ouLifr] ckxokuh vkSj euksjatd m|ku
• rivalry among species, / çtkfr;ksa ds chp çfr}af}rk] ,Dl&lhVw laj{k.k ds fy, egRoiw.kZ dsaæ gSaA
• lack of pollination and diseases. / ijkx.k dh deh vkSj • In-situ conservation: Conserving the animals and plants
chekfj;k¡A in their natural habitats is known as in-situ
conservation. The established natural habitats are:
Man-Made causes / ekuo fuÆer dkj.k bu&lhVw laj{k.k% tkuojksa vkSj ikSèkksa dks muds çk—frd
• Habitat destruction vkoklksa esa lajf{kr djuk bu&lhVw laj{k.k ds :i esa tkuk
vkokl fouk'k tkrk gSA LFkkfir çk—frd vkokl gSa%
• Uncontrolled commercial exploitation • National parks / jk"Vªh; m|ku
vfu;af=r okf.kfT;d 'kks"k.k • Sanctuaries / vHk;kj.;
• Hunting & poaching • Biosphere reserves and / ck;ksLQh;j fjtoZ vkSj
f'kdkj vkSj voSèk f'kdkj • Reserved forests / vkjf{kr ou
• Protected forests / lajf{kr ou
 24

Botanical garden/ouLifr m|ku jsM MsVk cqd dks igyh ckj 1966 esa IUCN ds fo'ks"k
• Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned mÙkjthfork vk;ksx }kjk lwphc) çtkfr;ksa ds fuekZ.k]
collection of living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and laj{k.k vkSj çcaèku ds fy, ,d ekxZnÆ'kdk ds :i esa tkjh
other plants from various parts of the world. fd;k x;k FkkA
ouLifr m|ku nqfu;k ds fofHkUu fgLlksa ls thfor isM+ka]s
>kfM+;ksa] tM+h&cwfV;ksa] p<+us okys ikSèkksa vkSj vU; ikSèkksa ds IUCN Classification of Conservation Priority / laj{k.k
oSKkfud :i ls fu;ksftr laxzg dks lanÆHkr djrk gSA çkFkfedrk dk IUCN oxÊdj.k
Extinct (EX) / foyqIr ¼EX½
Purpose of botanical gardens/ouLifr m|ku dk mís'; • A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt
• To study the taxonomy as well as growth of plants. that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed
ikSèkksa dh o`f) ds lkFk&lkFk oxÊdj.k dk vè;;u djukA Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or
• To study the introduction and acclimatization process expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal,
of exotic plants. seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have
fons'kh ikSèkksa ds ifjp; vkSj vuqdwyu çfØ;k dk vè;;u failed to record an individual.
djukA ,d VSDlu rc foyqIr gksrk gS tc bl ckr ij dksà mfpr
• It acts as a germplasm collection. lansg ugÈ gksrk fd vafre O;fä dh e`R;q gks xà gSA ,d
;g teZIykTe laxzg ds :i esa dk;Z djrk gSA VSDlu dks rc foyqIr ekuk tkrk gS tc Kkr vkSj@;k
• It helps development of new hybrids. visf{kr vkokl esa] mfpr le; ¼nSfud] ekSleh] okÆ"kd½ ij]
;g u, ladjksa ds fodkl esa enn djrk gSA mlds ,sfrgkfld nk;js esa foLr`r losZ{k.k fdlh O;fä dks
• It augments conserving rare and threatened species. fjd‚MZ djus esa foQy jgs gksaA
;g nqyZHk vkSj ladVxzLr çtkfr;ksa ds laj{k.k dks c<+krk
gSA Extinct in the Wild (EW)/taxyh esa foyqIr ¼EW½
• A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to
ZOO / fpfM+;k?kj survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized
population (or populations) well outside the past range.
• Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile,
where captive animals are kept for exhibition to the A taxon is presumed Extinct in the wild when
exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at
public and includes a circus and rescue centers but does
not include an establishment of a licensed dealer in appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual),
throughout its historic range have failed to record an
captive animals - CZA .
individual.
fpfM+;k?kj ,d çfr"Bku gS] pkgs og fLFkj gks ;k eksckby]
,d VSDlu taxyh esa foyqIr gksrk gS tc ;g dsoy [ksrh
tgk¡ canh tkuojksa dks turk ds fy, çn'kZu ds fy, j[kk
es]a dSn esa ;k fiNyh lhek ls ckgj ,d çk—frd vkcknh
tkrk gS vkSj blesa ,d ldZl vkSj cpko dsaæ 'kkfey gSa]
¼;k vkcknh½ ds :i esa thfor jgus ds fy, tkuk tkrk gSA
ysfdu blesa canh tkuojksa ds ykblsl
a çkIr Mhyj & lhtsM,
fdlh VSDlu dks taxy esa foyqIr rc ekuk tkrk gS tc
dh LFkkiuk 'kkfey ugÈ gSA
Kkr vkSj@;k visf{kr vkokl es]a mfpr le; ¼nSfud]
• The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the
ekSleh] okÆ"kd½ ij] mlds ,sfrgkfld {ks= esa fd, x,
decades, zoos have got transformed into centres for
wildlife conservation and environmental education. foLr`r losZ{k.kksa esa fdlh O;fä dks fjd‚MZ djus esa foQyrk
fpfM+;k?kjksa dk çkjafHkd mís'; euksjt
a u Fkk] n'kdksa ls] feyh gksA
fpfM+;k?kj oU;tho laj{k.k vkSj i;kZoj.k f'k{kk ds dsæa ksa esa
rCnhy gks x, gSaA Critically Endangered (CR) / xaHkhj :i ls ladVxzLr ¼CR½
• A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best
The RED Data Book / vkjÃMh MsVk cqd available evidence indicates that it meets any of the
criteria for Critically Endangered.
• The Red Data Book was first issued in 1966 by the
dksà VSDlu xaHkhj :i ls ladVxzLr rc ekuk tkrk gS tc
IUCN’s Special Survival Commission as a guide for
formulation, preservation and management of species miyCèk loksZÙke lk{; ;g ladsr nsrs gSa fd ;g xaHkhj :i
listed. ls ladVxzLr ds fdlh Hkh ekunaM dks iwjk djrk gSA
 25

Criteria / ekunaM Endangered (EN) / ladVxzLr ¼EN½

• reduction in population (> 90% over the last 10 years), • A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence
tula[;k esa deh ¼fiNys 10 o"kksZa esa 90% ls vfèkd½] indicates that it meets any of the criteria for
• population size (number less than 50 mature Endangered.
individuals), dksà VSDlu rc ladVxzLr gksrk gS tc miyCèk loksZÙke
tula[;k dk vkdkj ¼50 ls de ifjiDo O;fä½] lk{; ;g ladsr nsrs gSa fd ;g ladVxzLr ds fdlh Hkh
• quantitative analysis showing the probability of ekunaM dks iwjk djrk gSA
extinction in wild in at least 50% in their 10 years) and
ek=kRed fo'ys"k.k tks 10 o"kksZ esa taxy esa foyqIr gksus dh
Vulnerable (VU) / vlqjf{kr ¼VU½
laHkkouk dks de ls de 50% n'kkZrk gS½ vkSj
• A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence
• it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high
indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Vulnerable
risk of extinction in the wild.
i.e.
blfy, bls taxy esa foyqIr gksus ds vR;fèkd mPp tksf[ke
dk lkeuk djuk iM+ jgk gSA ,d VSDlu rc vlqjf{kr gksrk gS tc miyCèk loksZÙke lk{;
• reduction in population size (70% over the last 10
;g ladsr nsrs gSa fd ;g vlqjf{kr ds fy, fdlh Hkh ekunaM
years), dks iwjk djrk gS] vFkkZr
tula[;k ds vkdkj esa deh ¼fiNys 10 o"kksZ esa 70%½]
• population size estimated to number fewer than 250 Protected A Reas (PA) / lajf{kr {ks= ¼ih,½
mature individuals, • The adoption of a National Policy for Wildlife
tula[;k dk vkdkj 250 ls de ifjiDo O;fä;ksa dh Conservation in 1970 and the enactment of the Wildlife
vuqekfur la[;k gS] (Protection) Act in 1972 lead to a significant growth in
• quantitative analysis showing the probability of the protected areas network, from 5 national parks and
extinction in wild in at least 20% within 20 years and it 60 sanctuaries to a network of 669 Protected Areas with
is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of geographical area of the country, 4.92%.
extinction in the wild. 1970 esa oU;tho laj{k.k ds fy, jk"Vªh; uhfr dks viukus
ek=kRed fo'ys"k.k tks 20 o"kksZ ds Hkhrj taxyh esa foyqIr vkSj 1972 esa oU;tho ¼laj{k.k½ vfèkfu;e ds vfèkfu;eu ls
gksus dh de ls de 20% laHkkouk dks n'kkZrk gS vkSj lajf{kr {ks=ksa ds usVodZ esa mYys[kuh; o`f) gqÃ] tks 5 jk"Vªh;
blfy, bls taxyh esa foyqIr gksus dk cgqr mPp tksf[ke m|kuksa vkSj 60 vHk;kj.;ksa ls c<+dj 669 lajf{kr {ks=ksa ds
ekuk tkrk gSA usVodZ esa cny x;k] ftldk HkkSxksfyd {ks=Qy ns'k ds
• reduction in population (> 50% over the last 10 years) 4-92% ds cjkcj gSA
tula[;k esa deh ¼fiNys 10 o"kksZ esa 50% ls vfèkd½ • The network was further strengthened by a number of
• population size estimated to number fewer than 10,000
national conservation projects, notably Project Tiger,
mature individuals,
project elephant, crocodile Breeding and Management
tula[;k dk vkdkj 10]000 ls de ifjiDo O;fä;ksa dh
Project, etc.
vuqekfur la[;k gS] dà jk"Vªh; laj{k.k ifj;kstukvks]a fo'ks"k :i ls çkstsDV
• probability of extinction in wild is at least 10% within Vkbxj] çkstDs V gkFkh] exjePN çtuu vkSj çcaèku
100 years, and ifj;kstuk vkfn }kjk usVodZ dks vkSj etcwr fd;k x;kA
taxyh esa foyqIr gksus dh laHkkouk 100 o"kksZ ds Hkhrj de
ls de 10% gS] vkSj Wild Life Sanctuary (WLS) / oU; thou vHk;kj.;
• it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of ¼MCY;w,y,l½
extinction in the wild. • The Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 provided for the
blfy, bls taxyh esa foyqIr gksus dk mPp tksf[ke ekuk
declaration of certain areas by the State Government as
tkrk gSA
wildlife sanctuaries if the area was thought to be of
adequate ecological, geomorphological and natural
significance.
 26

1972 ds oU; thou ¼laj{k.k½ vfèkfu;e esa jkT; ljdkj • The Central Government may also declare, Wild Life
}kjk dqN {ks=ksa dks oU;tho vHk;kj.; ds :i esa ?kksf"kr Sanctuary and National Park under certain conditions.
djus dk çkoèkku fd;k x;k Fkk] ;fn {ks= dks i;kZIr dsæa ljdkj dqN 'krksZa ds rgr oU; tho vH;kj.; vkSj
ikfjfLFkfrd] Hkw&vk—fr foKku vkSj çk—frd egRo dk jk"Vªh; m|ku Hkh ?kksf"kr dj ldrh gSA
ekuk tkrk FkkA
The Man and Biosphere (MAB) / ekuo vkSj thoeaMy
National Park (NP) / jk"Vªh; m|ku ¼,uih½ ¼,e,ch½
• The Wild Life (Protection) Act (WPA) of 1972 • The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme is an
provided for the declaration of National Parks by the Intergovernmental Scientific Programme aiming to set
State Government in addition to the declaration of a scientific basis for the improvement of the
wildlife sanctuaries. relationships between people and their environment
oU;tho ¼laj{k.k½ vfèkfu;e ¼MCY;wih,½ 1972 esa oU;tho globally.
vHk;kj.;ksa dh ?kks"k.kk ds vykok jkT; ljdkj }kjk jk"Vªh; ekuo vkSj thoeaMy ¼,e,ch½ dk;ZØe ,d varj&ljdkjh
m|kuksa dh ?kks"k.kk dk çkoèkku fd;k x;k gSA oSKkfud dk;ZØe gS ftldk mís'; oSfÜod Lrj ij yksxksa
• National Parks are declared in areas that are considered vkSj muds i;kZoj.k ds chp lacaèkksa esa lqèkkj ds fy, oSKkfud
to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and vkèkkj LFkkfir djuk gSA
natural significance although within the law, the • Launched in the early 1970s, it proposes an
difference in conservation value of a National Park interdisciplinary research agenda and capacity building
from that of a sanctuary is not specified in the WPA that target the ecological, social and economic
1972. dimensions of biodiversity loss and the reduction of this
jk"Vªh; m|kuksa dh ?kks"k.kk ,sls {ks=ksa esa dh tkrh gS ftUgsa loss.
i;kZIr ikfjfLFkfrd] Hkw&vk—fr foKku vkSj çk—frd egRo 1970 ds n'kd dh 'kq#vkr esa 'kq: fd;k x;k] ;g ,d
dk ekuk tkrk gS] gkykafd dkuwu ds vuqlkj] jk"Vªh; m|ku var%fo"k; vuqlaèkku ,tsM a k vkSj {kerk fuekZ.k dk çLrko
vkSj vHk;kj.; ds laj{k.k ewY; esa varj MCY;wih, 1972 esa djrk gS tks tSo fofoèkrk gkfu ds ikfjfLFkfrd] lkekftd
fuÆn"V ugÈ fd;k x;k gSA vkSj vkÆFkd vk;keksa vkSj bl gkfu dks de djus dks yf{kr
djrk gSA
Difference between the two / nksuksa ds chp varj • Concerned with problems at the interface of scientific,
• National Parks enjoy a greater degree of protection than environmental, societal and development issues, MAB
sanctuaries. combines natural and social sciences, economics and
jk"Vªh; m|kuksa dks vHk;kj.;ksa dh rqyuk esa vfèkd lqj{kk education to improve human livelihoods and safeguard
çkIr gSA natural ecosystems, thus promoting innovative
• Certain activities which are regulated in sanctuaries, approaches to economic development that is socially
such as grazing of livestock, are prohibited in National and culturally appropriate and environmentally
Parks. sustainable.
vHk;kj.;ksa esa fofu;fer dqN xfrfofèk;k¡] tSls i'kqvksa dks oSKkfud] i;kZoj.kh;] lkekftd vkSj fodkl lacèa kh eqíksa ds
pjkuk] jk"Vªh; m|kuksa esa fuf"k) gSaA baVjQsl ij leL;kvksa ls Çpfrr] ,e,ch ekuo vkthfodk
• Wildlife sanctuary can be created for a particular
esa lqèkkj vkSj çk—frd ikfjfLFkfrdh ç.kkfy;ksa dh lqj{kk ds
species (for e.g. grizzled giant squirrel w.l.s in fy, çk—frd vkSj lkekftd foKku] vFkZ'kkL= vkSj f'k{kk
srivalliputhur) whereas the national park is not dks tksM+rk gS] bl çdkj vkÆFkd fodkl ds fy, vfHkuo –
primarily focused on a particular species. f"Vdks.k dks c<+kok nsrk gS tks lkekftd vkSj lkaL—frd
oU;tho vHk;kj.; fdlh fo'ks"k çtkfr ¼tSls JhoYyhiqFkqj :i ls mi;qä vkSj i;kZoj.kh; :i ls fVdkÅ gSA
esa xzstY+ M fo'kky fxygjh½ ds fy, cuk;k tk ldrk gS] • The agenda of the MAB Prorgamme is defined by its
tcfd jk"Vªh; m|ku eq[; :i ls fdlh fo'ks"k çtkfr ij main governing body, the International Coordinating
dsfa ær ugÈ gksrk gSA Council in concertation with the broader MAB
Community.
 27

,e,ch dk;ZØe dk ,tsM a k blds eq[; 'kklh fudk;]

varjkZ"Vªh; leUo; ifj"kn }kjk O;kid ,e,ch leqnk; ds
lkFk feydj ifjHkkf"kr fd;k x;k gSA

Biosphere Reserve (BR) / ck;ksLQh;j fjtoZ ¼chvkj½

• The International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of
UNESCO, November, 1971, introduced the designation
‘Biosphere Reserve’ for natural areas. The concept of
Biosphere Reserves was refined by a Task Force of
UNESCO’s MAB Programme in 1974, and BR network
was formally launched in 1976.
dksj tksu dks fcYdqy vNwrk j[kk tkuk pkfg,A blesa mPp
;wusLdks dh varjkZ"Vªh; leUo; ifj"kn ¼vkÃlhlh½ us uoacj] Js.kh ds f'kdkfj;ksa lfgr dà ikSèkksa vkSj tkuojksa dh
1971 esa çk—frd {ks=ksa ds fy, *ck;ksLQh;j fjtoZ* inuke çtkfr;ksa ds fy, mi;qä vkokl gksuk pkfg, vkSj blesa
dh 'kq#vkr dhA ck;ksLQh;j fjtoZ dh voèkkj.kk dks LFkkfudrk ds dsaæ gks ldrs gSaA ,d dksj tksu dkuwuh lqj{kk
;wusLdks ds ,e,ch dk;ZØe ds VkLd QkslZ }kjk 1974 esa vkSj çcaèku lqfuf'pr djrk gS vkSj vuqlaèkku xfrfofèk;ksa
ifj"—r fd;k x;k Fkk] vkSj chvkj usVodZ dks vkSipkfjd dh vuqefr gS tks çk—frd çfØ;kvksa vkSj oU;thoksa dks
:i ls 1976 esa y‚Up fd;k x;k FkkA çHkkfor ugÈ djrh gSaA l[r ç—fr HkaMkj vkSj {ks= ds taxy
okys fgLls dks chvkj ds dksj {ks=ksa ds :i esa ukfer fd;k
Structure and Design of Biosphere / thoeaMy dh lajpuk x;k gSA dksj tksu dks flLVe ds ckgj lHkh ekuoh; nckoksa
vkSj fMtkbu ls eqä j[kk tkuk pkfg,A
Reserves / HkaMkj
• In order to undertake complementary activities of
biodiversity conservation and development of
sustainable management aspects, Biosphere Reserves
are demarcated into three inter-related zones.
tSo fofoèkrk laj{k.k vkSj lrr çcaèku igyqvksa ds fodkl
dh iwjd xfrfofèk;ksa dks djus ds fy,] ck;ksLQh;j fjtoZ
dks rhu ijLij lacafèkr {ks=ksa esa lhekafdr fd;k x;k gSA

