Atomic Structure

Learning Objectives
• Trace the historical development of atomic structure;
• Distinguish properties of sub-atomic particles;
• Predict the number of orbitals and electrons of a given atom using
quantum numbers;
• Illustrate electron configuration of elements;
• Identify the group and period where each element belongs;
• Predict the atomic, physical,and chemical properties of elements using
trends in the periodic table; and
• Draw the Lewis dot structures and apply the VSEPR Theory in the
seatwork.
•There are as many kinds of atoms as there are
elements. One kind of atom distinguishes one
element.
•How do we identify the atoms of one specific
element?
•Our study of the elements should start with knowing
the basic structure of the atom.
 What are
Atoms ?
✔ Building blocks of matter
✔ Smallest particles of an element
that still have the element’s
properties

Module 1: The Atom & Periodic Trends

Sub-Atomic Particles
• Protons - positive electric
charge
• Electrons - negative
electric charge
• Neutrons - neutral in
electric charge

Module 1: The Atom & Periodic Trends

Atomic number and patterns
When scientists arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number they
found patterns in their properties.

reactive gases

H N N M
H Li Be B C N O F Al Si P S Cl Ar K
e e a g

unreactive gases reactive metals

Positions of similar elements
Compare the positions of similar elements.

reactive gases reactive metals

H N N M
H Li Be B C N O F Al Si P S Cl Ar K
e e a g
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

How many elements are there from one reactive gas to the next?
8

How many elements are there from one reactive metal to the next?
8
Arranging elements
Divide the elements at set intervals, arrange them according to their properties
and what patterns do you see?

cut here cut here cut here

H N N M
H Li Be B C N O F Al Si P S Cl Ar K
e e a g
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Arranging these strips in rows…

H
H
e
B N
Li B C N O F
e e
N M
Al Si P S Cl Ar
a g
K
Arranging elements
When elements are arranged according to their properties what patterns do you
see and what element is missing?

hydrogen is a H H
special case e
N
Li Be B C N O F
e
N M
Al Si P S Cl Ar
a g
K

reactive reactive unreactive

metals gases gases

Similar elements go into the same columns.

Hydrogen is an exception. This reactive gas is best positioned above the reactive metals.
The periodic table
Arranging all the elements by atomic number and properties led to the creation
of…

the periodic table

H H
e
N
Li Be B C N O F
e
N M
Al Si P S Cl Ar
a g
C M C C G G
K Sc Ti
V Cr Fe Ni Zn As Se Br Kr
a n o u a e
R N M R R C
Sr Y Zr Tc Pd Ag In Sn Sb Te I Xe
b b o u h d
R O H R
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ir Pt Au Tl Pb Bi Po At
e s g n
R D
Fr Ac Rf Sg Bh Hs Mt ? ? ?
a b
Columns of elements
What are columns of elements called? Groups

1 2 Group number 3 4 5 6 7 0

H H
e
N
Li Be B C N O F
e
N M transition elements
Al Si P S Cl Ar
a g
C M C C G G
K Sc Ti
V Cr Fe Ni Zn As Se Br Kr
a n o u a e
R N M R R C
Sr Y Zr Tc Pd Ag In Sn Sb Te I Xe
b b o u h d
R O H R
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ir Pt Au Tl Pb Bi Po At
e s g n
R D
Fr Ac Rf Sg Bh Hs Mt ? ? ?
a b
Rows of elements
What are rows of elements called? Periods
Period number

1 H H
e
N
2 Li Be B C N O F
e
N M
3 Al Si P S Cl Ar
a g
C M C C G G
4 K Sc Ti
V Cr Fe Ni Zn As Se Br Kr
a n o u a e
R N M R R C
5 Sr Y Zr Tc Pd Ag In Sn Sb Te I Xe
b b o u h d
R O H R
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ir Pt Au Tl Pb Bi Po At
e s g n
R D
7 Fr Ac Rf Sg Bh Hs Mt ? ? ?
a b
Patterns and atomic number
The periodic table shows that patterns in the properties
of elements are linked to atomic number.
What links atomic number and the properties of elements?
electrons
H H
e
N
Li Be B C N O F
e
N M
Al Si P S Cl Ar
a g
C M C C G G
K Sc Ti
V Cr Fe Ni Zn As Se Br Kr
a n o u a e
R N M R R C
Sr Y Zr Tc Pd Ag In Sn Sb Te I Xe
b b o u h d
R O H R
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ir Pt Au Tl Pb Bi Po At
e s g n
R D
Fr Ac Rf Sg Bh Hs Mt ? ? ?
a b
Patterns and electrons
The properties of elements are hugely influenced by the
number and arrangement of electrons in the atom.
What links atomic number and the number of electrons?
1 4 7 9 10

H He Li Be B
1 2 3 4 5

atomic number = number of protons

atomic number = number of electrons in element’s atoms

As atomic number increases by one, the number of electrons also

increases by one.