The Core Zone:/dksj tksu% The Buffer Zone: / cQj tksu%

• The core zone should be kept absolutely undisturbed. It • Buffer Zone adjoins or surrounds core zone. Its uses and
must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and activities are managed in ways that protect the core
animal species, including higher order predators and zone. These uses and activities include restoration,
may contain centres of endemism. A core zone secures demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the
legal protection and management and research activities resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing and
that do not affect natural processes and wildlife are grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core
allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions zone. Research and educational activities are to be
of the area are designated as core areas of BR. The core encouraged.
zone is to be kept free from all human pressures external cQj tksu dksj tksu ls lVk gqvk ;k mlds pkjksa vksj gksrk
to the system. gSA blds mi;ksx vkSj xfrfofèk;ksa dks bl rjg ls çcafèkr
fd;k tkrk gS fd dksj tksu dh lqj{kk gksA bu mi;ksxksa
vkSj xfrfofèk;ksa esa iquLFkkZiu] lalkèkuksa ds ewY; laoèkZu dks
c<+kus ds fy, çn'kZu LFky] lhfer euksjatu] i;ZVu] eNyh
idM+uk vkSj pjkà 'kkfey gSa] ftUgsa dksj tksu ij blds
çHkko dks de djus ds fy, vuqefr nh xà gSA vuqlaèkku
vkSj 'kSf{kd xfrfofèk;ksa dks çksRlkfgr fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
 28

• Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to be g‚V Li‚V ds :i esa vgZrk çkIr djus ds fy,] fdlh {ks=
permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the dks nks l[r ekunaMksa dks iwjk djuk gksxk%
ecological diversity. • Species endemism - it must contain at least 1,500
;fn ekuo xfrfofèk;k¡ çk—frd gSa] rks mUgsa tkjh j[kus dh species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total)
vuqefr nh tk ldrh gS] c'krsZ fd os ikfjfLFkfrd fofoèkrk as endemics, and
dks çfrdwy :i ls çHkkfor u djsaA çtkfr LFkkfudrk & blesa de ls de 1]500 laoguh ikSèkksa
dh çtkfr;k¡ ¼nqfu;k ds dqy dk 0-5% ls vfèkd½ LFkkfud
The Transition Zone / laØe.k {ks= gksuh pkfg,] vkSj
• The Transition Zone is the outermost part of a • Degree of threat - it has to have lost at least 70% of its
Biosphere Reserve. This is usually not delimited one original habitat.
and is a zone of cooperation where conservation, [krjs dh fMxzh & bls vius ewy fuokl LFkku dk de ls
knowledge and management skills are applied and uses de 70% [kksuk gksxkA
are managed in harmony with the purpose of the • Each biodiversity hot spot represents a remarkable
Biosphere Reserve. This includes settlements, crop universe of extraordinary floral and faunal endemicity
lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation, struggling to survive in rapidly shrinking ecosystems.
and other economic uses characteristic of the region. çR;sd tSo fofoèkrk g‚V Li‚V vlkèkkj.k iq"i vkSj tho
laØe.k {ks= ck;ksLQh;j fjtoZ dk lcls ckgjh fgLlk gSA LFkkfudrk ds ,d mYys[kuh; czãkaM dk çfrfufèkRo djrk
;g vkerkSj ij lhekafdr ugÈ gksrk gS vkSj ;g lg;ksx dk gS tks rsth ls fldqM+rs ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa thfor jgus ds
{ks= gS tgk¡ laj{k.k] Kku vkSj çcaèku dkS'ky ykxw gksrs gSa fy, la?k"kZ dj jgk gSA
vkSj ck;ksLQh;j fjtoZ ds mís'; ds vuq:i mi;ksxksa dk
• Over 50 percent of the world’s plant species and 42
çcaèku fd;k tkrk gSA blesa cfLr;k¡] Qly Hkwfe] çcafèkr percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic
ou vkSj xgu euksjt a u ds fy, {ks= vkSj {ks= dh fo'ks"krk to the 35 biodiversity hot spots.
okys vU; vkÆFkd mi;ksx 'kkfey gSaA nqfu;k dh 50 çfr'kr ls vfèkd ouLifr çtkfr;k¡ vkSj
• (In Buffer Zone and the Transition Zones, manipulative lHkh LFkyh; d'ks#dh çtkfr;ksa esa ls 42 çfr'kr 35 tSo
macro-management practices are used. Experimental fofoèkrk g‚V Li‚V esa LFkkfud gSaA
research areas are used for understanding the patterns
and processes in the ecosystem. Modified or degraded The hottest hot spots / lcls g‚V Li‚V
landscapes are included as rehabilitation areas to restore
• Some hot spots are much richer than others in terms of
the ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable
their numbers of endemics.
productivity).
dqN g‚V Li‚V LFkkfud çtkfr;ksa dh la[;k ds ekeys esa
¼cQj tksu vkSj laØe.k {ks=ksa es]a tksM+&rksM+ okys
nwljksa dh rqyuk esa cgqr le`) gSaA
eSØks&çcaèku vH;klksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
• Five key factors have been taken into consideration and
ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= esa iSVuZ vkSj çfØ;kvksa dks le>us ds fy,
those biodiversity hot spot tops the list with respect to
çk;ksfxd vuqlaèkku {ks=ksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
these five factors are considered as hottest hot spots.
la'kksfèkr ;k {kh.k ifj–';ksa dks iquokZl {ks=ksa ds :i esa
ik¡p çeq[k dkjdksa dks è;ku esa j[kk x;k gS vkSj bu ik¡p
'kkfey fd;k tkrk gS rkfd ikfjfLFkfrdh dks bl rjg ls
dkjdksa ds lacèa k esa tks tSo fofoèkrk g‚V Li‚V lwph esa
cgky fd;k tk lds fd ;g LFkk;h mRikndrk ij okil
lcls Åij gSa mUgsa lcls g‚V Li‚V ekuk tkrk gSA
ykSV lds½A
Factors / dkjd
Biodiversity Hot Spots / tSo fofoèkrk g‚V Li‚V
• Endemic plants / LFkkfud ikSèks
• Biodiversity hot spot concept was put forth by Norman
Endemic vertebrates / LFkkfud d'ks#dh
Myers in 1988
• Endemic plants/area ratio (species per 100km2)
tSo fofoèkrk g‚V Li‚V voèkkj.kk dks 1988 esa u‚eZu ek;lZ
LFkkfud ikSèks@{ks= vuqikr ¼çfr 100 fdeh2 çtkfr;k¡½
us lkeus j[kk Fkk
• Endemic vertebrates/area ratio (species per 100km2)
• To qualify as a hot spot, a region must meet two strict
criteria:
LFkkfud d'ks#dh@{ks= vuqikr ¼çfr 100 fdeh2 çtkfr;k¡½
 29

• Remaining primary vegetation as % of original extent fgeky; ioZr dh vpkud 500 ehVj ls 8]000 ehVj ls
ewy foLrkj ds çfr'kr ds :i esa 'ks"k çkFkfed ouLifr vfèkd dh Åapkà rd c<+us ds ifj.kkeLo:i ikfjfLFkfrdh
• The eight hottest hot spots in terms of five factors ra= dh fofoèkrk gksrh gS] tks rygVh ds lkFk tyks<+ ?kkl
ik¡p dkjdksa ds lanHkZ esa vkB lcls xeZ LFkku ds eSnkuksa vkSj miks".kdfVcaèkh; pkSM+h iÙkh okys taxyksa ls
• Madagascar / esMkxkLdj ysdj eè; igkfM+;ksa esa le'khrks".k pkSM+h iÙkh okys taxyksa]
• Philippines / fQyhiÈl Åaph igkfM+;ksa esa fefJr 'kadqèkkjh vkSj 'kadqèkkjh taxyksa vkSj
• Sundaland / lqaMkySaM o`{k js[kk ls Åij vYikbu ?kkl ds eSnkuksa rd QSyh gqÃ
• Brazil’s Atlantic Forest / czkt+hy dk vVykafVd ou gSA
• Caribbean / dSfjfc;u
• Indo-Burma / baMks&cekZ Indo-Burma / baMks&cekZ
• Western Ghats/Sri Lanka/ if'peh ?kkV@Jhyadk Region: / {ks=%
• Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya • The Indo-Burma region encompasses several countries.
These eight `hottest hot spots’, appear at least three baMks&cekZ {ks= dà ns'kksa dks 'kkfey djrk gSA
times in the top ten listings for each factor. • It is spread out from Eastern Bangladesh to Malaysia
iwoÊ vkdZ vkSj ratkfu;k@dsU;k ds rVh; ou ;s vkB ^lcls and includes North-Eastern India south of Brahmaputra
xeZ LFkku^] çR;sd dkjd ds fy, 'kh"kZ nl lwfp;ksa esa de river, Myanmar, the southern part of China’s Yunnan
ls de rhu ckj fn[kkbZ nsrs gSaA province, Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand.
Indian Biodiversity Hot Spots / Hkkjrh; tSo fofoèkrk g‚V ;g iwoÊ ckaXykns'k ls eysf'k;k rd QSyk gqvk gS vkSj blesa
Li‚V czãiq= unh ds nf{k.k esa mÙkj&iwoÊ Hkkjr] E;kaekj] phu ds
• There are 4 biodiversity hot spots present in India. They ;qUuku çkar dk nf{k.kh Hkkx] ykvks ihiqYl MseksØsfVd
are: fjifCyd] dacksfM;k] fo;ruke vkSj FkkÃySaM 'kkfey gSaA
Hkkjr esa 4 tSo fofoèkrk g‚V Li‚V ekStwn gSaA os gSa%
• The Himalayas / fgeky; Western Ghats and Sri Lanka / if'peh ?kkV vkSj Jhyadk
• Indo- Burma and / baMks&cekZ vkSj • Western Ghats, also known as the “Sahyadri Hills”
• The western Ghats & Sri Lanka / if'peh ?kkV vkSj encompasses the mountain forests in the southwestern
Jhyadk parts of India and highlands of southwestern Sri Lanka.
• Sunderland / lqanjySaM if'peh ?kkV] ftls Þlákfæ fgYlß ds uke ls Hkh tkuk
tkrk gS] Hkkjr ds nf{k.k&if'peh Hkkxksa vkSj nf{k.k&if'peh
The Eastern Himalayas Hot Spot / iwoÊ fgeky; g‚V Li‚V Jhyadk ds Åaps bykdksa esa igkM+h taxyksa dks 'kkfey djrk
About the region: / {ks= ds ckjs es%a gSA
• The Eastern Himalayas is the region encompassing • The entire extent of hotspot was originally about
Bhutan, northeastern India, and southern, central, and 1,82,500 square kms, but due to tremendous population
eastern Nepal. The region is geologically young and pressure, now only 12,445 square Km or 6.8% is in
shows high altitudinal variation. pristine condition.
iwoÊ fgeky; HkwVku] iwoksZÙkj Hkkjr vkSj nf{k.kh] eè; vkSj g‚VLi‚V dh iwjh lhek ewy :i ls yxHkx 1]82]500 oxZ
iwoÊ usiky dks 'kkfey djus okyk {ks= gSA ;g {ks= HkwxHkÊ; fdyksehVj Fkh] ysfdu tcjnLr tula[;k ncko ds dkj.k]
:i ls ;qok gS vkSj mPp Åapkà fHkUurk n'kkZrk gSA vc dsoy 12]445 oxZ fdyksehVj ;k 6-8% gh çkphu fLFkfr
• The abrupt rise of the Himalayan Mountains from less esa gSA
than 500 meters to more than 8,000 meters results in a • The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western
diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial Ghats, coupled with the region’s complex geography,
grasslands and subtropical broad leaf forests along the produces a great variety of vegetation types.
foothills to temperate broad leaf forests in the mid hills, if'peh ?kkV esa o"kkZ iSVuZ dh O;kid fofoèkrk] {ks= dh
mixed conifer and conifer forests in the higher hills, and tfVy Hkwxksy ds lkFk feydj] ouLifr ds çdkjksa dh ,d
alpine meadows above the tree line. cM+h fofoèkrk iSnk djrh gSA
 30

• These include scrub forests in the low-lying rainshadow çkFkfed çnw"kd% ;s ml :i esa cus jgrs gSa] ftl :i esa os
areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests i;kZoj.k esa tksM+s tkrs gSa] tSls MhMhVh] IykfLVdA
up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of • Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction
montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 among the primary pollutants.
meters. f}rh;d çnw"kd% ;s çkFkfed çnw"kdksa ds chp ijLij fØ;k
buesa fupys o"kkZNk;k {ks=ksa vkSj eSnkuh bykdksa esa >kM+hnkj ls curs gSaA
taxy] yxHkx 1]500 ehVj dh Å¡pkà rd i.kZikrh vkSj • For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by
m".kdfVcaèkh; o"kkZou] vkSj 1]500 ehVj ls Åij ioZrh; the interaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.
taxyksa vkSj yq<d
+ rs ?kkl ds eSnkuksa dk ,d vuwBk ekst+sd mnkgj.k ds fy,] isjksDlh,flVkby ukbVªVs ¼ih,,u½
'kkfey gSA ukbVªkt
s u v‚DlkbM vkSj gkbMªksdkcZu dh ijLij fØ;k ls
• In Sri Lanka diversity includes dry evergreen forests to curk gSA
dipterocarpus dominated rainforests to tropical
montane cloud forest. According to their existence in nature / ç—fr esa muds
Jhyadk esa fofoèkrk esa 'kq"d lnkcgkj ou ls ysdj vfLrRo ds vuqlkj
fMIVsjksdkiZl cgqy o"kkZou vkSj m".kdfVcaèkh; ioZrh; ckny • Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and
ou 'kkfey gSa become pollutant when their concentration reaches
beyond a threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen
Pollutants / çnw"kd oxide.
• Pollution is defined as ‘an addition or excessive ek=kRed çnw"kd% ;s ç—fr esa ik, tkrs gSa vkSj tc budh
addition of certain materials to the physical lkaærk lhek ls vfèkd gks tkrh gS rks ;s çnw"kd cu tkrs
environment (water, air and lands), making it less fit or gSaA tSls dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM] ukbVªkt
s u v‚DlkbMA
unfit for life’. • Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature and
çnw"k.k dks *HkkSfrd i;kZoj.k ¼ty] ok;q vkSj Hkwfe½ esa dqN are man-made. E.g. fungicides, herbicides, DDT etc.
inkFkksZa dk vR;fèkd ;k vfrfjä feJ.k] tks bls thou ds xq.kkRed çnw"kd% ;s ç—fr esa ugÈ ik, tkrs vkSj ekuo
fy, de mi;qä ;k vuqi;qä cukrk gS* ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fuÆer gksrs gSaA tSls doduk'kh] 'kkduk'kh] MhMhVh vkfnA
fd;k tkrk gSA
• Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause According to their nature of disposal / fuiVku dh ç—fr
adverse effect on the natural quality of any component ds vuqlkj
of the environment.
• Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products, which are
çnw"kd os inkFkZ ;k dkjd gSa] tks i;kZoj.k ds fdlh Hkh degraded by microbial action. E.g. sewage.
?kVd dh çk—frd xq.koÙkk ij çfrdwy çHkko Mkyrs gSaA ck;ksfMxzsMcs y çnw"kd% vif'k"V mRikn] tks lw{ethoh fØ;k
• For example, smoke from industries and automobiles, }kjk fo?kfVr gksrs gSaA tSls lhostA
chemicals from factories, radioactive substances from
• Non-biodegradable Pollutants: Pollutants, which are
nuclear plants, sewage of houses and discarded
not decomposed by microbial action. E.g. plastics,
household articles are the common pollutants.
glass, DDT, salts of heavy metals, radioactive
mnkgj.k ds fy,] m|ksxksa vkSj v‚Vkseksckby ls fudyus substances etc.,)
okyk èkqvk¡] dkj[kkuksa ls fudyus okys jlk;u] ijek.kq la;a=ksa xSj&ck;ksfMxzsMcs y çnw"kd% çnw"kd] tks lw{ethoh fØ;k }kjk
ls fudyus okys jsfM;ksèkeÊ inkFkZ] ?kjksa dk ey vkSj ?kjsyw fo?kfVr ugÈ gksrs gSaA tSls IykfLVd] dkap] MhMhVh] Hkkjh
lkeku vke çnw"kd gSaA èkkrqvksa ds yo.k] jsfM;ksèkeÊ inkFkZ vkfnA½

Classifications / oxÊdj.k According to origin / mRifÙk ds vuqlkj

According to the form in which they persist after release
• Natural / çk—frd
into the environment / i;kZoj.k esa NksMs+ tkus ds ckn ftl
:i esa os cus jgrs gSa] mlds vuqlkj • Anthropogenic / ekuotfur
• Primary pollutants: These persist in the form in which
they are added to the environment e.g. DDT, plastic.
 31

Air Pollution / ok;q çnw"k.k Carbon dioxide (CO2) / dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM ¼CO2½
• Air pollution is aggravated because of four • It is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of
developments: increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid human activities such as the burning of coal, oil, and
economic development, and industrialization. natural gases.
ok;q çnw"k.k pkj fodklksa ds dkj.k c<+ jgk gS% c<+rk ;g dks;yk] rsy vkSj çk—frd xSlksa ds tyus tSlh ekuoh;
;krk;kr] c<+rs 'kgj] rsth ls vkÆFkd fodkl vkSj xfrfofèk;ksa ds ifj.kkeLo:i mRlÆtr gksus okyh çeq[k
vkS|ksxhdj.kA xzhugkml xSl gSA
• The presence in the atmosphere of one or more
contaminants in such quality and for such duration as it Chloroflorocarbons (CFC) / Dyksjks¶yksjksdkcZu ¼lh,Qlh½
is injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human health or • These are gases that are released mainly from air-
welfare, animal or plant life.’ conditioning systems and refrigeration.
^ok;qeaMy esa ,d ;k ,d ls vfèkd çnw"kdksa dh ,slh xq.koÙkk ;s xSlsa gSa tks eq[; :i ls ,;j&daMh'kÇux flLVe vkSj
vkSj ,slh vofèk ds fy, ekStwnxh tks ekuo LokLF; ;k jsfÝtjs'ku ls fudyrh gSaA
dY;k.k] i'kq ;k ikSèks ds thou ds fy, gkfudkjd gS ;k • When released into the air, CFCs rise to the
gkfudkjd gksus dh ço`fÙk j[krh gSA* stratosphere, where they come in contact with few other
• It is the contamination of air by the discharge of harmful gases, which lead to a reduction of the ozone layer that
substances. protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of
;g gkfudkjd inkFkksZa ds mRltZu }kjk ok;q dk lanw"k.k gSA the sun.
• Air pollution can cause health problems, damage the gok esa NksM+s tkus ij] CFCs lerki eaMy esa Åij mBrs
environment, property and climate change. gSa] tgk¡ os dqN vU; xSlksa ds laidZ esa vkrs gSa] ftlls
ok;q çnw"k.k LokLF; leL;kvks]a i;kZoj.k] laifÙk vkSj tyok;q vkstksu ijr esa deh vkrh gS tks i`Foh dks lw;Z dh gkfudkjd
ifjorZu dks uqdlku igqapk ldrk gSA ijkcSaxuh fdj.kksa ls cpkrh gSA

Major air pollutants and their sources / çeq[k ok;q çnw"kd Lead / lhlk
vkSj muds lzksr • It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair
Carbon monoxide (CO) / dkcZu eksuksv‚DlkbM ¼CO½ dye products, etc. Lead affects children in particular.
• It is a colourless, odourless gas that is produced by the ;g isVªksy] Mhty] lhlk cSVjh] isaV] gs;j Mkà mRiknksa vkfn
incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels including esa ekStwn gksrk gSA lhlk fo'ks"k :i ls cPpksa dks çHkkfor
petrol, diesel, and wood. djrk gSA
;g ,d jaxghu] xaèkghu xSl gS tks isVªky
s ] Mhty vkSj • It can cause nervous system damage and digestive
ydM+h lfgr dkcZu&vkèkkfjr bZaèku ds vèkwjs tyus ls problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.
mRiUu gksrh gSA ;g raf=dk ra= dks uqdlku igq¡pk ldrk gS vkSj ikpu
• It is also produced from the combustion of natural and lacèa kh leL;k,¡ iSnk dj ldrk gS vkSj dqN ekeyksa esa dSalj
synthetic products such as cigarettes. dk dkj.k Hkh cu ldrk gSA
;g flxjsV tSls çk—frd vkSj ÇlFksfVd mRiknksa ds ngu
ls Hkh mRiUu gksrh gSA Ozone / vkstksu
• It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood. • It occurs naturally in the upper layers of the atmosphere.
;g gekjs jä esa ços'k djus okyh v‚Dlhtu dh ek=k dks ;g ok;qeaMy dh Åijh ijrksa esa çk—frd :i ls ik;k tkrk
de djrh gSA gSA
• It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and • This important gas shields the earth from the harmful
sleepy. ultraviolet rays of the sun.
;g gekjh ltxrk dks èkhek dj ldrh gS vkSj gesa Hkzfer ;g egRoiw.kZ xSl i`Foh dks lw;Z dh gkfudkjd ijkcSaxuh
vkSj uÈn esa Mky ldrh gSA fdj.kksa ls cpkrh gSA
• However, at the ground level, it is a pollutant with
highly toxic effects.
 32

gkyk¡fd] tehuh Lrj ij] ;g vR;fèkd fo"kSys çHkkoksa okyk dqN vkS|ksfxd çfØ;k,¡] tSls dkxt+ dk mRiknu vkSj
çnw"kd gSA èkkrqvksa dks xykus ls lYQj Mkbv‚DlkbM curk gSA
• Vehicles and industries are the major source of • It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain. Sulfur
groundlevel ozone emissions. dioxide can lead to lung diseases.
okgu vkSj m|ksx tehuh Lrj ij vkstksu mRltZu dk çeq[k ;g Le‚x vkSj ,flM jsu esa eq[; ;ksxnkudrkZ gSA lYQj
lzkrs gSaA Mkbv‚DlkbM QsQM+ksa dh chekfj;ksa dk dkj.k cu ldrk gSA
• Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers
our resistance to cold and pneumonia. Smog / Le‚x
vkstksu gekjh vk¡[kksa esa [kqtyh] tyu vkSj ikuh dk dkj.k • The term smog was first used (1905) by Dr H A Des
curk gSA ;g lnÊ vkSj fueksfu;k ds çfr gekjh çfrjksèkd Voeux
{kerk dks de djrk gSA Le‚x 'kCn dk igyh ckj bLrseky ¼1905½ M‚- ,p- ,- Msl
• Nitrogen oxide (Nox) / ukbVªkt s u v‚DlkbM ¼u‚Dl½ oksDl us fd;k Fkk
• It causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from • Smog has been coined from a combination of the words
burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal. fog and smoke. Smog is a condition of fog that had soot
;g Le‚x vkSj ,flM jsu dk dkj.k curk gSA ;g isVªksy] or smoke in it.
Mhty vkSj dks;ys tSls bZèku dks tykus ls curk gSA Le‚x dks Q‚x vkSj Leksd 'kCnksa ds la;kstu ls cuk;k x;k
• Nitrogen oxide can make children susceptible to gSA Le‚x dksgjs dh ,d ,slh fLFkfr gS ftlesa dkfy[k ;k
respiratory diseases in winters. èkqvka gksrk gSA
ukbVªkt
s u v‚DlkbM lÆn;ksa esa cPpksa dks lkal dh chekfj;ksa
ds çfr laons u'khy cuk ldrk gSA The Formation of Smog / Le‚x dk fuekZ.k
• Photochemical smog (smog) is a term used to describe
Suspended particulate matter (SPM) / LisM
a sM ikÆVdqysV air pollution that is a result of the interaction of sunlight
eSVj ¼,lih,e½ with certain chemicals in the atmosphere.
• It consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust, QksVksdSfedy Le‚x ¼Le‚x½ ,d 'kCn gS ftldk mi;ksx
and vapour that can remain suspended for extended ok;q çnw"k.k dk o.kZu djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS tks
periods and is also the main source of haze which ok;qeaMy esa dqN jlk;uksa ds lkFk lw;Z ds çdk'k dh ijLij
reduces visibility. fØ;k dk ifj.kke gSA
blesa èkqvk¡] èkwy vkSj ok"i ds :i esa gok esa ekStwn Bksl • One of the primary components of photochemical smog
inkFkZ gksrs gSa tks yacs le; rd gok esa yVds jg ldrs gSa is ozone.
vkSj èkqaèk dk eq[; lzkrs Hkh gksrs gSa ftlls –';rk de gks QksVksdSfedy Le‚x ds çkFkfed ?kVdksa esa ls ,d vkstksu gSA
tkrh gSA • While ozone in the stratosphere protects earth from
• The finer of these particles, when breathed in can lodge harmful UV radiation, ozone on the ground is hazardous
in our lungs and cause lung damage and respiratory to human health.
problems. tcfd lerki eaMy esa vkstksu i`Foh dks gkfudkjd ;woh
buesa ls eghu d.k lkal ds lkFk vanj tkus ij gekjs QsQM+ksa fofdj.k ls cpkrk gS] tehu ij vkstksu ekuo LokLF; ds
esa tkdj QsQM+kas dks uqdlku igqapk ldrs gSa vkSj lkal fy, [krjukd gSA
lacèa kh leL;k,a iSnk dj ldrs gSaA • Ground-level ozone is formed when vehicle emissions
containing nitrogen oxides (primarily from vehicle
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) / lYQj Mkbv‚DlkbM ¼ SO2½ exhaust) and volatile organic compounds (from paints,
• It is a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in solvents, printing inks, petroleum products, vehicles,
thermal power plants. etc.) interact in the presence of sunlight.
;g eq[; :i ls FkeZy ikoj IykaV esa dks;ys dks tykus ls xzkmaM&ysoy vkstksu rc curk gS tc ukbVªkstu v‚DlkbM
cuus okyh xSl gSA ¼eq[; :i ls okgu ds fudkl ls½ vkSj ok"i'khy dkcZfud
• Some industrial processes, such as production of paper ;kSfxd ¼isaV] l‚YoSaV~l] ÇçÇVx L;kgh] isVªksfy;e mRikn]
and smelting of metals, produce sulphur dioxide. okgu] vkfn½ ;qä okgu mRltZu lw;Z ds çdk'k dh
mifLFkfr esa ijLij fØ;k djrs gSaA
 33

• Smog refers to hazy air that causes difficult breathing • Indoor air pollution is a concern where energy
conditions. It is a combination of various gases with efficiency improvements sometimes make houses
water vapour and dust. relatively airtight, reducing ventilation and raising
Le‚x èkqaèkyh gok dks lanÆHkr djrk gS tks lkal ysus esa pollutant levels.
dfBukà iSnk djrk gSA ;g ty ok"i vkSj èkwy ds lkFk ?kj ds vanj dk ok;q çnw"k.k ,d Çprk dk fo"k; gS tgk¡
fofHkUu xSlksa dk feJ.k gSA ÅtkZ n{krk esa lqèkkj dHkh&dHkh ?kjksa dks vis{kk—r ok;qjksèkh
• Its occurrences are often linked to heavy traffic, high cuk nsrk gS] ftlls osafVys'ku de gks tkrk gS vkSj çnw"kd
temperatures, and calm winds. During the winter, wind dk Lrj c<+ tkrk gSA
speeds are low and cause the smoke and fog to stagnate • Indoor air problems can be subtle and do not always
near the ground; hence pollution levels can increase produce easily recognized impacts on health.
near ground level. ?kj ds vanj dh ok;q leL;k,¡ lw{e gks ldrh gSa vkSj ges'kk
bldh ?kVuk,¡ vDlj Hkkjh ;krk;kr] mPp rkieku vkSj LokLF; ij vklkuh ls igpkus tkus okys çHkko ugÈ Mkyrh
'kkar gokvksa ls tqM+h gksrh gSaA lÆn;ksa ds nkSjku] gok dh gSaA
xfr de gksrh gS vkSj èkqvk¡ vkSj dksgjk t+ehu ds ikl fLFkj • Different conditions are responsible for indoor air
gks tkrk gS( blfy, t+ehu ds ikl çnw"k.k dk Lrj c<+ pollution in the rural areas and the urban areas.
ldrk gSA xzkeh.k {ks=ksa vkSj 'kgjh {ks=ksa esa ?kj ds vanj ok;q çnw"k.k ds
• Its Smoke particles trapped in the fog gives it a fy, vyx&vyx ifjfLFkfr;k¡ ftEesnkj gSaA
yellow/black colour and this smog often settled over
cities for many days. Rural / xzkeh.k
dksgjs esa Qals èkq,¡ ds d.k bls ihyk@dkyk jax nsrs gSa vkSj • It is the rural areas that face the greatest threat from
;g èkqaèk vDlj dà fnuksa rd 'kgjksa ij Nkà jgrh gSA indoor pollution, where people rely on traditional fuels
such as firewood, charcoal, and cowdung for cooking
The effects of smog / èkqaèk ds çHkko and heating. Burning such fuels produces large amount
• It hampers visibility and harms the environment. of smoke and other air pollutants in the confined space
;g –';rk dks ckfèkr djrk gS vkSj i;kZoj.k dks uqdlku of the home, resulting in high exposure. Women and
igq¡pkrk gSA children are the groups most vulnerable as they spend
• respiratory problems / Üolu lacèa kh leL;k,¡ more time indoors and are exposed to the smoke.
• deaths relating to bronchial diseases
xzkeh.k {ks= gh gSa tks ?kj ds vanj çnw"k.k ls lcls T+;knk
czkfs Ud;y jksxksa ls lacafèkr ekSrasA [k+rjk eglwl djrs gSa] tgk¡ yksx [kkuk idkus vkSj xeZ
djus ds fy, ydM+h] ydM+h dk dks;yk vkSj xkscj tSls
• Heavy smog greatly decreases ultraviolet radiation.
Hkkjh èkqaèk ds dkj.k ijkcSaxuh fofdj.k esa cgqr deh vkrh ikjaifjd bZèku ij fuHkZj jgrs gSaA ,sls bZèku dks tykus ls
gSA ?kj ds lhfer LFkku esa cM+h ek=k esa èkqvk¡ vkSj vU; ok;q
çnw"kd mRiUu gksrs gSa] ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i mPp tksf[ke
• Heavy smog results in the decrease of natural vitamin
Hkkjh èkqaèk ds dkj.k çk—frd foVkfeu dh deh gksrh gSA gksrk gSA efgyk,¡ vkSj cPps lcls T+;knk vlqjf{kr lewg gSa
D;ksfa d os T+;knk le; ?kj ds vanj fcrkrs gSa vkSj èkq,¡ ds
• D production leading to a rise in the cases of rickets.
laidZ esa vkrs gSaA
Mh mRiknu ds dkj.k fjdsV~l ds ekeyksa esa o`f) gksrh gSA
• Although many hundreds of separate chemical agents
have been identified in the smoke from biofuels, the
Indoor air pollution / ?kj ds vanj dk ok;q çnw"k.k
four most serious pollutants are particulates, carbon
• It refers to the physical, chemical, and biological
monoxide, polycyclic organic matter, and
characteristics of air in the indoor environment within a
formaldehyde.
home, or an institution or commercial facility.
gkyk¡fd tSo bZèku ls fudyus okys èkq,¡ esa lSdM+kas
;g ?kj] ;k fdlh laLFkku ;k O;kolkf;d lqfoèkk ds vanj
vyx&vyx jklk;fud ,tsVa ik, x, gSa] ysfdu pkj lcls
ds okrkoj.k esa gok dh HkkSfrd] jklk;fud vkSj tSfod
xaHkhj çnw"kd d.k] dkcZu eksuksv‚DlkbM] i‚yhlkbfDyd
fo'ks"krkvksa dks lanÆHkr djrk gSA
dkcZfud inkFkZ vkSj Q+‚eZykMsgkbM gSaA
 34

Urban / 'kgjh Tobacco / rackdw

• In urban areas, exposure to indoor air pollution has • Smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals
increased due to a variety of reasons, such as and is carcinogenic.
'kgjh {ks=ksa esa] dà dkj.kksa ls ?kj ds vanj ok;q çnw"k.k ds èkqvka gkfudkjd jlk;uksa dh ,d foLr`r J`a[kyk mRiUu
laidZ esa o`f) gqà gS] tSls fd djrk gS vkSj dSaljdkjh gksrk gSA
• construction of more tightly sealed buildings, • Health effect - burning eyes, nose, and throat irritation
vfèkd dldj lhy dh xà bekjrksa dk fuekZ.k] to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in
• reduced ventilation, / de osafVys'ku] lung function.
• the use of synthetic materials for building and LokLF; çHkko & vka[kksa] ukd vkSj xys esa tyu] dSalj]
furnishing and czkad
s kbfVl] xaHkhj vLFkek vkSj QsQM+ksa dh dk;Z{kerk esa
fuekZ.k vkSj lkt&lTtk ds fy, ÇlFksfVd lkexzh dk dehA
mi;ksx vkSj
• the use of chemical products, pesticides, and household Biological pollutants / tSfod çnw"kd
care products. • It includes pollen from plants, mite, and hair from pets,
jklk;fud mRiknksa] dhVuk'kdksa vkSj ?kjsyw ns[kHkky mRiknksa fungi, parasites, and some bacteria. Most of them are
dk mi;ksxA allergens and can cause asthma, hay fever, and other
• Indoor air pollution can begin within the building or allergic diseases.
drawn in from outdoors. blesa ikSèkksa ls ijkx] ?kqu] ikyrw tkuojksa ds cky] dod]
buMksj ok;q çnw"k.k bekjr ds vanj ls 'kq: gks ldrk gS ;k ijthoh vkSj dqN cSDVhfj;k 'kkfey gSaA muesa ls vfèkdka'k
ckgj ls vk ldrk gSA ,ytÊ iSnk djus okys gksrs gSa vkSj vLFkek] gs Qhoj vkSj
• Other than nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and vU; ,ytÊ lacaèkh chekfj;ksa dk dkj.k cu ldrs gSaA
lead, there are a number of other pollutants that affect
the air quality. Formaldehyde / Q‚esZfYMgkbM
ukbVªkt
s u Mkbv‚DlkbM] dkcZu eksuksv‚DlkbM vkSj ysM ds • Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation
vykok] dà vU; çnw"kd gSa tks ok;q dh xq.koÙkk dks çHkkfor foam. It causes irritation to the eyes and nose and
djrs gSaA allergies.
eq[; :i ls dkyhu] ikÆVdy cksMZ vkSj bUlqys'ku Qkse lsA
Pollutants / çnw"kd ;g vka[kksa vkSj ukd esa tyu vkSj ,ytÊ dk dkj.k curk
Volatile organic compounds / ok"i'khy dkcZfud ;kSfxd gSA
• The main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays,
furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellents, Radon / jsM‚u
wood preservatives, and other products. • It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to
eq[; buMksj lzkrs ij¶;we] gs;j Lçs] QuÊpj i‚fy'k] xksan] modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined
,;j Ýs'kuj] dhV fjisysaV] ydM+h laj{kd vkSj vU; mRikn inside the house and causes lung cancers.
gSaA ;g ,d xSl gS tks feêh ls çk—frd :i ls fudyrh gSA
• Health effect - irritation of the eye, nose and throat,
vkèkqfud ?kjksa esa [kjkc osafVys'ku ds dkj.k] ;g ?kj ds vanj
headaches, nausea and loss of coordination. gh lhfer jgrh gS vkSj QsQM+ksa ds dSalj dk dkj.k curh
LokLF; çHkko & vka[k] ukd vkSj xys esa tyu] fljnnZ] gSA
eryh vkSj leUo; dh gkfuA
• long term - suspected to damage the liver and other parts Asbestos / ,LcsLVl
of the body. Pesticides / dhVuk'kd
nh?kZdkfyd & ;—r vkSj 'kjhj ds vU; Hkkxksa dks uqdlku
igqapkus dk lansg gSA Fly Ash / ¶ykà ,s'k
• Ash is produced whenever combustion of solid material
takes place.
tc Hkh Bksl inkFkZ dk ngu gksrk gS] rks jk[k curh gSA
 35