So the elements in the periodic table are also arranged in order of the
number of electrons.
Patterns and electrons
Electrons are arranged in shells around an atom’s nucleus.
How is layout of the periodic table related to the number
and arrangement of electrons in these shells?

cut here cut here cut here

H N N M
H Li Be B C N O F Al Si P S Cl Ar K
e e a g
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

The point at which a new period starts is the point at which

electrons begin to fill a new shell.
How many electrons can the first three electron shells hold?
Rules for electron arrangements
Electrons are arranged in shells around an atom’s nucleus.
The rules for the maximum number of electrons shells in
the first three shells are:

first shell maximum = 2 electrons

second shell maximum = 8 electrons

third shell maximum = 8 electrons

This electron arrangement is written as: 2,8,8

Electrons in Period 1
Elements in Period 1 only have electrons in the first shell.
Why are there only two elements in Period 1?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

H He

1 2

The first shell can only hold a maximum of two electrons,

so Period 1 only includes the elements hydrogen and helium.
What is special about the outer shell of He?
Electrons in Period 2
Elements in Period 2 all have a complete first shell.
What happens to electrons in the second shell in Period 2?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

Li Be B C N O F Ne

2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8

The second shell is completed one electron at a time going across

Period 2 from left to right.

What is special about the outer shell of Ne?

Electrons in Period 3
Elements in Period 3 have complete first and second shells.
What happens to electrons in the third shell in Period 3?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8

The third shell is completed one electron at a time going across

Period 3 from left to right.
What is special about the outer shell of Ar?
Patterns of electron arrangements
Consider the electron arrangements of the first 20 elements
in the periodic table.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

1 1
2

2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8

3 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8

2,8,8, 2,8,8,
4
1 2

What is the pattern for the number of outer shell electrons

in each group?
Why do elements in the same group have similar chemical reactivity?
Periodic Trends
Periodic Property
• Periodic property means the property of
an atom changes as you move from
one row/column.
Atomic Radius
• The measure of the size of an atom
measured from its nucleus to the boundary
of the surrounding electron clouds.

Effective nuclear charge

• is the net charge experienced by a
particular electron in a multi-electron atom
resulting from a balance of the attractive
force of the nucleus and the repulsive
forces of other electrons.
 Pattern 1: Atomic Radius
a. Effective nuclear charge
• The higher the atomic number, the more
strongly will the electrons be drawn toward
the nucleus. This makes the atom smaller.
• Mathematically, it can be represented as;
Zeff = Z-S
Z is the number of protons
S is the number of electrons between the
nucleus and the electron in question.
(Screening Constant)
Ex. Na+; F-; Ne
Pattern 1: Atomic Radius
• The two ions, Na+ and F- and a neutral
atom, Ne have the same number of electrons
but differ in effective nuclear charge because
sodium has the highest atomic number, thus
it has the highest nuclear charge, therefore
the smallest atomic radius among the three.
• Therefore, effective nuclear charge depends
on the atomic radius.
Pattern 1: Atomic Radius
b. Shielding Effect
The more inner layers of electrons there are
in the atom, the greater is the screening effect.
This weakens the nuclear pull on the valence
electrons.
It explains why the valence electrons can be
easily removed from the atom to form ions.
The greater the shielding, the further the
valence electrons from the nucleus of an atom,
making the atom bigger in atomic size.
Pattern 1: Atomic Radius
• Tends to decrease across the periodic
table and increases down the periodic
table.
H H
e
N
Li Be B C N O F

Increasing
e
N M
Al Si P S Cl Ar
a g
C M C C G G
K Sc Ti
V Cr Fe Ni Zn As Se Br Kr
a n o u a e
R N M R R C
Sr Y Zr Tc Pd Ag In Sn Sb Te I Xe
b b o u h d
R O H R
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ir Pt Au Tl Pb Bi Po At
e s g n
R D
Fr Ac Rf Sg Bh Hs Mt ? ? ?
a b
Decreasing
Electronegativity
Defined as the ability of an atom to attract a
bonding pair of electrons toward itself.