• Fly ash is one such residue which rises with the gases vxj ¶ykà ,s'k dks Bhd ls idM+dj mldk fuiVku ugÈ
into the atmosphere. Fly ash is a very fine powder and fd;k tkrk gS] rks ;g gok vkSj ikuh dks dkQh gn rd
tends to travel far in the air. The ash which does not rise çnwf"kr dj ldrh gSA
is termed as bottom ash. • It causes respiratory problems.
¶ykà ,s'k ,d ,slk vo'ks"k gS tks xSlksa ds lkFk ok;qeaMy blls Üolu lacèa kh leL;k,¡ gksrh gSaA
esa Åij mBrk gSA ¶ykà ,s'k ,d cgqr gh eghu ikmMj • Fly ash in the air slowly settles on leaves and crops in
gksrk gS vkSj gok esa nwj rd QSy tkrk gSA tks jk[k Åij fields in areas near to thermal power plants and lowers
ugÈ mBrh mls c‚Ve ,s'k dgrs gSaA the plant yield.
• Nearly 73% of India’s total installed power generation FkeZy ikoj IykaV ds vkl&ikl ds {ks=ksa esa gok esa ekStwn
capacity is thermal, of which 90% is coal-based ¶ykà ,s'k èkhjs&èkhjs ifÙk;ksa vkSj Qlyksa ij te tkrh gS
generation, with diesel, wind, gas, and steam making up vkSj ikSèkksa dh mit dks de dj nsrh gSA
the rest.
Hkkjr dh dqy LFkkfir fctyh mRiknu {kerk dk yxHkx Advantages / ykHk
73% FkeZy gS] ftlesa ls 90% dks;yk vkèkkfjr mRiknu gS] • Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto 35%, thus
tcfd ckdh Mhty] iou] xSl vkSj Hkki ls curk gSA reducing the cost of construction, making roads, etc.
lhesaV dks ¶ykà ,s'k ls 35% rd cnyk tk ldrk gS] ftlls
Composition / lajpuk fuekZ.k] lM+d cukus vkfn dh ykxr de gks tkrh gSA
• Aluminium silicate (in large amounts) • Fly ash bricks are light in weight and offer high strength
,Y;qfefu;e flfydsV ¼cM+h ek=k esa½ and durability.
• Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and ¶ykà ,s’k bZVsa otu esa gYdh gksrh gSa vkSj mPp 'kfä vkSj
flfyd‚u Mkbv‚DlkbM ¼SiO2½ vkSj LFkkf;Ro çnku djrh gSaA
• Calcium oxide (CaO). • Fly ash is a better fill material for road embankments
dSfY'k;e v‚DlkbM ¼CaO½A and in concrete roads.
• Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of silica, ¶ykà ,s'k lM+d rVcaèkksa vkSj daØhV lM+dksa ds fy, ,d
alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and magnesium and csgrj Hkjko lkexzh gSA
toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and • Fly ash can be used in reclamation of wastelands.
copper. ¶ykà ,s'k dk mi;ksx catj Hkwfe ds lqèkkj esa fd;k tk
¶ykà ,s'k ds d.k v‚DlkbM ls Hkjiwj gksrs gSa vkSj buesa ldrk gSA
flfydk] ,Y;qfeuk] vk;ju] dSfY'k;e vkSj eSXuhf'k;e ds • Abandoned mines can be filled up with fly ash.
v‚DlkbM vkSj lhlk] vklsZfud] dksckYV vkSj d‚ij tSlh ifjR;ä [knkuksa dks ¶ykà ,s'k ls Hkjk tk ldrk gSA
tgjhyh Hkkjh èkkrq,¡ gksrh gSaA • Fly ash can increase the crop yield and it also enhances
water holding capacity of the land.
How it is collected? / bls dSls ,d= fd;k tkrk gS\ ¶ykà ,s'k Qly dh mit c<+k ldrh gS vkSj ;g Hkwfe dh
• Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic ty èkkj.k {kerk dks Hkh c<+krh gSA
precipitators or other particle filtration equipments
before the flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired Policy measures of MoEF / i;kZoj.k ,oa ou ea=ky; ds
power plants.
uhfrxr mik;
¶ykà ,s'k dks vke rkSj ij bysDVªksLVSfVd çhflfiVsVj ;k
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests vide its
vU; d.k fuLianu midj.kksa }kjk dks;ys ls pyus okys notification in 2009, has made it mandatory to use Fly
fctyh la;a=ksa dh fpefu;ksa rd igq¡pus ls igys gh idM+ Ash based products in all construction projects, road
fy;k tkrk gSA embankment works and low lying land filling works
within 100 kms radius of Thermal Power Station.
Environmental effects? / i;kZoj.kh; çHkko\
i;kZoj.k ,oa ou ea=ky; us 2009 esa viuh vfèklwpuk ds
ekè;e ls FkeZy ikoj LVs'ku ds 100 fdyksehVj ds nk;js
• If fly ash is not captured and disposed off properly, it esa lHkh fuekZ.k ifj;kstukvks]a lM+d rVcaèk fuekZ.k dk;ksZ vkSj
can pollute air and water considerably. fupyh Hkwfe Hkjkà dk;ksZ esa ¶ykà ,s'k vkèkkfjr mRiknksa dk
mi;ksx djuk vfuok;Z dj fn;k gSA
 36

• To use Fly Ash in mine filling activities within 50 kms • A mixed trend is observed in NO2 levels due to various
radius of Thermal Power Stations. measures taken for vehicular pollution control, such as
FkeZy ikoj LVs'kuksa ds 50 fdyksehVj ds nk;js esa [knku stricter vehicular emission norms being partially offset
Hkjus dh xfrfofèk;ksa esa ¶ykà ,s'k dk mi;ksx djukA by increased NOx levels due to the use of CNG in urban
transport.
Government Initiatives / ljdkjh igy okgu çnw"k.k fu;a=.k ds fy, fd, x, fofHkUu mik;ksa ds
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme / jk"Vªh; dkj.k NO2 ds Lrjksa esa fefJr ço`fÙk ns[kh xà gS] tSls fd
ok;q xq.koÙkk fuxjkuh dk;ZØe 'kgjh ifjogu esa CNG ds mi;ksx ds dkj.k NOx ds c<+s
• In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) gq, Lrjksa }kjk okguksa ds mRltZu ekunaMksa dks vkaf'kd :i
has been executing a nationwide programme of ambient ls de fd;k tkukA
air quality monitoring known as National Air Quality • Total suspended particulates, however, are still a matter
Monitoring Programme (NAMP). of concern in several urban and semi urban areas.
Hkkjr es]a dsæa h; çnw"k.k fu;a=.k cksMZ ¼lhihlhch½ jk"Vªh; ok;q gkykafd] dqy fuyafcr d.k vHkh Hkh dà 'kgjh vkSj vèkZ
xq.koÙkk fuxjkuh dk;ZØe ¼,u,,eih½ ds :i esa tkuk tkus 'kgjh {ks=ksa esa Çprk dk fo"k; gSaA
okyk ifjos'kh ok;q xq.koÙkk fuxjkuh dk ,d jk"VªO;kih
dk;ZØe fØ;kfUor dj jgk gSA National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) /
• The National Air Quality Monitoring Programme jk"Vªh; ifjos'kh ok;q xq.koÙkk ekud ¼ NAAQS½
(NAMP) is undertaken in India • National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Hkkjr esa jk"Vªh; ok;q xq.koÙkk fuxjkuh dk;ZØe ¼,u,,eih½ were notified in the year 1982, duly revised in 1994
• to determine status and trends of ambient air quality; based on health criteria and land uses.
ifjos'kh ok;q xq.koÙkk dh fLFkfr vkSj ço`fÙk;ksa dk fuèkkZj.k jk"Vªh; ifjos'kh ok;q xq.koÙkk ekud ¼NAAQS½ o"kZ 1982 esa
djus ds fy,( vfèklwfpr fd, x, Fks] ftUgsa LokLF; ekunaMksa vkSj Hkwfe
• to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS; mi;ksx ds vkèkkj ij 1994 esa fofèkor la'kksfèkr fd;k x;k
FkkA
• ,u,,D;w,l ds vuqikyu dk irk yxkus ds fy,(
• The NAAQS have been revisited and revised in
• to identify non-attainment cities;
November 2009 for 12 pollutants, which include
xSj&çkfIr 'kgjksa dh igpku djus ds fy,(
uoacj 2009 esa 12 çnw"kdksa ds fy, NAAQS dh leh{kk
• to understand the natural process of cleaning in the
dh xà vkSj mls la'kksfèkr fd;k x;k] ftuesa 'kkfey gSa
atmosphere; and
• sulphur dioxide (SO2),
okrkoj.k esa lQkà dh çk—frd çfØ;k dks le>us ds fy,(
lYQj Mkbv‚DlkbM ¼SO2½]
vkSj
• nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
• to undertake preventive and corrective measures.
ukbVªkt
s u Mkbv‚DlkbM ¼NO2½]
fuokjd vkSj lqèkkjkRed mik; djus ds fy,A
• particulate matter having size less than 10 micron
• Annual average concentration of SOx levels are within
(PM10),
the prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards
10 ekbØksu ls de vkdkj okys d.k inkFkZ ¼PM10½]
(NAAQS).
SOx Lrjksa dh okÆ"kd vkSlr lkaærk fuèkkZfjr jk"Vªh; • particulate matter having size less than 2.5 micron
(PM2.5),
ifjos'kh ok;q xq.koÙkk ekudksa ¼NAAQS½ ds Hkhrj gSA
2-5 ekbØksu ls de vkdkj okys d.k inkFkZ ¼PM2.5½]
• This reduction from earlier levels is due to various
measures taken, including the use of CNG in public • ozone, / vkstksu]
transport in Delhi, the reduction of sulphur in diesel and • lead, / lhlk]
use of LPG instead of coal as a domestic fuel. • carbon monoxide (CO), / dkcZu eksuksv‚DlkbM ¼CO½]
igys ds Lrjksa ls ;g deh fofHkUu mik;ksa ds dkj.k gS]
ftlesa fnYyh esa lkoZtfud ifjogu esa CNG dk mi;ksx]
Mhty esa lYQj dh deh vkSj ?kjsyw bZèku ds :i esa dks;ys
ds ctk; LPG dk mi;ksx 'kkfey gSA
 37

National Air Quality Index / jk"Vªh; ok;q xq.koÙkk lwpdkad • 2014 global analysis of how nations tackle
• National Air Quality Index was launched by the Prime environmental challenges has ranked India 155 among
Minister in April, 2015 starting with 14 cities to 177 nations and labelled the country’s air quality among
disseminate air quality information. The AQI has six the worst in the world.
categories of air quality, viz Good, Satisfactory, 2014 esa i;kZoj.k pqukSfr;ksa ls fuiVus ds fy, ns'kksa ds
Moderately Polluted, Poor, Very Poor and Severe with oSfÜod fo'ys"k.k esa Hkkjr dks 177 ns'kksa esa 155osa LFkku ij
distinct colour scheme. Each of these categories is j[kk x;k gS vkSj ns'k dh ok;q xq.koÙkk dks nqfu;k esa lcls
associated with likely health impacts. AQI considers [kjkc crk;k x;k gSA
eight pollutants (PM10, PM 2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3,
• India is placed as the “bottom performer” on several
NH3 and Pb) for which (up to 24-hourly averaging
indicators such as environmental health impact, air
period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are
prescribed. quality, water and sanitation and india’s environment
vçSy] 2015 esa çèkkuea=h }kjk ok;q xq.koÙkk lwpuk ds çlkj health severly lags behind the BRICS nations –
ds fy, 14 'kgjksa ls 'kq: djrs gq, jk"Vªh; ok;q xq.koÙkk Environmental Performance Index 2014.
lwpdkad 'kq: fd;k x;k FkkA AQI esa ok;q xq.koÙkk dh Ng i;kZoj.k LokLF; çHkko] ok;q xq.koÙkk] ty vkSj LoPNrk
Jsf.k;ka gSa] tSls fd vPNk] larks"ktud] eè;e çnwf"kr] [kjkc] tSls dà ladsrdksa ij Hkkjr dks Þlcls fupys çn'kZudrkZß
cgqr [kjkc vkSj xaHkhj] ftudh vyx&vyx jax ;kstuk gSA ds :i esa j[kk x;k gS vkSj Hkkjr dk i;kZoj.k LokLF; fczDl
buesa ls çR;sd Js.kh laHkkfor LokLF; çHkkoksa ls tqM+h gSA ns'kksa & i;kZoj.k çn'kZu lwpdkad 2014 ls dkQ+h ihNs gSA
AQI vkB çnw"kdksa ¼PM10] PM 2-5] NO2] SO2] CO] O3] • The Ganga and Yamuna are ranked among the world’s
NH3 vkSj Pb½ ij fopkj djrk gS] ftuds fy, ¼24 ?kaVs 10 most polluted rivers.
dh vkSlr vofèk rd½ jk"Vªh; ifjos'kh ok;q xq.koÙkk ekud xaxk vkSj ;equk nqfu;k dh 10 lcls çnwf"kr ufn;ksa esa ls
fuèkkZfjr fd, x, gSaA gSaA
• Despite the directives of the National Green Tribunal,
Air Pollution in India / Hkkjr esa ok;q çnw"k.k civic agencies continue to allow concretisation in green
Air Pollution in India / Hkkjr esa ok;q çnw"k.k belts. Booming real estate and demand for housing units
• India’s air pollution, ranked among the worst in the is leading to change of land use and shrinkage of natural
world is adversely impacting the lifespan of its citizens, conservation zones such as forests, water bodies,
reducing most Indian lives by over three years - WHO. wastelands, sanctuaries, groundwater rechargeable
Hkkjr dk ok;q çnw"k.k] tks nqfu;k esa lcls [kjkc esa ls ,d areas.
gS] vius ukxfjdksa ds thoudky ij çfrdwy çHkko Mky jk"Vªh; gfjr vfèkdj.k ds funsZ'kksa ds ckotwn] ukxfjd
jgk gS] ftlls vfèkdka'k Hkkjrh; rhu lky ls vfèkd le; ,tsfa l;k¡ gfjr iêh esa daØhVhdj.k dh vuqefr ns jgh gSaA
rd thfor jg ldrs gSa & WHOA fj;y ,LVsV esa mNky vkSj vkokl bdkb;ksa dh ekax ds
• Over half of India’s population – 660 million people– dkj.k Hkwfe mi;ksx esa cnyko gks jgk gS vkSj ou] ty
live in areas where fine particulate matter pollution is
fudk;] catj Hkwfe] vHk;kj.;] Hkwty iquHkZj.k ;ksX; {ks= tSls
above India’s standards for what is considered safe-
çk—frd laj{k.k {ks= fldqM+ jgs gSaA
‘Economic & Political Weekly’
• Mindless concretisation of ground and green belts and
Hkkjr dh vkèkh ls T+;knk vkcknh & 660 fefy;u yksx &
,sls bykdksa esa jgrs gSa tgk¡ eghu d.k çnw"k.k Hkkjr ds booming real estate has led to heat island effect –
lqjf{kr ekus tkus okys ekudksa ls dgÈ T+;knk gS& shortwave radiations emanate from concrete surfaces at
^bdksu‚fed ,aM i‚fyfVdy ohdyh* night time. Concretisation prevents ground water
• Of the world’s top 20 polluted cities, 13 are in India. Air recharge thus depleting green cover. Tall buildings also
pollution slashes life expectancy by 3.2 years for the block winds thereby reducing their cooling effect.
660 million Indians who live in cities. Excessive concretisation also leads to weakening of
nqfu;k ds lcls T+;knk çnwf"kr 20 'kgjksa esa ls 13 Hkkjr esa trees.
gSaA ok;q çnw"k.k ds dkj.k 'kgjksa esa jgus okys 660 fefy;u
Hkkjrh;ksa dh thou çR;k'kk 3-2 lky de gks tkrh gSA
 38

Hkwfe vkSj gfjr iêh esa vaèkkèkqaèk daØhVhdj.k vkSj fj;y • Put controls on other pollution sources.
,LVsV esa mNky ds dkj.k ghV vkbySaM çHkko iSnk gks jgk vU; çnw"k.k lzkrs ksa ij fu;a=.k yxkukA
gS & jkr ds le; daØhV dh lrgksa ls 'k‚VZoos fofdj.k
fudyrs gSaA daØhVhdj.k ls Hkwty iquHkZj.k esa ckèkk vkrh Water Pollution / ty çnw"k.k
gS] ftlls gfjr {ks= de gksrk gSA Åaph bekjrsa gok dks Hkh • ‘Addition of certain substances to the water such as
jksdrh gSa] ftlls mudk BaMk djus okyk çHkko de gks organic, inorganic, biological, radiological, heat, which
tkrk gSA vR;fèkd daØhVhdj.k ls isM+ Hkh detksj gksrs gSaA degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit
• The environmental crisis in India is many-sided and for use’. Water pollution is not only confined to surface
multi-faceted which has to be addressed on different water, but it has also spread to ground water, sea and
fronts and by a variety of different actors. We need to ocean.
harness scientific and social-scientific expertise to ikuh esa dqN inkFkksZ tSls dkcZfud] vdkcZfud] tSfod]
develop and promote eco-friendly technologies in jsfM;ksy‚ftdy] xeÊ dk feJ.k] tks ikuh dh xq.koÙkk dks
construction, energy, water management, industrial [kjkc dj nsrk gS ftlls ;g mi;ksx ds fy, vuqi;qä gks
production and transportation. Scientific innovation tkrk gSA* ty çnw"k.k dsoy lrgh ty rd gh lhfer ugÈ
needs to be complemented by legislative change as well gS] cfYd ;g Hkwty] leqæ vkSj egklkxj esa Hkh QSy x;k
as by changes in social behaviour. gSA
Hkkjr esa i;kZoj.k ladV cgqvk;keh vkSj cgqvk;keh gS]
ftldk lekèkku fofHkUu ekspks± ij vkSj fofHkUu çdkj ds Types of sources / lzksrksa ds çdkj
fofHkUu vfHkusrkvksa }kjk fd;k tkuk gSA gesa fuekZ.k] ÅtkZ] Point Sources / Çcnq lzksr
ty çcaèku] vkS|ksfxd mRiknu vkSj ifjogu esa i;kZoj.k • It is directly attributable to one influence. Here pollutant
vuqdwy çkS|ksfxfd;ksa dks fodflr djus vkSj c<+kok nsus ds travels directly from source to water. Point sources are
fy, oSKkfud vkSj lkekftd&oSKkfud fo'ks"kKrk dk
easy to regulate.
mi;ksx djus dh vko';drk gSA oSKkfud uokpkj dks
foèkk;h ifjorZu ds lkFk&lkFk lkekftd O;ogkj esa ifjorZu ;g lhèks ,d çHkko ds dkj.k gksrk gSA ;gk¡ çnw"kd lhèks
}kjk iwjd gksuk pkfg,A lzkrs ls ikuh esa igq¡prk gSA Çcnq lzkrs ksa dks fofu;fer djuk
vklku gSA
Measures to control/mitigate Delhi Air pollution / fnYyh
ok;q çnw"k.k dks fu;af=r@de djus ds mik; Diffuse or non-point source / QSyk gqvk ;k xSj&Çcnq lzksrA
• The city needs an implementation strategy to • It is from various ill defined and diffuse sources. They
'kgj dks ,d dk;kZUo;u j.kuhfr dh vko';drk gS vary spatially and temporally and are difficult to
• Reduce traffic and vehicles, regulate.
;krk;kr vkSj okguksa dks de djuk] ;g fofHkUu vifjHkkf"kr vkSj QSys gq, lzkrs ksa ls vkrk gSA os
• Cut dieselization,
LFkkfud vkSj ykSfdd :i ls fHkUu gksrs gSa vkSj mUgsa
Mhtyhdj.k esa dVkSrh djuk]
fofu;fer djuk eqf'dy gksrk gSA
• Scale up integrated public transport,
• The main sources of water pollution are as follows:
,dh—r lkoZtfud ifjogu dks c<+kuk]
• Facilitate walking and cycling,
ty çnw"k.k ds eq[; lzkrs bl çdkj gSa%
iSny pyus vkSj lkbfdy pykus dh lqfoèkk çnku djuk] • Community waste water: Include discharges from
• Tax polluting modes, houses, commercial and industrial establishments
çnw"k.kdkjh lkèkuksa ij dj yxkuk] connected to public sewerage system. The sewage
• Decide to implement Bharat Stage IV nationwide in contains human and animal excreta, food residues,
2015 and cleaning agents, detergents and other wastes. Industrial
2015 esa ns'k Hkj esa Hkkjr LVst IV vkSj Wastes: The industries discharge several inorganic and
• Euro VI in 2020 and organic pollutants, which may prove highly toxic to the
2020 esa ;wjks VI ykxw djus dk fu.kZ; ysuk vkSj living beings.
 39

lkeqnkf;d vif'k"V ty% ?kjksa] okf.kfT;d vkSj vkS|ksfxd Type of

Inorganic pollutants
Organic
çfr"Bkuksa ls fudyus okyk eyty tks lkoZtfud lhojst Industry pollutant
ç.kkyh ls tqM+k gqvk gSA lhost esa ekuo vkSj i'kq eyew=] Mining Mine Wastes: Chlorides,
various metals, ferrous
[kk| vo'ks"k] lQkà ,tsaV] fMVtsZV vkSj vU; vif'k"V gksrs
sulphate, sulphuric acid,
gSaA vkS|ksfxd vif'k"V% m|ksx dà vdkcZfud vkSj dkcZfud hydrogen sulphide,
çnw"kd NksM+rs gSa] tks thfor çkf.k;ksa ds fy, vR;fèkd ferric hydroxide, surface
fo"kkä lkfcr gks ldrs gSaA wash offs, suspended
solids, chlorides and
Agricultural sources / —f"k lzksr% heavy metals.
Iron and Suspended solids, iron Oil, phenol and
• Fertilizers contain major plant nutrients such as
Steel cyanide, thiocyanate, neptha
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
sulphides, oxides of
moZjdksa esa ukbVªkstu] QkLQksjl vkSj iksVsf'k;e tSls çeq[k copper, chromium,
ikSèkksa ds iks"kd rRo gksrs gSaA cadmium, and mercury
• Excess fertilizers may reach the ground water by Chemical Various acids and
Aromatic
leaching or may be mixed with surface water of rivers, Plants alkalies, chlorides,
compounds
lakes and ponds by runoff and drainage. sulphates, nitrates of solvents,
metals, phosphorus,organic acids,
vfrfjä moZjd fu{kkyu }kjk Hkwty rd igq¡p ldrs gSa ;k fluorine, silica and nitro compound
viokg vkSj ty fudklh }kjk ufn;ksa] >hyksa vkSj rkykcksa suspended particles. dyes, etc.
ds lrgh ty esa fey ldrs gSaA Pharmace Proteins,
• Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, utical carbohydrates,
nematicides, rodenticides and soil fumigants. organic solvent
dhVuk'kdksa esa dhVuk'kd] doduk'kh] 'kkduk'kh] intermediate
products, drugs
usekVkslkbM] —arduk'kd vkSj feêh ds ¶;wfexsaV 'kkfey gSaA
and antibiotics
• They contain a wide range of chemicals such as
Soap and Tertiary ammonium Flats and fatty
chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, metallic Detergent compounds alkalies acids, glycerol,
salts, carbonates, thiocarbonates, derivatives of acetic polyphosphates,
acid etc. Many of the pesticides are non-degradable and sulphonated
their residues have long life. hydrocarbons.
buesa Dyksjhu;qä gkbMªksdkcZu] v‚xZuksQ‚LQsV] èkkrq yo.k] Food Highly
processing putrescible
dkcksZusV] Fkk;ksdkcksZusV] ,flfVd ,flM ds O;qRiUu vkfn
organic matter
tSls dà çdkj ds jlk;u gksrs gSaA dà dhVuk'kd and pathogens
xSj&vi?kVuh; gksrs gSa vkSj muds vo'ks"k yacs le; rd Paper and Sulphides, bleaching Cellulose
cus jgrs gSaA Pulp liquors fibres, bark,
• The animal excreta such as dung, wastes from poultry woods sugars
farms, piggeries and slaughter houses etc. reach the organic acids.
water though run off and surface leaching during rainy
season.
i'kqvksa dk eyew= tSls xkscj] iksYVªh QkeZ] lwvj ikyu vkSj
cwpM+[kkuksa ls fudyus okyk dpjk vkfn cjlkr ds ekSle
esa cgdj ikuh esa igq¡p tkrk gSA
 40

m|ksx dk Thermal Pollution / FkeZy çnw"k.k

vdkcZfud çnw"kd dkcZfud çnw"kd
çdkj • The main sources are the thermal and nuclear power
[kuu [kku vif'k"V% plants. The power plants use water as coolant and
DyksjkbM] fofHkUu release hot waters to the original source. Sudden rise in
temperature kills fishes and other aquatic animals.
èkkrq,¡] Qsjl lYQsV]
eq[; lzkrs FkeZy vkSj ijek.kq ÅtkZ la;a= gSaA fctyh la;a=
lY¶;wfjd ,flM]
'khryd ds :i esa ikuh dk mi;ksx djrs gSa vkSj ewy lzksr
gkbMªkstu lYQkbM]
esa xeZ ikuh NksM+rs gSaA rkieku esa vpkud o`f) ls eNfy;k¡
Qsfjd gkbMª‚DlkbM]
vkSj vU; tyh; tkuoj ej tkrs gSaA
lrgh èkqykÃ] fuyafcr
Bksl] DyksjkbM vkSj
Underground water pollution / Hkwfexr ty çnw"k.k
Hkkjh èkkrq,¡A
• In India at many places, the ground water is threatened
yksgk vkSj fuyafcr Bksl inkFkZ] rsy] fQuksy vkSj
with contamination due to seepage from industrial and
bLikr ykSg lk;ukbM] usIFkk municipal wastes and effluents, sewage channels and
Fkk;kslkbusV] agricultural runoff.
lYQkbM] rkacs] Hkkjr esa dà LFkkuksa ij] vkS|ksfxd vkSj uxjikfydk vif'k"V
Øksfe;e] dSMfe;e vkSj vif'k"V] lhost pSuy vkSj —f"k viokg ls fjlko ds
vkSj ikjk ds dkj.k Hkwty nwf"kr gksus dk [krjk gSA
v‚DlkbM
jklk;fud fofHkUu vEy vkSj lqxafèkr ;kSfxd Marine pollution / leqæh çnw"k.k
la;a= {kkj] DyksjkbM] foyk;d] dkcZfud • Oceans are the ultimate sink of all natural and manmade
lYQsV] èkkrqvksa ds vEy] ukbVªks pollutants. Rivers discharge their pollutants into the sea.
ukbVªsV] QkLQksjl] ;kSfxd jatd] The sewerage and garbage of coastal cities are also
¶yksjhu] flfydk vkSj vkfnA dumped into the sea. The other sources of oceanic
fuyafcr d.kA pollution are navigational discharge of oil, grease,
QkekZL;wfVdy çksVhu] detergents, sewage, garbage and radioactive wastes, off
shore oil mining, oil spills.
dkcksZgkbMªVs ]
egklkxj lHkh çk—frd vkSj ekuo fuÆer çnw"kdksa dk vafre
dkcZfud foyk;d
Çld gSaA ufn;k¡ vius çnw"kdksa dks leqæ esa NksM+rh gSaA rVh;
eè;orÊ mRikn]
'kgjksa dk lhojst vkSj dpjk Hkh leqæ esa Qsadk tkrk gSA
nok,a vkSj
leqæh çnw"k.k ds vU; lzkrs rsy] xzhl] fMVtsZV] lhost]
,aVhck;ksfVDl
dpjk vkSj jsfM;ksèkeÊ vif'k"V] virVh; rsy [kuu] rsy
lkcqu vkSj r`rh;d veksfu;e ¶ySV~l vkSj QSVh
fjlko dk ukSogu fuoZgu gSaA
fMVtsZV ;kSfxd {kkj ,flM] fXylj‚y]
• Oil spills is one of the most dangerous of all water
i‚yhQ‚LQsV] pollutants.
lYQksuVs Ms rsy fjlko lHkh ty çnw"kdksa esa ls lcls [krjukd gSA
gkbMªksdkcZuA
• Oil spills from tankers at sea or leaks from underground
[kk| vR;fèkd lM+us storage tanks on land are very difficult to control as oil
çlaLdj.k okys dkcZfud tends to spread very fast, affecting a large area in a very
inkFkZ vkSj short time.
jksxtud leqæ esa VSadjksa ls rsy fjlko ;k Hkwfe ij Hkwfexr HkaMkj.k
dkxt vkSj lYQkbM] CyhÇpx lsY;wykst Qkbcj] VSadksa ls fjlko dks fu;af=r djuk cgqr eqf'dy gS D;ksafd
yqxnh fyfDoM Nky] ydM+h rsy cgqr rst+h ls QSyrk gS] tks cgqr de le; esa ,d cM+s
'kdZjk dkcZfud {ks= dks çHkkfor djrk gSA
vEyA
 41

• On land crude is transported through pipelines or ikuh esa dkcZfud vkSj vdkcZfud vif'k"Vksa dh mifLFkfr
tankers which can get damaged and spew out crude oil ikuh esa ?kqyh gqà v‚Dlhtu ¼DO½ dh ek=k dks de djrh
over the land, thereby contaminating it. gSA 8-0 mg L&1 ls de DO lkexzh okys ikuh dks nwf"kr
Hkwfe ij dPps rsy dks ikbiykbuksa ;k VSadjksa ds ekè;e ls ys
ekuk tk ldrk gSA 4-0 mg L&1 ls de DO lkexzh okys
tk;k tkrk gS tks {kfrxzLr gks ldrs gSa vkSj Hkwfe ij dPps rsy
ikuh dks vR;fèkd çnwf"kr ekuk tkrk gSA tyh; thoksa ds
dks QSyk ldrs gSa] ftlls Hkwfe nwf"kr gks ldrh gSA
vfLrRo ds fy, ikuh esa DO dh ek=k egRoiw.kZ gSA lrg
• Since crude oil is lighter than water, it floats on the
dh v'kkafr] çdk'k la'ys"k.k xfrfofèk] thoksa }kjk O2 dh
surface and poses the threat of swift-spreading fire.
[kir vkSj dkcZfud inkFkksZ dk vi?kVu tSls dà dkjd
pwfa d dPpk rsy ikuh ls gYdk gksrk gS] blfy, ;g lrg
,sls dkjd gSa tks ikuh esa ekStwn DO dh ek=k fuèkkZfjr
ij rSjrk gS vkSj rsth ls QSyus okyh vkx dk [krjk iSnk
djrs gSaA
djrk gSA
• The higher amounts of waste increases the rates of
• Oil spills at sea decrease the oxygen level in the water
decomposition and O2 consumption, thereby decreases
and cause harm to the organisms.
the DO content of water. The demand for O2 is directly
leqæ esa rsy fjlko ls ikuh esa v‚Dlhtu dk Lrj de gks
related to increasing input of organic wastes and is
tkrk gS vkSj thoksa dks uqdlku igq¡prk gSA empressed as biological oxygen demand (BOD) of
• Oil spills are also a source of air and groundwater water.
pollution. vif'k"V dh vfèkd ek=k vi?kVu vkSj O2 dh [kir dh
rsy fjlko ok;q vkSj Hkwty çnw"k.k dk Hkh ,d lzkrs gSA nj dks c<+krh gS] ftlls ikuh esa DO dh ek=k de gks
tkrh gSA O2 dh ekax lhèks tSfod vif'k"Vksa ds c<+rs buiqV
Effects on aquatic ecosystem / tyh; ikfjfLFkfrdh ra= ij
ls lacfa èkr gS vkSj bls ikuh dh tSfod v‚Dlhtu ekax
çHkko ¼BOD½ ds :i esa n'kkZ;k tkrk gSA
• Polluted water reduces Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in terms
content, thereby, eliminates sensitive organisms like
plankton, molluscs and fish etc. of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). BOD is the
çnwf"kr ty esa ?kqyh gqà v‚Dlhtu ¼DO½ dh ek=k de gks amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in
tkrh gS] ftlls Iyod] eksyLd vkSj eNyh vkfn tSls decomposing the organic wastes present in water. It is
expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water.
laons u'khy tho [kRe gks tkrs gSaA
tSfod vif'k"Vksa }kjk ty çnw"k.k dks ck;ksdsfedy
• Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy
metals directly eliminate sensitive aquatic organisms. v‚Dlhtu fMekaM ¼BOD½ ds lanHkZ esa ekik tkrk gSA BOD
ck;kslkbM] i‚yhDyksjhusVsM ckbfQukby ¼PCB½ vkSj Hkkjh ikuh esa ekStwn tSfod vif'k"Vksa dks fo?kfVr djus ds fy,
èkkrq,¡ lhèks laosnu'khy tyh; thoksa dks [kRe dj nsrh gSaA cSDVhfj;k }kjk vko';d ?kqfyr v‚Dlhtu dh ek=k gSA bls
• Hot waters discharged from industries, when added to çfr yhVj ikuh esa feyhxzke v‚Dlhtu esa O;ä fd;k tkrk
water bodies, lowers its DO content. gSA
m|ksxksa ls fudyus okyk xeZ ikuh] tc ty fudk;ksa esa • The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content of
Mkyk tkrk gS] rks bldh DO lkexzh de gks tkrh gSA water. Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials
only. Therefore, it is not a reliable method of measuring
DO, BOD, COD pollution load in water.
• Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water tSfod vif'k"Vksa }kjk ty çnw"k.k dks ck;ksdsfedy v‚Dlhtu
decreases the dissolved Oxygen (DO) content of the fMekaM ¼BOD½ ds lanHkZ esa ekik tkrk gSA BOD ikuh esa ekStwn
water. Water having DO content below 8.0 mg L-1 may tSfod vif'k"Vksa dks fo?kfVr djus ds fy, cSDVhfj;k }kjk
be considered as contaminated. Water having DO
vko';d ?kqfyr v‚Dlhtu dh ek=k gSA bls çfr yhVj ikuh
content below. 4.0 mg L-1 is considered to be highly
polluted. DO content of water is important for the esa feyhxzke v‚Dlhtu esa O;ä fd;k tkrk gSA
survival of aquatic organisms. A number of factors like • Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a slightly better
surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 mode used to measure pollution load in water. It is the
consumption by organisms and decomposition of measure of oxygen equivalent of the requirement of
organic matter are the factors which determine the
oxidation of total organic matter (i.e. biodegradable and
amount of DO present in water.
non-biodegradable) present in water.
 42

BOD dk mPp ewY; ikuh esa de DO lkexzh dks bafxr ihus ds ikuh esa vR;fèkd ukbVªsV dh ekStwnxh ekuo LokLF;
djrk gSA pwfa d BOD dsoy ck;ksfMxzsMcs y lkefxz;ksa rd ds fy, [krjukd gS vkSj f'k'kqvksa ds fy, ?kkrd gks ldrh
gh lhfer gSA blfy,] ;g ikuh esa çnw"k.k Hkkj dks ekius gSA ihus ds ikuh esa vR;fèkd ukbVªsV gheksXyksfcu ds lkFk
dk ,d foÜoluh; rjhdk ugÈ gSA çfrfØ;k djds xSj&dk;kZRed esFkseksXyksfcu cukrk gS] vkSj
v‚Dlhtu ifjogu dks ckfèkr djrk gSA bl fLFkfr dks
Effects on human health / ekuo LokLF; ij çHkko esFkseksXyksfcusfe;k ;k Cyw csch ÇlMªkes dgk tkrk gSA
• The polluted water usually contains pathogens like • Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuro-
virus, bacteria, parasitic protozoa and worms, therefore, muscular disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, teeth
it is a source of water borne diseases like jaundice, deformity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful
cholera, typhoid, amoebiasis etc. Mercury compounds joints (skeletal fluorosis).
in waste water are converted by bacterial action into ihus ds ikuh esa vR;fèkd ¶yksjkbM U;wjks&eLdqyj fodkj]
extremely toxic methyl mercury, which can cause xSLVªk&
s vka= lacèa kh leL;k,a] nkarksa dh fo—fr] gfì;ksa dk
numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, deafness, blurring l[r gksuk vkSj tksMk+ sa esa vdM+u vkSj nnZ ¼LdsysVy
of vision and mental derangement. A cripling deformity ¶yksjksfll½ dk dkj.k curk gSA
called Minamata disease due to consumption of fish
• High concentration of fluoride ions is present in
captured from mercury contaminated Minamata Bay in
drinking water in 13 states of India. The maximum level
Japan was detected in 1952. Water contaminated with
of fluoride, which the human body can tolerate is 1.5
cadmium can cause itai itai disease also called ouch-
parts per million (mg/1 of water). Long term ingestion
ouch disease (a painful disease of bones and joints) and
of fluoride ions causes fluorosis.
cancer of lungs and liver.
Hkkjr ds 13 jkT;ksa esa ihus ds ikuh esa ¶yksjkbM vk;uksa dh
çnwf"kr ty esa vkerkSj ij ok;jl] cSDVhfj;k] ijthoh
mPp lkaærk ekStwn gSA ¶yksjkbM dk vfèkdre Lrj] ftls
çksVkstksvk vkSj dhM+s tSls jksxtud gksrs gSa] blfy,] ;g
ekuo 'kjhj lgu dj ldrk gS] 1-5 Hkkx çfr fefy;u
ihfy;k] gStk] VkbQkbM] vehfc;kfll vkfn tSls ty
¼feyhxzke@1 ikuh½ gSA ¶yksjkbM vk;uksa ds yacs le; rd
tfur jksxksa dk lzkrs gSA vif'k"V ty esa ikjk ;kSfxd
lsou ls ¶yksjksfll gksrk gSA
thok.kq fØ;k }kjk vR;ar fo"kSys feFkkby edZjh esa ifjoÆrr
• Over exploitation of ground water may lead to leaching
gks tkrs gSa] tks vaxksa] gksBksa vkSj thHk dh lqUurk] cgjkiu]
of arsenic from soil and rock sources and contaminate
–f"V dk èkqaèkykiu vkSj ekufld fo—fr dk dkj.k cu ground water. Chronic exposure to arsenic causes black
ldrs gSaA tkiku esa ikjk nwf"kr feukekrk [kkM+h ls idM+h foot disease. It also causes diarrhoea, peripheral
xà eNfy;ksa ds lsou ds dkj.k feukekrk jksx uked ,d neuritis, hyperkerotosis and also lung and skin cancer.
viax fo—fr dk irk 1952 esa pyk FkkA dSMfe;e ls nwf"kr Hkwty ds vR;fèkd nksgu ls feêh vkSj pêku ds lzkrs ksa ls
ikuh bVkà bVkà jksx dk dkj.k cu ldrk gS ftls vklsZfud dk fjlko gks ldrk gS vkSj Hkwty nwf"kr gks ldrk
vkmp&vkmp jksx ¼gfì;ksa vkSj tksM+ksa dk ,d nnZukd jksx½ gSA vklsZfud ds yxkrkj laidZ esa jgus ls CySd QqV jksx
vkSj QsQM+ksa vkSj ;—r dk dSalj Hkh dgk tkrk gSA gksrk gSA ;g Mk;fj;k] ifjèkh; U;wfjfVl] gkbijdsjksVksfll
• The compounds of lead cause anaemia, headache, loss vkSj QsQM+s vkSj Ropk ds dSalj dk Hkh dkj.k curk gSA
of muscle power and bluish line around the gum. • Arsenic contamination is a serious problem (in tube
lhls ds ;kSfxd ,uhfe;k] fljnnZ] ekalisf'k;ksa dh 'kfä esa well dug areas) in the Ganges Delta, west Bengal
deh vkSj elwMk+ sa ds vklikl uhyh js[kk dk dkj.k curs gSaA causing serious arsenic poisoning to large numbers of
people. A 2007 study found that over 137 million
Hazards of ground water pollution / Hkwty çnw"k.k ds [krjs people in more than 70 countries are probably affected
• Presence of excess nitrate in drinking water is by arsenic poisoning of drinking water.
dangerous for human health and may be fatal for vklsZfud lanw"k.k if'pe caxky ds xaxk MsYVk esa ¼Vîwcosy
infants. Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with [kksns x, {ks=ksa es½a ,d xaHkhj leL;k gS] ftlls cM+h la[;k
hemoglobin to form non-functional methaemoglobin, esa yksxksa esa xaHkhj vklsZfud fo"kkärk gks jgh gSA 2007 ds
and impairs oxygen transport. This condition is called ,d vè;;u esa ik;k x;k fd 70 ls vfèkd ns'kksa esa 137
methaemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome. fefy;u ls vfèkd yksx laHkor% ihus ds ikuh esa vklsZfud
fo"kkärk ls çHkkfor gSaA
 43