Affected by both its atomic number and

distance by at which its valence electrons
reside from charged nucleus.

The higher the associated electronegativity

number, the more an element or compound
attracts electrons towards it.
Electronegativity
The opposite of electronegativity is
electropositivity; a measure of an element’s
ability to donate electrons.
Electronegativity
• Similar to electron affinity, it increases
from left to right of the periodic table
and decreases from top to bottom.
H H
e
N
Li Be B C N O F

Decreasing
e
N M
Al Si P S Cl Ar
a g
C M C C G G
K Sc Ti
V Cr Fe Ni Zn As Se Br Kr
a n o u a e
R N M R R C
Sr Y Zr Tc Pd Ag In Sn Sb Te I Xe
b b o u h d
R O H R
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Ir Pt Au Tl Pb Bi Po At
e s g n
R D
Fr Ac Rf Sg Bh Hs Mt ? ? ?
a b
Increasing
Electron configuration
Structure of Atom
•Dalton’s atom consists of indivisible, indestructible, hard
sphere.
•Thomson’s discovery of electrons showed that this was not
the case, and he proposed the “plum pudding model”
concept of the atom.
•Rutherford and his co-workers suggest that atom is made
up of a very small, positively charged nucleus, surrounded
by negatively charged electrons.
Structure of Atom
•The Bohr’s atom consists of a nucleus, which contains the
protons, and the electrons revolving around it in specific
orbits, having quantized energy. Similar to a “miniature
planetary system”
•Werner Heisenberg, a German physicist, refuted the claim
that electrons rotate around the nucleus in circular orbits.
Structure of Atom
•Erwin Schrodinger formulated an equation which describes
the probability of finding electrons outside the nucleus.
Led to the present quantum – mechanical model.
Electron Configuration, Orbital Notation and
Quantum Numbers

Principal (n)= energy level Azimuzal () = sublevel

orbital type

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p64d104f14

Spin (ms) =
electron + or -
Magnetic (ml) = orbital
cloud orientation (2e-
per orbital)
Electron Configuration
Two issues:
(1) Arrangement of electrons within an atom
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p64d104f14
(2) Order in which electrons fill the orbitals
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f14

Aufbau Process: Using Periodic Table Sub-blocks:

Electron Configurations Every electron has a name
• Name of each electron unique
• Name consists of four numbers:
• n,l,ml,ms
• Example:
• Mr. George Herbert Walker Bush
• We must learn to name our electrons
• Unlike people, there is a lot in the
“name” of an electron.
Electron Configurations
•Distribution of all electrons
in an atom
•Consist of
• Number denoting the
energy level
Electron Configurations
•Distribution of all electrons
in an atom
•Consist of
• Number denoting the
energy level
• Letter denoting the type of
orbital
Electron Configurations
•Distribution of all electrons
in an atom.
•Consist of
• Number denoting the energy
level.
• Letter denoting the type of
orbital.
• Superscript denoting the
number of electrons in those
orbitals.
 The sub-levels
There are four sub-levels, sub-leve max no.
labelled in order of l electrons
s 2
increasing energy: s, p, d and p 6
f. Each holds a different d 10
number of electrons. f 14

Each principal energy

level contains a principal energy sub-levels max no.
level, n electrons
different number of 1 1s 2
sub-levels. 2 2s, 2p 8
3 3s, 3p, 3d 18
4 4s, 4p, 4d, 32
4f
 This results in the following order:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p,
6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p

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 Electron configuration of ions
When writing the electron configuration of
For negative ions
ions, it is important to add or subtract the add electrons.
appropriate number of electrons. For positive ions
For non-transition metals, the sub-levels are remove electrons.

then filled as for atoms.

Example: what is the electron structure of O2-?

1. Count number of electrons in atom 8
2. Add or remove electrons due to charge 8 + 2 = 10
3. Fill sub-levels as for uncharged atom 1s22s22p6
 p e e- configuration

Sr Ions
+
Sr
2+
Sr
2+
Al
3+
Al
 p e e- configuration
S Ions
1-
S
2-
S
1-
Br
Ba
2+
Ba
3+
B
 There are several terms describing electron
configurations that are important.

The complete electron configuration

shows every subshell explicitly.

Br: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5

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The valence configuration consists of the
electrons outside the noble-gas or
pseudo-noble-gas core.
2 5
Br: 4s 4p

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Orbital diagram
An orbital diagram is a visual representation of an atom's electron
distribution and spin. It's also known as an orbital filling diagram.
Nitrogen
Electronic configuration : 1s22s22p3

4s 3d
3p
3s

2p Hund’s Rule
2s
1 2 GROUP 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
1 H e

L B N
2 i e
B C N O F
e
N M A S C A
3 a g l i
P S
l r
C S T C M F C N C Z G G A S B K
1s 4 K
a c i
V
r n e o i u n a e s e r r
Neon
Electronic configuration: 1s22s22p6

4s 3d
3p
3s

2p Hund’s Rule
2s
1 2 GROUP 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
1 H e

L B N
2 i e
B C N O F
e
N M A S C A
3 a g l i
P S
l r
C S T C M F C N C Z G G A S B K
1s 4 K
a c i
V
r n e o i u n a e s e r r
Vanadium
Electronic configuration: 1s22s22p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3

4s 3d
3p [Ar]
3s

2p [Ne]
2s
1 2 GROUP 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
1 H e

L B N
2 i e
B C N O F
e
N M A S C A
3 a g l i
P S
l r
C S T C M F C N C Z G G A S B K
1s 4 K
a c i
V
r n e o i u n a e s e r r
Chromium
Electronic configuration: 1s22s22p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5

4s 3d
3p [Ar]
Notice that one of the 4s electrons
3s has been transferred to 3d so that 3d
is now a half filled shell with extra
stability. 4s and 3d contain only
2p [Ne] unpaired electrons.
2s
1 2 GROUP 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
1 H e

L B N
2 i e
B C N O F
e
N M A S C A
3 a g l i
P S
l r
C S T C M F C N C Z G G A S B K
1s 4 K
a c i
V
r n e o i u n a e s e r r
Nickel
Electronic configuration: 1s22s22p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8

4s 3d
3p [Ar]
3s

2p [Ne]
2s
1 2 GROUP 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
1 H e

L B N
2 i e
B C N O F
e
N M A S C A
3 a g l i
P S
l r
C S T C M F C N C Z G G A S B K
1s 4 K
a c i
V
r n e o i u n a e s e r r
Copper
Electronic configuration: 1s22s22p6 3s2 3p6 4s13d10

4s 3d
3p Notice that again one of the 4s electrons
3s has been promoted to 3d so that 3d
is now a completely filled shell with extra
stability.
2p
2s
1 2 GROUP 3 4 5 6 7 0
H
1 H e

L B N
2 i e
B C N O F
e
N M A S C A
3 a g l i
P S
l r
C S T C M F C N C Z G G A S B K
1s 4 K
a c i
V
r n e o i u n a e s e r r
 Write the complete electron
configuration of the arsenic atom,
As, using the building-up principle.

For arsenic, As, Z = 33.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p3

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Quantum Numbers
Quantum Numbers
•Describe the location of electrons within atoms.

•There are four quantum numbers:

• Principal = describes the energy level (1,2,3,etc)
• Azimuthal = energy sublevel, orbital type (s2, p6, d10, f14)
• Magnetic = orbital orientation or cloud (2 electrons on each
cloud) Example: three p clouds: px, py, pz
• Spin = which way the electron is spinning (↑↓)
Principal Quantum Number, n
•The principal quantum number, n,
describes the energy level on which
the orbital resides.
•The values of n are integers ≥ 1.
•1, 2, 3,...n.
Principal Quantum Number, n

1 2 3

• The principal quantum number, n, describes the energy

level on which the orbital resides.
Azimuthal Quantum Number, l
•defines shape of the orbital.
•Allowed values of l are integers
ranging from 0 to n − 1.
•We use letter designations to
communicate the different values of
l and, therefore, the shapes and
types of orbitals.
Azimuthal Quantum Number, 
• This quantum number defines the shape of the orbital.
• Allowed values of  are integers ranging from 0 to n − 1.
• We also use letter designations:

Value of  0 1 2 3

Type of orbital s p d f

=0 =1 =2 =3

Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
• Describes the three-dimensional orientation of the
orbital.
• Values are integers ranging from -l to l:
−l ≤ ml ≤ l.
• Therefore, on any given energy level, there can be up
to:
• 1 s (l=0) orbital (ml=0),
• 3 p (l=1) orbitals, (ml=-1,0,1)
• 5 d (l=2) orbitals, (ml=-2,-1,0,1,2)
• 7 f (l=3) orbitals, (ml=-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3)
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
• Describes the three-dimensional orientation of the orbital.
• Values are integers ranging from -l to l:
−l ≤ ml ≤ l.
• Therefore, on any given energy level, there can be up to 1 s
orbital, 3 p orbitals, 5 d orbitals, 7 f orbitals, etc.

0
+1 0 -1
 An s subshell, with one orbital,
can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

A p subshell, with three orbitals,

can hold a maximum of 6 electrons.

A d subshell, with five orbitals,

can hold a maximum of 10 electrons.

An f subshell, with seven orbitals,

can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.

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Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
• Orbitals with the same value of n form a shell.
• Different orbital types within a shell are subshells
(s, p, d, f).
s Orbitals
• Value of l = 0.
• Spherical in shape.
• Radius of sphere
increases with increasing
value of n.
p Orbitals
• Value of l = 1.
• Have two lobes with a nodal plane between them.

Note: always 3 p orbitals for a given n

d Orbitals
• Value of l is 2.
• 2 nodal planes
• Four of the five orbitals
have 4 lobes; the other
resembles a p orbital
with a doughnut around
the center.

Note: always 5 d orbitals for a given n.

 f Orbitals ( = 3)
0

• There are seven f orbitals

per n level.
• The f orbitals have
1 -1 complicated names.
• They have an  = 3
• m = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2, +3
7 values of m
-2 • The f orbitals have
2 important effects in the
lanthanide and actinide
elements.

3 -3
The closer to the nucleus, the lower the energy
Quantum Numbers: Ex 1
What is the designation for a subshell n=5 and l =1?

How many orbitals are in this subshell?

What are the values of ml for each of the orbitals?

Quantum Numbers: Ex 1
What is the designation for a subshell n=5 and l =1?
5p

How many orbitals are in this subshell?

3

What are the values of ml for each of the orbitals?

-1, 0, +1
Quantum Numbers: Ex 2
Which of the following sets of quantum numbers
are not allowed in the hydrogen atom?

A. n=2, l=0, ml =0, ms=1/2

B. n=1, l=0, ml=0, ms= -1/2
C. n=3, l=1, ml= 2, ms=1/2
D. n=4, l=2, ml= -2, ms=1/2
Quantum Numbers: Ex 2
Which of the following sets of quantum numbers
are not allowed in the hydrogen atom?

A. n=2, l=0, ml =0, ms=1/2

B. n=1, l=0, ml=0, ms= -1/2
C. n=3, l=1, ml= 2, ms=1/2
D. n=4, l=2, ml= -2, ms=1/2
Quantum Numbers: Ex 3
Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are not allowed in the
carbon atom?

A. n=2, l=0, ml =0, ms=1/2

B. n=1, l=1, ml=0, ms= -1/2
C. n=2, l=1, ml= -1, ms=1/2
D. n=4, l=2, ml= -3, ms=1/2
Quantum Numbers: Ex 3
Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are not allowed in the
carbon atom?

A. n=2, l=0, ml =0, ms=1/2

B. n=1, l=1, ml=0, ms= -1/2
C. n=2, l=1, ml= -1, ms=1/2
D. n=4, l=2, ml= -3, ms=1/2
Electron Configuration
Spin Quantum Number, ms
• 1920s: it was discovered that two electrons in the same
orbital do not have exactly the same energy.

The “spin” of
an electron
describes its
magnetic
field, which
affects its
energy.
{e-spin}
Spin Quantum Number, ms
• This leads to a fourth
quantum number, the spin
quantum number ms.
• The spin quantum number
has only 2 values +1/2 and
-1/2
• Describes magnetic field
vector of electron
Why do we call it “spin”
• charges that spin produce
magnetic fields
Write the quantum numbers for the
following.
• S (1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p4)
• Ne (1s2,2s2,2p6)
• K (1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s1)
Pauli exclusion principle
 The Pauli exclusion principle summarizes
experimental observations that no two electrons
in one atom can have the same four quantum
numbers.