Soil Pollution / e`nk çnw"k.k vkS|ksfxd vif'k"V esa ikjk] lhlk] rkack] tLrk] dSMfe;e]
• Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic materials lkbukbM] Fkk;ksflusV~l] ØksesV~l] ,flM] {kkj] dkcZfud
that covers the Earth’s rocky surface. Soil pollution is inkFkZ vkfn tSls jlk;u 'kkfey gSaA
defined as the ‘addition of substances to the soil, which
adversely affect physical, chemical and biological Pesticides / dhVuk'kd
properties of soil and reduces its productivity.’ • Pesticides are chemicals that include insecticides,
feêh dkcZfud vkSj vdkcZfud inkFkksZ dh ,d iryh ijr fungicides, algicides, rodenticides, weedicides sprayed
gS tks i`Foh dh pêkuh lrg dks <drh gSA e`nk çnw"k.k dks in order to improve productivity of agriculture, forestry
*feêh esa inkFkksZ ds tqM+us ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tkrk and horticulture.
gS] tks feêh ds HkkSfrd] jklk;fud vkSj tSfod xq.kksa dks dhVuk'kd os jlk;u gSa ftuesa dhVuk'kd] doduk'kd]
çfrdwy :i ls çHkkfor djrs gSa vkSj bldh mRikndrk dks 'kSokyuk'kd] —arduk'kd] [kjirokjuk'kd 'kkfey gSa
de djrs gSaA* ftudk fNM+dko —f"k] okfudh vkSj ckxokuh dh mRikndrk
• It is build-up of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, c<+kus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA
salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents in
soil which have adverse effects on plant growth, human Fertilizers and manures / moZjd vkSj [kkn
and animal health. • Chemical fertilizers are added to the soil for increasing
;g feêh esa yxkrkj fo"kkä ;kSfxdksa] jlk;uks]a yo.kksa] crop yield. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers reduces
jsfM;ksèkeÊ inkFkksZ ;k jksx iSnk djus okys ,tsaVksa dk fuekZ.k the population of soil borne organism and the crumb
gS tks ikSèkksa dh o`f)] ekuo vkSj i'kq LokLF; ij çfrdwy structure of the soil, productivity of the soil and
çHkko Mkyrs gSaA increases salt content of the soil.
• A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the Qly dh iSnkokj c<+kus ds fy, feêh esa jklk;fud moZjd
quality, texture and mineral content of the soil or which Mkys tkrs gSaA jklk;fud moZjdksa ds vR;fèkd mi;ksx ls
disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the feêh esa iSnk gksus okys thoksa dh vkcknh vkSj feêh dh
soil. lajpuk] feêh dh mRikndrk de gks tkrh gS vkSj feêh esa
e`nk çnw"kd dksà Hkh dkjd gS tks feêh dh xq.koÙkk] cukoV ued dh ek=k c<+ tkrh gSA
vkSj [kfut lkexzh dks [kjkc djrk gS ;k tks feêh esa thoksa
ds tSfod larqyu dks fcxkM+rk gSA Discarded materials / Qsadh xà lkexzh
• It includes concrete, asphalt, rungs, leather, cans,
Causes / dkj.k plastics, glass, discarded food, paper and carcasses.
• Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides blesa daØhV] Mkej] lhf<+;k¡] peM+k] fMCcs] IykfLVd] dkap]
and herbicides Qsd
a k gqvk Hkkstu] dkxt vkSj 'ko 'kkfey gSaA
moZjdksa] dhVuk'kdks]a dhVuk'kdksa vkSj 'kkdukf'k;ksa dk
vaèkkèkqaèk mi;ksx Radioactive wastes / jsfM;ksèkeÊ vif'k"V
• Dumping of large quantities of solid waste • Radioactive elements from mining and nuclear power
cM+h ek=k esa Bksl dpjs dk MaÇix plants, find their way into water and then into the soil.
• Deforestation and soil erosion [kuu vkSj ijek.kq ÅtkZ la;a=ksa ls fudyus okys jsfM;ksèkeÊ
ouksa dh dVkà vkSj feêh dk dVko rRo ikuh esa vkSj fQj feêh esa pys tkrs gSaA
• Pollution Due to Urbanisation
'kgjhdj.k ds dkj.k çnw"k.k Other pollutants / vU; çnw"kd
• Many air pollutants (acid rain) and water pollutants
Source / lzksr ultimately become part of the soil and the soil also
Industrial Wastes / vkS|ksfxd vif'k"V receives some toxic chemicals during weathering of
• Industrial waste includes chemicals such as mercury, certain rocks.
lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, cynides, thiocynates, dà ok;q çnw"kd ¼vEyh; o"kkZ½ vkSj ty çnw"kd varr% feêh
chromates, acids, alkalies, organic substances etc. dk fgLlk cu tkrs gSa vkSj dqN pêkuksa ds vi{k; ds nkSjku
feêh dks dqN tgjhys jlk;u Hkh feyrs gSaA
 44

Types of Soil Pollution / e`nk çnw"k.k ds çdkj • Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilizers
• Agricultural Soil Pollution / —f"k e`nk çnw"k.k tSo dhVuk'kdksa] tSo moZjdksa dk mi;ksx
• Pollution due to industrial effluents and solid wastes • Organic farming / tSfod [ksrh
vkS|ksfxd vif'k"V vkSj Bksl vif'k"V ds dkj.k çnw"k.k • Four R’s: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle
• Pollution due to urban activities pkj vkj% euk djuk] de djuk] iqu% mi;ksx djuk vkSj
'kgjh xfrfofèk;ksa ds dkj.k çnw"k.k iqupZØ.k djuk
• Afforestation and Reforestation
Effects of soil pollution on / feêh çnw"k.k ds çHkko oujksi.k vkSj iqu%oujksi.k
Agriculture / —f"k
• Reduced soil fertility / feêh dh moZjrk esa deh Solid waste treatment / Bksl vif'k"V mipkj
• Reduced nitrogen fixation / ukbVªkstu fLFkjhdj.k esa deh • Reduction of waste from construction areas
fuekZ.k {ks=ksa ls dpjs esa deh
Increased erosion / c<+k gqvk dVko
• Loss of soil and nutrients / feêh vkSj iks"kd rRoksa dh gkfu Four R’s / pkj vkj
Refuse / euk djsa
• Reduced crop yield / Qly dh iSnkokj esa deh
• Instead of buying new containers from the market, use
• Increased salinity / yo.krk esa o`f)
the ones that are in the house. Refuse to buy new items
• Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs though you may think they are prettier than the ones you
VSadksa vkSj tyk'k;ksa esa xkn dk teko already have.
cktkj ls u, daVsuj [kjhnus ds ctk;] ?kj esa ekStwn daVsuj
Health / LokLF; dk mi;ksx djsAa Hkys gh vkidks yxs fd vkids ikl igys
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground water ls ekStwn daVsuj dh rqyuk esa os T+;knk lqanj gSa] ysfdu u,
Hkwfexr ty esa ços'k djus okys [krjukd jlk;u vkbVe [kjhnus ls euk djsAa
• Bio magnification / tSo vkoèkZu
• Release of pollutant gases / çnw"kd xSlksa dk mRltZu Reuse / nksckjk bLrseky djsa
• Release of radioactive rays causing health problems • Do not throw away the soft drink cans or the bottles;
jsfM;ksèkeÊ fdj.kksa dk mRltZu ftlls LokLF; lacaèkh cover them with homemade paper or paint on them and
leL;k,a gksrh gSa use them as pencil stands or small vases.
l‚¶V ÇMªd ds fMCcs ;k cksryksa dks Qsd a sa ugÈ( mUgsa ?kj ds
Environment / i;kZoj.k cus dkxt+ ;k isVa ls <¡d nsa vkSj mUgsa isafly LVSaM ;k NksVs
Qwynku ds :i esa bLrseky djsAa
• Reduced vegetation / ouLifr esa deh
• Ecological imbalance / ikfjfLFkfrdh vlarqyu Recycle / jhlkbfdy djsa
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora • Use shopping bags made of cloth or jute, which can be
feêh ds tho&tarqvksa vkSj ouLifr;ksa esa vlarqyu used over and over again. Segregate your waste to make
sure that it is collected and taken for recycling.
Urban areas / 'kgjh {ks= diM+s ;k twV ls cus 'k‚Çix cSx dk bLrseky djs]a ftldk
• Clogging of drains / ukfy;ksa dk tke gksuk ckj&ckj bLrseky fd;k tk ldrk gSA vius dpjs dks
• Inundation of areas / {ks=ksa esa tyeXurk vyx&vyx djds ;g lqfuf'pr djsa fd mls bdëk djds
• Foul smell and release of gases jhlkbfdy fd;k tk,A
nqxZèk vkSj xSlksa dk mRltZu
• Waste management problems
Reduce / de djsa
vif'k"V çcaèku dh leL;k,a
• Reduce the generation of unnecessary waste, e.g. carry
• Control measures / fu;a=.k mik;
your own shopping bag when you go to the market and
• Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use
put all your purchases directly into it.
jklk;fud moZjd vkSj dhVuk'kdksa ds mi;ksx esa deh
 45

vuko';d dpjs ds mRiknu dks de djs]a tSls fd tc vki Radioactivity / jsfM;ksèkÆerk

cktkj tk,¡ rks viuk [kqn dk 'k‚Çix cSx ysdj tk,¡ vkSj • Radioactivity is a property of certain elements (radium,
viuh lkjh [kjhnkjh lhèks mlesa MkysaA thorium, uranium etc.) to spontaneously emit protons
(alpha particles) electrons (beta particles) and gamma
Noise Pollution / èofu çnw"k.k rays (short-wave electromagnetic wave) by
• Noise pollution is an unpleasant noise created by people disintegration of their atomic nuclei (nuclides).
or machines that can be annoying, distracting, intrusive, jsfM;ksèkÆerk dqN rRoksa ¼jsfM;e] Fkksfj;e] ;wjsfu;e vkfn½
and/or physically painful. dk ,d xq.k gS tks vius ijek.kq ukfHkd ¼U;wfDy;M~l½ ds
èofu çnw"k.k yksxksa ;k e'khuksa }kjk mRiUu ,d vfç; 'kksj fo?kVu }kjk Lor% çksV‚u ¼vYQk d.k½] bysDVª‚u ¼chVk d.k½
gS tks ijs'kku djus okyk] è;ku HkVdkus okyk] n[ky nsus vkSj xkek fdj.kksa ¼y?kq&rjax fo|qr pqEcdh; rjax½ dk
mRltZu djrs gSaA
okyk vkSj@;k 'kkjhfjd :i ls nnZukd gks ldrk gSA
• Noise pollution comes from sources such as “road Types of Radiations / fofdj.k ds çdkj
traffic, jet planes, garbage trucks, construction • Non-ionising radiations affect only those components
equipment, manufacturing processes, leaf blowers, and which absorb them and have low penetrability.
boom boxes.” xSj&vk;uhdj.k fofdj.k dsoy mu ?kVdksa dks çHkkfor
èofu çnw"k.k ÞlM+d ;krk;kr] tsV foeku] dpjk Vªd] djrs gSa tks mUgsa vo'kksf"kr djrs gSa vkSj mudh ços'k {kerk
fuekZ.k midj.k] fofuekZ.k çfØ;k] iÙkh mM+kus okys midj.k de gksrh gSA
vkSj cwe c‚DlÞ tSls lzkrs ksa ls vkrk gSA • Ionising radiations have high penetration power and
• Sound is measured in decibels (dB). An increase of cause breakage of macro molecules.
about 10 dB is approximately double the increase in vk;uhdj.k fofdj.kksa esa mPp ços'k 'kfä gksrh gS vkSj os
loudness. o`gn v.kqvksa dks rksMr+ s gSaA
èofu dks Msflcy ¼dB½ esa ekik tkrk gSA yxHkx 10 dB
Types of radiation particles / fofdj.k d.kksa ds çdkj
dh o`f) t+kjs esa o`f) ls yxHkx nksxquh gSA
• Alpha particles, can be blocked by a piece of paper and
• A person’s hearing can be damaged if exposed to noise human skin.
levels over 75 dB over a prolonged period of time. The vYQk d.k] dkxt ds ,d VqdM+s vkSj ekuo Ropk }kjk
World Health Organization recommends that the sound vo#) gks ldrs gSaA
level indoors should be less than 30 dB. • Beta particles can penetrate through skin, while can be
;fn dksà O;fä yacs le; rd 75 dB ls vfèkd 'kksj ds blocked by some pieces of glass and metal.
Lrj ds laidZ esa jgrk gS] rks mldh lquus dh {kerk dks chVk d.k Ropk ds ekè;e ls ços'k dj ldrs gSa] tcfd
uqdlku igq¡p ldrk gSA foÜo LokLF; laxBu dh lykg dkap vkSj èkkrq ds dqN VqdM+ksa }kjk vo#) gks ldrs gSaA
gS fd ?kj ds vanj èofu dk Lrj 30 dB ls de gksuk • Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and
pkfg,A damage cells on its way through, reaching far, and can
only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece
of concrete.
Radio Active Pollution / jsfM;ks lfØ; çnw"k.k
xkek fdj.ksa ekuo Ropk esa vklkuh ls ços'k dj ldrh gSa
Radioactive Pollution / jsfM;ksèkeÊ çnw"k.k
vkSj vius jkLrs esa dksf'kdkvksa dks uqdlku igqapk ldrh gSa]
• Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous nwj rd igqap ldrh gSa] vkSj mUgsa dsoy daØhV ds ,d
emission of proton (a-particles), electrons (b-particles) cgqr eksVs] etcwr] fo'kky VqdM+s }kjk vo#) fd;k tk
and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) ldrk gSA
due to disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.
These cause radioactive pollution. Sources / lzksr
jsfM;ksèkÆerk dqN rRoksa ds ijek.kq ukfHkd ds fo?kVu ds Natural / çk—frd
dkj.k çksV‚u ¼,&d.k½] bysDVª‚u ¼ch&d.k½ vkSj xkek • They include cosmic rays from space and terrestrial
fdj.kksa ¼y?kq rjax fo|qr pqEcdh; rjaxks½a ds Lor%LQwrZ radiations from radio-nuclides present in earth’s crust
mRltZu dh ?kVuk gSA ;s jsfM;ksèkeÊ çnw"k.k dk dkj.k curs such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232,
gSaA potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.
 46

buesa varfj{k ls vkus okyh czãkaMh; fdj.ksa vkSj i`Foh dh Period of Radioactivity / jsfM;ksèkÆerk dh vofèk
iiM+h esa ekStwn jsfM;ks&U;wDykbM tSls jsfM;e&224] • Each radioactive nuclide has a constant decay rate.
;wjsfu;e&238] Fkksfj;e&232] iksVsf'k;e&40] dkcZu&14 Half-life is the time needed for half of its atoms to
vkfn ls fudyus okys LFkyh; fofdj.k 'kkfey gSaA decay. Half-life of a radio nuclide refers to its period of
radioactivity. The half-life may vary from a fraction of
Atomic explosion (Nuclear fallout) / ijek.kq foLQksV a second to thousands of years. The radio nuclides with
¼ijek.kq iru½ long half-time are the chief source of environmental
radioactive pollution.
• The nuclear arms use uranium-235 and plutonium-239
for fission and hydrogen or lithium as fusion material.
çR;sd jsfM;ksèkeÊ U;wDykbM dh ,d fLFkj {k; nj gksrh gSA
Atomic explosions produce radioactive particles that vèkZ&vk;q og le; gS tks blds vkèks ijek.kqvksa dks {k;
are thrown high up into the air as huge clouds. These gksus esa yxrk gSA jsfM;ks U;wDykbM dk vèkZ&vk;q bldh
particles are carried to long distances by wind and jsfM;ksèkÆerk dh vofèk dks lanÆHkr djrk gSA vèkZ&vk;q ,d
gradually settle over the earth as fall out or are brought lsdM a ds va'k ls ysdj gt+kjksa o"kksZ rd fHkUu gks ldrh gSA
down by rain. yacs vèkZ&le; okys jsfM;ks U;wDykbM i;kZoj.k jsfM;ksèkeÊ
ijek.kq gfFk;kj fo[kaMu ds fy, ;wjsfu;e&235 vkSj çnw"k.k dk eq[; lzkrs gSaA
IywVksfu;e&239 vkSj lay;u lkexzh ds :i esa gkbMªkstu • Radiations are of two types with regard to the mode of
;k fyfFk;e dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA ijek.kq foLQksVksa ls their action on cells.
jsfM;ksèkeÊ d.k mRiUu gksrs gSa tks fo'kky cknyksa ds :i esa dksf'kdkvksa ij mudh fØ;k ds rjhds ds lacèa k esa fofdj.k
gok esa Åij dh vksj Qsda s tkrs gSaA ;s d.k gok }kjk yach nks çdkj ds gksrs gSaA
nwjh rd ys tk, tkrs gSa vkSj èkhjs&èkhjs i`Foh ij fxjdj
te tkrs gSa ;k ckfj'k ds lkFk uhps vk tkrs gSaA Non-ionising radiations / xSj&vk;uhdj.k fofdj.k
• The fall out contains radioactive substances such as • They include short-wave radiations such as ultraviolet
strontium-90, cesium-137, iodine – 131, etc. rays, which forms a part of solar radiation.
fxjus okys inkFkZ esa LVªkasfV;e&90] lhft+;e&137] buesa ijkcSaxuh fdj.kksa tSls y?kq&rjax fofdj.k 'kkfey gSa]
vk;ksMhu&131 vkfn tSls jsfM;ksèkeÊ inkFkZ gksrs gSaA tks lkSj fofdj.k dk ,d fgLlk curs gSaA
• They have low penetrating power and affect the cells
Nuclear power plants / ijek.kq ÅtkZ la;a= and molecules which absorb them.
• Nuclear weapon / ijek.kq gfFk;kj budh Hksnu 'kfä de gksrh gS vkSj ;s dksf'kdkvksa vkSj
• Transportation of nuclear material v.kqvksa dks çHkkfor djrs gSa tks bUgsa vo'kksf"kr djrs gSaA
ijek.kq lkexzh dk ifjogu • They damage eyes which may be caused by reflections
• Disposal of nuclear waste / ijek.kq dpjs dk fuiVku from coastal sand, snow (snow blindness) directly
• Uranium mining / ;wjsfu;e [kuu looking towards sun during eclipse.
• Radiation therapy / fofdj.k fpfdRlk ;s vk¡[kksa dks uqdlku igq¡pkrs gSa tks xzg.k ds nkSjku lhèks
lw;Z dh vksj ns[kus ij rVh; jsr] cQZ ¼Luks CykbaMusl½ ls
Effects / çHkko ijkorZu ds dkj.k gks ldrk gSA
• The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon • They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries
jsfM;ksèkeÊ çnw"kdksa ds çHkko bl ij fuHkZj djrs gSa
producing blisters and reddening called sunburns.
• half-life / vèkZ&vk;q ;s Ropk vkSj jä dsf'kdkvksa dh dksf'kdkvksa dks uqdlku
• energy releasing capacity / ÅtkZ eqä djus dh {kerk igq¡pkrs gSa ftlls Nkys vkSj ykfyek iSnk gksrh gS ftls
• rate of diffusion and / çlkj dh nj vkSj lucuZ dgk tkrk gSA
• rate of deposition of the pollutant.
çnw"kd ds teko dh njA Ionising radiations / vk;uhdj.k fofdj.k
• Various environmental factors such as wind, • They include X-rays, cosmic rays and atomic radiations
temperature, rainfall also influence their effects. (radiations emitted by radioactive elements).
gok] rkieku] o"kkZ tSls fofHkUu i;kZoj.kh; dkjd Hkh muds buesa ,Dl&js] d‚fLed fdj.ksa vkSj ijek.kq fofdj.k
çHkkoksa dks çHkkfor djrs gSaA ¼jsfM;ksèkeÊ rRoksa }kjk mRlÆtr fofdj.k½ 'kkfey gSaA
 47

• Ionising radiations have high penetration power and lHkh lqj{kk mik;ksa dks l[rh ls ykxw fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
cause breakage of macro molecules. jsfM;ksèkeÊ rRoksa ds fjlko dks iwjh rjg ls jksdk tkuk
vk;uhdj.k fofdj.k esa mPp Hksnu 'kfä gksrh gS vkSj ;s pkfg,A
o`gn v.kqvksa dks rksMr+ s gSaA • Safe disposal of radioactive waste.
• The molecular damage may produce short range jsfM;ksèkeÊ dpjs dk lqjf{kr fuiVkuA
(immediate) or long range (delayed) effects. • Regular monitoring through frequent sampling and
vk.kfod {kfr de nwjh ¼rRdky½ ;k yach nwjh ¼foyafcr½ quantitative analysis.
çHkko iSnk dj ldrh gSA yxkrkj uewus vkSj ek=kRed fo'ys"k.k ds ekè;e ls fu;fer
• Short range effects include burns, impaired metabolism, fuxjkuhA
dead tissues and death of the organisms. • Safety measures against nuclear accidents.
de nwjh ds çHkkoksa esa tyu] fcxM+k gqvk p;kip;] e`r ijek.kq nq?kZVukvksa ds f[kykQ lqj{kk mik;A
Ård vkSj thoksa dh e`R;q 'kkfey gSaA • Nuclear explosions and use of nuclear weapons should
• Long range effects are mutations increased incidence of be completely banned.
tumors and cancer, shortening of life-span and ijek.kq foLQksV vkSj ijek.kq gfFk;kjksa ds mi;ksx ij iwjh
developmental changes. rjg ls çfrcaèk yxk;k tkuk pkfg,A
nh?kZdkfyd çHkko mRifjorZu] Vîwej vkSj dSalj dh ?kVukvksa • Appropriate steps should be taken to protect from
esa o`f)] thou&dky esa deh vkSj fodklkRed ifjorZu gSaA occupational exposure.
• The mutated gene can persist in living organisms and O;kolkf;d tksf[ke ls cpkus ds fy, mfpr dne mBk,
may affect their progeny. tkus pkfg,A
mRifjoÆrr thu thfor thoksa esa cuk jg ldrk gS vkSj
mudh larkuksa dks çHkkfor dj ldrk gSA E–Waste / Ã&dpjk
• The actively dividing cells such as Embryo, foetus, cells • The discarded and end-of-life electronic products
of skin, intestinal lining, bone marrow and gamete ranging from computers, equipment used in
forming cells are more sensitive to radiations. Information and Communication Technology (ICT),
Hkzw.k] Hkzw.k] Ropk dh dksf'kdk,¡] vkarksa dh ijr] vfLFk eTtk home appliances, audio and video products and all of
vkSj ;qXed cukus okyh dksf'kdk,¡ tSls lfØ; :i ls their peripherals are popularly known as Electronic
foHkkftr gksus okyh dksf'kdk,¡ fofdj.kksa ds çfr vfèkd waste (E-waste).
laons u'khy gksrh gSaA daI;wVj] lwpuk vkSj lapkj çkS|ksfxdh ¼vkÃlhVh½ esa bLrseky
• Some species of animals and plants preferentially fd, tkus okys midj.k] ?kjsyw midj.k] v‚fM;ks vkSj
accumulate specific radioactive materials. For example, ohfM;ks mRikn vkSj muds lHkh cká midj.kksa ls ysdj
oysters deposit 65Zn, fish accumulate 55Fe, marine R;kxs x, vkSj thou ds var rd ds bysDVª‚fud mRiknksa
animals selectively deposit 90Sr. dks yksdfç; :i ls bysDVª‚fud dpjk ¼Ã&dpjk½ ds :i
tkuojksa vkSj ikSèkksa dh dqN çtkfr;k¡ fo'ks"k :i ls fof'k"V esa tkuk tkrk gSA
jsfM;ksèkeÊ inkFkksZ dks tek djrh gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy,] lhi • E-waste is not hazardous if it is stocked in safe storage
65Zn tek djrs gSa] eNyh 55Fe tek djrh gS] leqæh or recycled by scientific methods or transported from
tkuoj pqÇunk :i ls 90Sr tek djrs gSaA one place to the other in parts or in totality in the formal
sector. The e-waste can, however, be considered
Control Measures / fu;a=.k mik; hazardous if recycled by primitive methods.
• Prevention is the best control measure as there is no cure Ã&dpjk [krjukd ugÈ gS vxj bls lqjf{kr HkaMkj.k esa
available for radiation damage. j[kk tk, ;k oSKkfud rjhdksa ls jhlkbfdy fd;k tk, ;k
jksdFkke lcls vPNk fu;a=.k mik; gS D;ksafd fofdj.k {kfr vkSipkfjd {ks= esa Hkkxksa esa ;k iwjh rjg ls ,d txg ls
ds fy, dksà bykt miyCèk ugÈ gSA nwljh txg ys tk;k tk,A gkykafd] vkfne rjhdksa ls
• All safety measures should be strictly enforced. jhlkbfdy fd, tkus ij Ã&dpjs dks [krjukd ekuk tk
Leakage of radioactive elements should be totally ldrk gSA
checked.
 48

Source and its health effects/lzksr vkSj mlds LokLF; çHkko lamps, mobile bio-accumulates in
S.No. Particulars Source Health effects phones and in living organisms
1 Lead Used in glass Lead causes batteries. and concentrates
panels and damage to the Mercury, used through the food
gaskets in central and in flat panel chain, particularly
computer peripheral nervous displays, will via fish.
monitors. systems, blood likely increase
Solder in systems, kidney as their use
printed circuit and reproductive replaces
boards and system in humans. cathode ray
other It also effects the tubes.
Components. endocrine system, 5 Brominated BFRs are used
and impedes brain flame in the plastic
development retardants housings of
among children. (BFRs): electronic
Lead tends to equipment and
accumulate in the in circuit
environment and boards to
has high acute and prevent
chronic effects on flammability.
plants, animals and 6 Beryllium Beryllium is Exposure to
microorganisms. commonly beryllium can
2 Cadmium Occurs in SMD Toxic cadmium found on cause lung cancer.
chip resistors, compounds motherboards Beryllium also
infra-red accumulate in the and finger causes a skin
detectors, and human body, clips. disease that is
semiconductor especially the It is used as a characterised by
chips. kidneys. copper- poor wound
Some older beryllium alloy healing and
cathode ray to strengthen wartlike bumps.
tubes contain connectors and Studies have
cadmium. tinyplugs while shown that people
3 Mercury It is estimated Mercury can cause maintaining can develop
that 22% of the damage to organs electrical beryllium disease
yearly world including the brain conductivity many years
consumption of and kidneys, as following the last
mercury is used well as the foetus. exposure.
in electrical The developing 7 Toners Found in the Inhalation is the
and electronic foetus is highly plastic printer primary exposure
equipment. vulnerable to cartridge pathway, and acute
Mercury is mercury exposure. containing exposure may lead
used in When inorganic black and color to respiratory tract
thermostats, mercury spreads toners. irritation. Carbon
sensors, relays, out in the water, it black has been
switches, is transformed to classified as a
medical methylated class 2B
equipment, mercury which carcinogen,
possibly
 49

carcinogenic to fpIl esa ik;k tkrk dSMfe;e ;kSfxd

humans. Reports gSA ekuo 'kjhj esa] fo'ks"k
indicate that colour :i ls xqnZs esa tek
toners (cyan, gks tkrs gSaA
magenta and
3. Ikkjk vuqeku gS fd nqfu;k ikjk efLr"d vkSj xqnZs
yellow) contain
Hkj esa ikjs dh lfgr vaxksa ds
heavy metals.
lkykuk [kir dk lkFk&lkFk Hkzw.k dks
8 Phosphor Phosphor is an The phosphor
22% fctyh vkSj Hkh uqdlku igqapk
and inorganic coating on cathode
additives chemical ray tubes contains bysDVª‚fud midj.kksa ldrk gSA fodflr
compound that heavy metals, such esa bLrseky gksrk gSA gks jgk Hkzw.k ikjs ds
is applied as a as cadmium, and ikjs dk bLrseky laidZ esa vkus ds fy,
coat on the other rare earth a j] fjys] csgn laosnu'khy gksrk
FkeksZLVSV] lsl
interior of the metals, for fLop] esfMdy gSA tc vdkcZfud
CRT faceplate. example, zinc, midj.k] ySai] ikjk ikuh esa QSyrk
vanadium as eksckby Qksu vkSj gS] rks ;g feFkkbysVsM
additives. These cSVjh esa fd;k tkrk ikjs esa cny tkrk gS
metals and their gSA tks thfor thoksa esa
compounds are ¶ySV iSuy fMLIys esa tSfod :i ls tek
very toxic. This is
bLrseky gksus okys gksrk gS vkSj [kk|
a serious hazard
ikjs dh ek=k esa o`f) J`a[kyk ds ekè;e ls]
posed for those
who dismantle
gksus dh laHkkouk gS fo'ks"k :i ls eNyh
CRTs by hand. D;ksfa d dSFkksM js ds ekè;e ls dsfa ær
Vîwc dh txg budk gksrk gSA
Ø- bLrseky gksus yxsxkA
fooj.k Lkzksr LokLF; çHkko 4- gsDlkosysaV Øksfe;e VI dk Øksfe;e VI Mh,u,
la-
1. usr`Ro daI;wVj e‚uhVj esalhlk euq";ksa esa dsaæh; Øksfe;e@ mi;ksx vuqipkfjr dks uqdlku igqapk
Xykl iSuy vkSj vkSj ifjèkh; raf=dk Øksfe;e VI vkSj xSYoukbTM ldrk gS vkSj
xkLdsV esa bLrsekyra=] jä ç.kkyh] xqnZs 29 LVhy IysVksa ds i;kZoj.k esa csgn
fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj çtuu ç.kkyh la{kkj.k j{kd ds :i tgjhyk gSA
ÇçVsM lÆdV cksMZ dks uqdlku igqapkrk esa vkSj LVhy
gSA ;g var%lzkoh ra=
vkSj vU; ?kVdksa esa gkmÇlx ds fy,
lksYMjA dks Hkh çHkkfor djrk ltkoVh ;k gkMZuj
gS] vkSj cPpksa esa ds :i esa fd;k
efLr"d ds fodkl esa tkrk gS IykfLVd
ckèkk Mkyrk gSA lhlk ¼ihohlh lfgr½%
i;kZoj.k esa tek gks ihohlh dks tykus
tkrk gS vkSj ikSèkksa] ij Mkbv‚fDlu
tkuojksa vkSj fudyrk gSA
lw{ethoksa ij bldk bysDVª‚fuDl esa
rhoz vkSj nh?kZdkfyd bLrseky gksus okys
çHkko iM+rk gSA IykfLVd dh lcls
cM+h ek=k ¼26%½
2. dSMfe;e SMD fpi jsflLVlZ] dqN iqjkuh dSFkksM js
ihohlh jgh gSA
bUÝk&jsM fMVsDVj Vîwc esa dSMfe;e
ihohlh rRo dscÇyx
vkSj lsehdaMDVj gksrk gSA fo"kkä
 50

vkSj daI;wVj gkmÇlx jklk;fud ;kSfxd gS dSMfe;e tSlh Hkkjh

esa ik, tkrs gSaA ftls CRT QslIysV ds èkkrq,¡ vkSj vU; nqyZHk
dà daI;wVj eksÇYMx van:uh fgLls ij i`Foh èkkrq,¡] mnkgj.k
vc dqN gn rd ,d dksV ds :i esa ds fy,] Çtd]
vfèkd lkSE; ,ch,l yxk;k tkrk gSA oSusfM;e ,fMfVOl ds
IykfLVd ls cus gS :i esa gksrh gSaA ;s
5. czke
s hu;qä ch,Qvkj dk mi;ksx èkkrq,¡ vkSj muds
vfXujksèkh bysDVª‚fud midj.kksa ;kSfxd cgqr tgjhys
¼ch,Qvkj½% ds IykfLVd vkoj.kksa gksrs gSaA ;g mu
vkSj lÆdV cksMks± esa yksxksa ds fy, ,d
Toyu'khyrk dks xaHkhj [krjk gS tks
jksdus ds fy, fd;k gkFk ls CRT dks
tkrk gSA vyx djrs gSaA
6. csfjfy;e csfjfy;e vke rkSj csfjfy;e ds laidZ esa
ij enjcksMZ vkSj vkus ls QsQM+kas dk Bioremediation / ck;ksjsesfM,'ku
ÇQxj fDyi ij ik;k dSalj gks ldrk gSA • Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms (bacteria
tkrk gSA csfjfy;e ,d Ropk and fungi) to degrade the environmental contaminants
bldk mi;ksx jksx Hkh iSnk djrk gS] into less toxic forms.
d‚ij&csfjfy;e feJ ftldh fo'ks"krk ?kko ck;ksjsesfM,'ku i;kZoj.k çnw"k.k dks de fo"kkä :iksa esa
èkkrq ds :i esa dk Bhd ls u Hkjuk fo?kfVr djus ds fy, lw{ethoksa ¼cSDVhfj;k vkSj dod½ dk
dusDVj vkSj NksVs vkSj eLls tSls mHkkj mi;ksx gSA
Iyx dks etcwr gSaA vè;;uksa ls irk • The microorganisms may be indigenous to a
contaminated area or they may be isolated from
djus ds fy, fd;k pyk gS fd yksxksa esa
elsewhere and brought to the contaminated site.
tkrk gS] tcfd csfjfy;e jksx fiNys
lw{etho fdlh nwf"kr {ks= ds ewy fuoklh gks ldrs gSa ;k
fo|qr pkydrk cuk, laidZ ds dà lkyksa
mUgsa dgÈ vkSj ls vyx djds nwf"kr LFky ij yk;k tk
j[krk gS ckn Hkh fodflr gks
ldrk gSA
ldrk gSA
• The process of bioremediation can be monitored
7. Vksuj CySd vkSj dyj lk¡l ysuk çkFkfed indirectly by measuring the Oxidation Reduction
Vksuj ;qä IykfLVd tksf[ke ekxZ gS] vkSj Potential or redox in soil and groundwater, together
ÇçVj dkÆVªt esa ik, rhoz tksf[ke ls Üolu with pH, temperature, oxygen content, electron
tkrs gSaA iFk esa tyu gks acceptor/donor concentrations, and concentration of
ldrh gSA dkcZu breakdown products (e.g. carbon dioxide)
CySd dks Dykl 2ch ck;ksjsesfM,'ku dh çfØ;k dks feêh vkSj Hkwty esa v‚Dlhdj.k
dkÆlukstsu ds :i esa deh {kerk ;k jsM‚Dl dks ekius ds lkFk&lkFk ih,p] rkieku]
oxÊ—r fd;k x;k gS] v‚Dlhtu lkexzh] bysDVª‚u LohdrkZ@nkrk lkaærk vkSj
tks laHkor% euq";ksa ds fo?kVu mRiknksa ¼tSls dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM½ dh lkaærk ds }kjk
fy, dkÆlukstsfud vçR;{k :i ls e‚fuVj fd;k tk ldrk gSA
gSA fjiksVZ crkrh gS
fd dyj Vksuj Bioremediation Strategies / ck;ksjsesfM,'ku j.kuhfr;k¡
¼fl;ku] eStsaVk vkSj In situ bioremediation techniques / bu lhVw ck;ksjes sfM,'ku
ihyk½ esa Hkkjh èkkrq,¡ rduhd
gksrh gSaA • It involves treatment of the contaminated material at the
8- Q‚LQksj vkSj Q‚LQksj ,d dSFkksM js Vîwc ij site.
,fMfVOl vdkcZfud Q‚LQksj dksÇVx esa blesa lkbV ij nwf"kr lkexzh dk mipkj 'kkfey gSA
 51

• Bioventing – supply of air and nutrients through wells ck;ksikbYl & ;g ySaMQkÉex vkSj dEiksÇLVx dk ,d ladj
to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of gSA vfuok;Z :i ls] bathfu;MZ lsy dk fuekZ.k okfrr
indigenous bacteria. It is used for simple hydrocarbons dEiksLV <sj ds :i esa fd;k tkrk gSA vkerkSj ij isVªksfy;e
and can be used where the contamination is deep under gkbMªksdkcZu ds lkFk lrg ds lanw"k.k ds mipkj ds fy,
the surface. mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
ck;ksosaÇVx & LFkkuh; cSDVhfj;k ds fodkl dks çksRlkfgr • Bioreactors – it involves the processing of contaminated
djus ds fy, nwf"kr feêh esa dqvksa ds ekè;e ls gok vkSj solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through
iks"kd rRoksa dh vkiwÆrA bldk mi;ksx ljy gkbMªksdkcZu an engineered containment system.
ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS vkSj bldk mi;ksx ogk¡ fd;k tk ck;ksfj,DVj & blesa nwf"kr Bksl inkFkZ ¼feêh] ryNV]
ldrk gS tgk¡ lan"w k.k lrg ds uhps xgjk gksA dhpM+½ ;k ikuh dks ,d bathfu;MZ daVsuesaV flLVe ds
• Biosparging - Injection of air under pressure below the ekè;e ls lalkfèkr djuk 'kkfey gSA
water table to increase groundwater oxygen • Composting – dealt earlier in solid waste management
concentrations and enhance the rate of biological [kkn cukuk & Bksl vif'k"V çcaèku esa igys ls gh 'kkfey
degradation of contaminants by naturally occurring gS
bacteria
ck;ksLikÉtx & Hkwty esa v‚Dlhtu dh lkaærk c<+kus vkSj
Genetic engineering approaches / tsusfVd bathfu;Çjx
çk—frd :i ls ik, tkus okys cSDVhfj;k }kjk nwf"kr inkFkksZ
–f"Vdks.k
ds tSfod fo?kVu dh nj dks c<+kus ds fy, ty Lrj ds
Phytoremediation / QkbVksjsesfM,'ku
uhps ncko esa gok dk batsD'ku yxkuk
• Phytoremediation is use of plants to remove
• Bioaugmentation - Microorganisms are imported to a
contaminants from soil and water.
contaminated site to enhance degradation process.
QkbVksjsesfM,'ku feêh vkSj ikuh ls nwf"kr inkFkksZ dks gVkus
ck;ksv‚xesVa s'ku & {kj.k çfØ;k dks c<+kus ds fy, lw{ethoksa
ds fy, ikSèkksa dk mi;ksx gSA
dks nwf"kr LFky ij vk;kr fd;k tkrk gSA
Types / çdkj
Ex situ bioremediation techniques / ,Dl lhVw
• Phytoextraction / phytoaccumulation is the process by
ck;ksjes sfM,'ku rduhd
which plants accumulate contaminants into the roots
• Ex situ -involves the removal of the contaminated and above ground shoots or leaves.
material to be treated elsewhere. QkbVks,DlVªSD'ku @ QkbVks,D;wE;wy's ku og çfØ;k gS
,Dl lhVw & blesa nwf"kr lkexzh dks dgÈ vkSj mipkfjr ftlds }kjk ikSèks tM+kas vkSj tehu ds Åij dh Vgfu;ksa ;k
djus ds fy, gVkuk 'kkfey gSA ifÙk;ksa esa nwf"kr inkFkksZ dks tek djrs gSaA
• Landfarming - contaminated soil is excavated and
• Phytostabilization is a technique in which plants reduce
spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled until
the mobility and migration of contaminated soil.
pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate
Leachable constituents are adsorbed and bound into the
indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and
plant structure so that they form unstable mass of plant
facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
from which the contaminants will not re-enter the
ySaMQkÉex & nwf"kr feêh dh [kqnkà dh tkrh gS vkSj mls environment.
rS;kj fcLrj ij QSyk;k tkrk gS vkSj le;&le; ij rc QkbVksLVsfcykbts'ku ,d ,slh rduhd gS ftlesa ikSèks nwf"kr
rd tksrk tkrk gS tc rd fd çnw"kd fo?kfVr u gks tk,aA feêh dh xfr'khyrk vkSj çokl dks de djrs gSaA
bldk y{; Lons'kh ck;ksfMxzsMsfVo lw{ethoksa dks mÙksftr fu{kkyu'khy ?kVd ikSèks dh lajpuk esa vo'kksf"kr gks tkrs
djuk vkSj nwf"kr inkFkksZ ds muds ,jksfcd fo?kVu dks gSa vkSj mlesa caèk tkrs gSa] rkfd os ikSèks dk vfLFkj æO;eku
lqfoèkktud cukuk gSA cuk ldsa] ftlls lanw"kd i;kZoj.k esa fQj ls ços'k ugÈ dj
• Biopiles - it is a hybrid of landfarming and composting. ik,¡xsA
Essentially, engineered cells are constructed as aerated
• Phytodegradation or rhizodegradation is the breakdown
composted piles. Typically used for treatment of
of contaminants through the activity existing in proteins
surface contamination with petroleum hydrocarbons.
and enzymes produced by the plants or by soil
organisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi.
 52

QkbVksfMxzsM's ku ;k jkbtksfMxzsMs'ku ikSèkksa }kjk ;k cSDVhfj;k] tSls&tSls ;g vEyh; ikuh tehu ds Åij vkSj uhps cgrk
[kehj vkSj dod tSls feêh ds thoksa }kjk mRikfnr çksVhu gS] ;g fofHkUu çdkj ds ikSèkksa vkSj tkuojksa dks çHkkfor
vkSj ,atkbeksa esa ekStwn xfrfofèk ds ekè;e ls lanw"kdksa dk djrk gSA
fo?kVu gSA • The strength of the effects depends on several factors,
• Rhizofiltration is a water remediation technique that including how acidic the water is; the chemistry and
involves the uptake of contaminants by plant roots. buffering capacity of the soils involved; and the types
Rhizofiltration is used to reduce contamination in of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the
natural wetlands and estuary areas. water.
jkbtksfQYVªs'ku ,d ty mipkj rduhd gS ftlesa ikSèkksa çHkkoksa dh rkdr dà dkjdksa ij fuHkZj djrh gS] ftlesa
dh tM+kas }kjk lan"w kdksa dk vo'kks"k.k 'kkfey gSA ikuh fdruk vEyh; gS( 'kkfey feêh dh jlk;u foKku
jkbtksfQYVªs'ku dk mi;ksx çk—frd vkæZHkwfe vkSj eqgkuk vkSj cQÇjx {kerk( vkSj eNyh] isM+ vkSj vU; thfor phtksa
{ks=ksa esa lanw"k.k dks de djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA ds çdkj tks ikuh ij fuHkZj gSaA
• Precipitation removes gases and particles from the
Acid Rain / vEyh; o"kkZ atmosphere by two processes:
• Acid rain is the rainfall that has been acidified. It is o"kkZ nks çfØ;kvksa }kjk ok;qeaMy ls xSlksa vkSj d.kksa dks
formed when oxides of sulfur and nitrogen react with gVkrh gS%
the moisture in the atmosphere. It is rain with a pH of • rain-out which is the incorporation of particles into
less than 5.6. Acid rain is particularly damaging to cloud drops which fall to the ground, and
lakes, streams, and forests and the plants and animals jsu&vkmV tks cknyksa dh cwanksa esa d.kksa dk lekos'k gS tks
that live in these ecosystems. tehu ij fxjrs gSa] vkSj
vEyh; o"kkZ og o"kkZ gS tks vEyh; gks xà gSA ;g rc curh • washout which occurs when materials below the cloud
gS tc lYQj vkSj ukbVªkt s u ds v‚DlkbM okrkoj.k esa ueh is swept down by rain or snow it falls.
ds lkFk çfrfØ;k djrs gSaA ;g 5-6 ls de ih,p okyh ok'kvkmV tks rc gksrk gS tc ckny ds uhps dh lkexzh
ckfj'k gksrh gSA vEyh; o"kkZ fo'ks"k :i ls >hyksa] ufn;ksa ckfj'k ;k cQZ ls cg tkrh gSA
vkSj taxyksa vkSj bu ikfjfLFkfrdh ç.kkfy;ksa esa jgus okys
ikSèkksa vkSj tkuojksa ds fy, gkfudkjd gSA Dry Deposition / 'kq"d fu{ksi.k
• In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals
Types of Acid Deposition / ,flM teko ds çdkj may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall to
• “Acid rain” is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the
and dry deposition (form of deposition material) from ground, buildings, vegetation, cars, etc.
the atmosphere ftu {ks=ksa esa ekSle 'kq"d gksrk gS] ogka vEyh; jlk;u èkwy
Þ,flM jsuÞ ,d O;kid 'kCn gS tks ok;qeaMy ls xhys vkSj ;k èkq,a esa fey ldrs gSa vkSj 'kq"d fu{ksi.k ds ekè;e ls
lw[ks teko ¼teko lkexzh dk :i½ ds feJ.k dks lanÆHkr tehu ij fxj ldrs gSa] tehu] bekjrksa] ouLifr;ksa] dkjksa
djrk gS vkfn ls fpid ldrs gSaA
• Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from
Wet Deposition / xhyk teko these surfaces by rainstorms, through runoff.
• If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas 'kq"d fu{ksfir xSlksa vkSj d.kksa dks bu lrgksa ls ckfj'k ds
where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the ground rwQ+ku] viokg ds ekè;e ls èkks;k tk ldrk gSA
in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist. • This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more
;fn gok esa ekStwn ,flM jlk;u mu {ks=ksa esa mM+ tkrs gSa acidic.
tgk¡ ekSle xhyk gS] rks ,flM ckfj'k] cQZ] dksgjs ;k èkqaèk ;g viokg ty ifj.kkeh feJ.k dks vkSj vfèkd vEyh;
ds :i esa tehu ij fxj ldrs gSaA cukrk gSA
• As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, • About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to
it affects a variety of plants and animals. earth through dry deposition.
ok;qeaMy esa ekStwn vEyrk dk yxHkx vkèkk fgLlk 'kq"d
fu{ksi.k ds ekè;e ls okil èkjrh ij fxj tkrk gSA
 53

The pH scale / ih,p Ldsy • The smelting of metal sulfide ores to obtain the pure
• The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or basic metals.
(alkaline) a solution is. 'kq) èkkrq çkIr djus ds fy, èkkrq lYQkbM v;Ldksa dk
ih,p Ldsy ;g ekirk gS fd dksà ?kksy fdruk vEyh; ;k xykukA
{kkjh; ¼{kkjh;½ gSA • Industrial production of Sulfuric acid in metallurgical,
• It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. chemical and fertilizer industries.
;g 0 ls 14 rd gksrk gSA 7 dk ih,p rVLFk gksrk gSA èkkrqdeZ] jklk;fud vkSj moZjd m|ksxksa esa lY¶;wfjd ,flM
• A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is dk vkS|ksfxd mRiknuA
basic.
7 ls de ih,p vEyh; gksrk gS] vkSj 7 ls vfèkd ih,p Nitrogen / ukbVªkt
s u
{kkjh; gksrk gSA Natural sources: / çk—frd lzksr%
• It was devised in 1909 and it is a logarithmic index for • lightening, / fctyh fxjuk]
the hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous solution. • volcanic eruption, and / Tokykeq[kh foLQksV] vkSj
bls 1909 esa rS;kj fd;k x;k Fkk vkSj ;g tyh; ?kksy esa
• Biological activity / tSfod xfrfofèk
gkbMªkstu vk;u lkaærk ds fy, ,d y?kqx.kd lwpdkad
gSA • Anthropogenic sources: / ekuotfur lzkr
s %
• pH values decreases as hydrogen ion levels increases. • Forest fires / taxy dh vkx
gkbMªkstu vk;u ds Lrj esa o`f) gksus ij ih,p eku ?kVrk • Combustion of oil, coal, and gas / rsy] dks;yk vkSj xSl
gSA dk ngu
• A solution with pH 4 is ten times more acidic than
solution with pH 5, and a hundred times more acidic Formic acid / Q‚Æed ,flM
than solution with pH 6. • Biomass burning due to forest fires causes emission of
ih,p 4 okyk ?kksy ih,p 5 okys ?kksy ls nl xquk vfèkd formic acid (HCOOH) and formaldehyde (HCHO)into
vEyh; gksrk gS] vkSj ih,p 6 okys ?kksy ls lkS xquk vfèkd the atmosphere.
vEyh; gksrk gSA taxy dh vkx ds dkj.k ck;ksekl tyus ls ok;qeaMy esa
• Whilst the pH range is usually given as 0 to 14, lower Q‚Æed ,flM ¼HCOOH½ vkSj Q‚esZfYMgkbM ¼HCHO½ dk
and higher values are theoretically possible. mRltZu gksrk gSA
tcfd ih,p jst a vkerkSj ij 0 ls 14 ds :i esa nh tkrh • Large fraction formaldehyde gets photo – oxidation and
gS] lS)kafrd :i ls de vkSj mPp eku laHko gSaA forms formic acid in the atmosphere. These are three
main compounds that cause acidification of rain in the
Sources of compounds causing acid rain / vEyh; o"kkZ atmosphere.
mRiUu djus okys ;kSfxdksa ds lzksr cM+s fgLls esa Q‚esZfYMgkbM QksVks&v‚Dlhdj.k gks tkrk gS
Sulphur / lYQj vkSj ok;qeaMy esa Q‚Æed ,flM cu tkrk gSA ;s rhu eq[;
Natural sources: / çk—frd lzksr% ;kSfxd gSa tks ok;qeaMy esa ckfj'k ds vEyhdj.k dk dkj.k
• seas and oceans, / leqæ vkSj egklkxj] curs gSaA
• volcanic eruptions, / Tokykeq[kh foLQksV]
Other Acids: / vU; vEy%
• Biological processes in the soil e.g., Decomposition of
organic matter. • Chlorine / Dyksjhu
feêh esa tSfod çfØ;k,¡ tSls] dkcZfud inkFkksZ dk vi?kVuA • Phosphoric acid / Q‚LQksfjd ,flM
• Hydrochloric acid (smokestacks).
Man-made sources: / ekuo fuÆer lzksr% gkbMªksDyksfjd ,flM ¼LeksdLVSd½A
• burning of coal (60% of SO2) and / dks;ys dk tyuk • Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (automobiles).
¼SO2 dk 60%½ vkSj These become carbonic acid.
• petroleum products (30% of SO2), and / isVªksfy;e dkcZu eksuksv‚DlkbM vkSj dkcZu Mkbv‚DlkbM
mRikn ¼SO2 dk 30%½] vkSj ¼v‚Vkseksckby½A ;s dkcksZfud ,flM cu tkrs gSaA
 54

Chemistry of Acid Rain / vEyh; o"kkZ dk jlk;u foKku

• Six basic steps are involved in the formation of acid
• lkekU; vkSj ekuotfur vEyh; >hyksa ds chp varj
rain: çk—frd :i ls ekuotfur vEyh—r >hysa
vEyh; o"kkZ ds fuekZ.k esa Ng cqfu;knh pj.k 'kkfey gSa% vEyh; >hysa
• The atmosphere receives oxides of sulfur and nitrogen áwfed inkFkksZ ds çkFkfed mRikndrk esa deh ds dkj.k
from natural and man-made sources. dkj.k Hkwjs ls ihys cgqr lkQ ikuh
ok;qeaMy çk—frd vkSj ekuo fuÆer lzkrs ksa ls lYQj vkSj jax dh
ukbVªkt
s u ds v‚DlkbM çkIr djrk gSA
• Some of these oxides fall back directly to the ground as ?kqfyr dkcZfud ?kqys gq, dkcZfud dkcZu dh lkaærk
dry deposition, either close to the place of origin or dkcZu dh lkaærk de gSA tcfd ikjnÆ'krk vfèkd gSA
some distance away. vfèkd gS tcfd
buesa ls dqN v‚DlkbM 'kq"d fu{ksi.k ds :i esa lhèks tehu ikjnÆ'krk de gS
ij fxjrs gSa] ;k rks mRifÙk ds LFkku ds djhc ;k dqN nwjh ih,p de gS ysfdu [kjkc cQj
ijA vPNh rjg ls cQj
• Sunlight stimulates the formation of photo-oxidants
fd;k x;k gSA
(such as ozone) in the atmosphere.
lw;Z dk çdk'k ok;qeaMy esa QksVks&v‚DlhMsVa ¼tSls vkstksu½ tyh; thou ls uhys&gjs 'kSoky] dqN cSDVhfj;k] ?kksa?ks]
ds fuekZ.k dks mÙksftr djrk gSA Hkjiwj elYl ØLVsf'k;u] es¶ykbt+ vkSj
• These photo-oxidants interact with the oxides of sulfur eNyh tSls dqN vfèkd laons u'khy
and nitrogen to produce H2SO4 and HNO3 by VSDlk ;k rks de gks tkrs gSa ;k [kRe
oxidation. gks tkrs gSa
;s QksVks&v‚DlhMsaV lYQj vkSj ukbVªkt
s u ds v‚DlkbM ds
lkFk v‚Dlhdj.k }kjk H2SO4 vkSj HNO3 dk mRiknu
djus ds fy, çfrfØ;k djrs gSaA
• The oxides are of sulfur and nitrogen, photo-oxidants,
and other gases (like NH3)
v‚DlkbM lYQj vkSj ukbVªkstu] QksVks&v‚DlhMsVa vkSj vU;
xSlksa ¼tSls NH3½ ds gksrs gSa
• Acid rain containing ions of sulfate, nitrate,
lYQsV] ukbVªVs ds vk;uksa okyh vEyh; o"kkZ]
• Difference between normally and anthropogenically
acidified lakes
Naturally acidic lakes Anthropogenically acidified
lakes
Brown to yellow Very clear water caused by
colour caused by reduced primary productivity
humic substances
Concentrations of Dissolved organic carbon
dissolved organic concentrations are low. Whereas
carbon are high while the transparency is high.
transparency is low
Low pH but well Poorly buffered
buffered.
Abound with aquatic Some of the more sensitive taxa,
life. such as blue-green algae, some
bacteria, snails, mussels
crustaceans, mayflies and fish
either decrease or / are
eliminated
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