That means that within one orbital, electrons

must have opposite spin. It also means that one
orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons
(with opposite spin).

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Pauli Exclusion Principle
Only two electrons can occupy an orbital and
they must have opposite spins.

• No two electrons in the same atom can have exactly the same energy
(identical sets of quantum numbers)
Hund’s rule
Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
One electron fills each orbital before a second of
opposite spin accompanies it.

“For degenerate orbitals, the lowest energy is attained

when the number of electrons with the same spin is
maximized.”
 In 1927, Friedrich Hund discovered, by
experiment, a rule for determining the
lowest-energy configuration of electrons in
orbitals of a subshell.

Hund’s rule states that the lowest-energy

arrangement of electrons in a subshell is
obtained by putting electrons into separate
orbitals of the subshell with the same spin before
pairing electrons.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 8 | 97

 The lowest-energy configuration of an
atom is called its ground state.

Any other allowed configuration

represents an excited state.

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Hund’s Rule
(of maximum multiplicity)

“For degenerate orbitals, the

lowest energy is attained
when the number of
electrons with the same spin
is maximized.”
NOT:
Aufbau principle
 The building-up principle (or aufbau principle) is a
scheme used to reproduce the ground-state
electron configurations by successively filling
subshells with electrons in a specific order (the
building-up order).

This order generally corresponds to filling the

orbitals from lowest to highest energy. Note that
these energies are the total energy of the atom
rather than the energy of the subshells alone.

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 The Aufbau principle
As part of his work on electron configuration, Niels
Bohr developed the Aufbau principle, which states
how electrons occupy sub-levels.
The Aufbau principle states that the
lowest energy sub-levels are occupied first.

This means the 1s sub-level is

filled first, followed by 2s, 2p,
3s and 3p.
However, the 4s sub-level is
lower in energy than the 3d,
so this will fill first.
For nitrogen, the orbital diagram would be

1s 2s 2p

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 Write an orbital diagram for the ground state of the
nickel atom.

For nickel, Z = 28.

1s 2s 2p

3s 3p

4s 3d

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 Magnetic Properties of Atoms
Although an electron behaves like a tiny
magnet, two electrons that are opposite
in spin cancel each other. Only atoms with
unpaired electrons exhibit magnetic
susceptibility.

This allows us to classify atoms based on

their behavior in a magnetic field.

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Electron configurations
Valence electrons and Lewis Dot
Structures
Valence Electrons
•Valence Electrons are
the electrons in the last
energy level of an atom
•You can tell the number
of valence electrons
from the group number

2-8-8-1
Lewis Dot Structure (Electron Dot Structure)
•A notation showing the valence electrons surrounding the
atomic symbol.
•Rule #1. No side can have more
than two dots.
•Rule #2. When filling the sides
of the element symbol each side
gets one dot before doubling up.
Exceptions are hydrogen and
helium.
Elements within the same group have the
same electron-dot structure.
•Try these elements on your own:
a) H
b) P
c) Ca
d) Ar
e) Cl
f) Al
Al
Octet Rule
•Octet rule says that atoms like to have full
outer shells of only eight electrons.
•Atoms will lose or gain valence electrons to
make their outer shells full, and they do
this by bonding with other atoms.
Formation of Positive Ions
•Metals form positive ions by losing electrons
+ -
Na 🡪 Na + e

2-8-1 2-8
Formation of the Magnesium Ion
Note: Dot structures of metal ions
have no dots. Must include charge

2+ -
Mg 🡪 Mg + 2e
 Formation of Negative Ions
•Nonmetals gain electrons, forming negative ions

- -
Cl + 1e 🡪 Cl

2-8-7 2-8-8
 Note: Nonmetal ions are
surrounded by 8 dots. Make

Formation of Sulfide Ion sure to include charge.

2-

+ 2e- 🡪
What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each
ion?
2+
•Ca
2−
•O
 Solution
•Having lost its two original valence electrons, the Lewis
electron dot diagram is just Ca2+.
Ca2+
•The O2− ion has gained two electrons in its valence shell,
so its Lewis electron dot diagram is as follows: