Module 2

Lesson 1: Introduction to Research Design

●​ Research Design Definition: Research design is a framework or blueprint for

conducting a study, guiding how the study will be carried out to achieve its objectives. It
ensures all elements align to achieve desired outcomes.
●​ Purpose of Research Design: To translate a research problem into actionable data for
answering specific questions by bridging conceptual questions and empirical
investigation. It also minimizes bias and enhances the study’s internal validity.
●​ Key Elements of Research Design:
○​ Philosophical Assumptions: Beliefs about reality (ontology) and knowledge
(epistemology) that influence the research approach.
○​ Strategies of Inquiry: Methodological approach (qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed methods) guiding data collection and analysis.
○​ Specific Methods: Tools and techniques like surveys, interviews, or
experiments, aligned with the strategy of inquiry.
●​ Importance of Research Design: Ensures rigor, validity, and reliability while minimizing
bias. It also enhances the trustworthiness of findings through an organized and
transparent process.
●​ Research as a Systematic and Methodical Process: Involves identifying a problem,
reviewing literature, developing research questions, collecting and analyzing data, and
interpreting findings. Systematic research adheres to validity, reliability, and ethical
standards.
●​ Goal of Research: To solve problems or contribute to the existing body of knowledge by
filling gaps, challenging theories, or proposing innovative solutions.
●​ Summary: Research design requires careful consideration of philosophical worldviews,
strategies of inquiry, and specific methods to create an effective research plan.

Lesson 2: Philosophical Worldviews

●​ Definition of Worldview: A foundational set of beliefs and values that guide an

individual's understanding and actions, shaping how researchers perceive and interact
with the world.
●​ Influence of Philosophical Assumptions: Philosophical assumptions shape the
research process, from research questions to the interpretation of results, influencing
decisions in research design, data collection, and analysis.
○​ Ontology (Nature of Reality): The researcher’s understanding of reality impacts
the research approach.
○​ Epistemology (Nature of Knowledge): Beliefs guiding how knowledge is
acquired and validated.
●​ Key Philosophical Worldviews:
○​ Postpositivism: Emphasizes testing causal relationships, objective observation,
and numerical data collection, aligning with quantitative research.
 ○​ Constructivism: Focuses on subjective meaning, the social construction of
reality, and exploring phenomena in depth, commonly associated with qualitative
research.
○​ Advocacy/Participatory: Tied to social and political agendas, promoting equity,
addressing social injustices, and empowering marginalized participants.
○​ Pragmatism: Prioritizes practical solutions and outcomes, using multiple
methods and diverse worldviews, aligning with mixed-methods research.
●​ How Worldviews Shape Research Approach:
○​ Role of Worldviews: Worldviews shape the questions researchers ask, the
methods they use, and how they interpret results.
○​ Selection of Research Design: Postpositivism leads to quantitative methods,
constructivism favors qualitative methods, and pragmatism uses mixed methods.
○​ Influence on Methodology and Methods: Postpositivists test theories,
constructivists generate theories, and advocacy/participatory researchers
advocate for social change.
○​ Research Questions and Objectives: Postpositivist questions test
cause-and-effect, constructivist questions understand meaning, and
advocacy/participatory questions address social injustices.
○​ Interpretation of Findings: Postpositivism emphasizes objective analysis,
constructivism focuses on lived experiences, and advocacy/participatory
research highlights systemic inequities.
○​ Reflexivity: Researchers reflect on how their worldviews influence the research
process.
○​ Rigor and Validity: Quantitative research prioritizes objectivity, while qualitative
research values credibility.
○​ Researcher’s Role: Postpositivist researchers remain detached, constructivist
researchers engage actively, and advocacy/participatory researchers collaborate
to promote change.
●​ Ontology and Epistemology:
○​ Ontology: Study of the nature of reality. Objectivist ontology assumes an
objective reality, while constructionist ontology views reality as socially
constructed.
○​ Epistemology: Study of the nature of knowledge. Objectivist epistemology posits
knowledge obtained through observation, while subjectivist epistemology
suggests knowledge is co-constructed.
●​ Summary: Philosophical worldviews and ontological and epistemological positions guide
the design and execution of rigorous and meaningful research.

Lesson 3: Strategies for Inquiry

●​ Definition of Strategies of Inquiry: Specific designs or models within qualitative,

quantitative, and mixed-methods research that provide direction for research
procedures.
●​ Directions for Research Procedures: Strategies outline a detailed plan for data
collection, analysis, and interpretation to address research questions effectively.
●​ Importance of Alignment: The chosen strategy must align with the researcher’s
philosophical worldview and research questions to ensure coherence, validity, and rigor.
●​ Qualitative Strategies of Inquiry: Emphasize exploring and understanding meanings
people ascribe to social or human problems.
○​ Case Studies: In-depth examination of a single case to understand its
complexity and uniqueness.
○​ Narrative Research: Focuses on collecting and analyzing stories to understand
how individuals make sense of their lives.
○​ Phenomenological Research: Seeks to understand the essence of a
phenomenon by exploring lived experiences.
○​ Grounded Theory: Focuses on developing a theory grounded in the data
collected from participants.
○​ Ethnography: In-depth study of a cultural group’s behaviors, language, and
actions within their natural setting.
○​ Action Research: Aims to address and improve a specific situation or practice
through a cyclical approach.
○​ Historical Design: Examines past events to understand their implications for the
present and future.
●​ Quantitative Strategies of Inquiry: Involve collecting and analyzing numerical data to
test hypotheses and identify relationships between variables.
○​ Experimental Research: Tests cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating
variables using control and experimental groups.
○​ Quasi-Experimental Research: Examines cause-and-effect relationships
without random assignment.
○​ Survey Research: Collects information about attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of
a population through questionnaires or interviews.
○​ Correlational Research: Identifies relationships between variables using
correlational statistics without manipulating variables.
○​ Descriptive Research: Describes the characteristics of a population or issue
under study.
●​ Mixed Methods Strategies of Inquiry: Integrates elements of qualitative and
quantitative research to provide a comprehensive understanding of complex research
questions.
○​ Convergent Parallel Mixed Methods: Collects and analyzes qualitative and
quantitative data concurrently, then compares the results.
○​ Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods: Begins with quantitative data
collection and analysis, followed by qualitative data.
○​ Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods: Begins with qualitative data collection
and analysis, followed by quantitative data.
○​ Embedded Design: Uses one method in a secondary role within a larger primary
design to enhance or clarify results.
○​ Transformative Mixed Methods Design: Uses mixed methods within a
transformative framework to address social justice or equity issues.
 ○​ Multi-Phase Mixed Methods Design: Examines a problem through a series of
separate studies or phases, building incrementally toward a comprehensive
understanding.
●​ Summary: Strategies of inquiry bridge philosophical worldviews and practical methods,
with qualitative strategies exploring human experience, quantitative methods examining
cause-and-effect, and mixed methods combining both approaches.

Lesson 4: Choosing the Right Research Design

●​ Factors to Consider:
○​ Research Questions and Objectives: Primary drivers of design choice.
○​ Philosophical Assumptions (Worldviews): Influence the research approach
(quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods).
○​ Available Resources: Constraints like time, funding, and researcher availability
influence design choices.
●​ Matching Research Questions to Methodologies:
○​ Quantitative Methods: Measure and quantify relationships, establish
cause-and-effect, or generalize findings.
○​ Qualitative Methods: Explore meanings, understand experiences, or generate
theory.
○​ Mixed Methods: Address complex research questions requiring both quantitative
and qualitative data.
●​ Balancing Rigor and Relevance: Rigor refers to thoroughness and validity, while
relevance refers to practical importance.
●​ Understanding Strengths and Limitations: Each approach has strengths and
limitations that should be considered.
●​ Role of the Researcher: Researcher’s background, experiences, and biases play a
role, especially in qualitative studies.
○​ Reflexivity: Researchers acknowledge and reflect on their values and biases.
●​ Summary: Choosing the right research design involves considering research questions,
philosophical assumptions, available resources, and the strengths and limitations of
each approach.

Module 3

Lesson 1: Literature Review Process in Social Sciences Research

●​ Definition and Importance of a Literature Review: A literature review is a critical

examination of existing research that provides the basis for advancing knowledge in a
field. It summarizes existing studies on a topic to identify unanswered questions and
demonstrates the researcher's knowledge of the subject.
●​ Functions of a Literature Review:
 ○​ Identification of Research Gaps: Identifies gaps in existing literature where a
new study can contribute.
○​ Evaluation and Synthesis of Literature: Critically evaluates and synthesizes
existing literature to create new perspectives. Integrative reviews generate new
frameworks and innovative insights.
○​ Clarification of Key Concepts: Clarifies key terms, ideas, and theories in a field,
aiding the development of a robust theoretical foundation.
○​ Enhancing Research Quality: Relies on meticulous structure and clear
reporting, integrating various studies into a unified understanding.
●​ Structuring a High-Quality Literature Review: An effective review synthesizes
research, critiques methodologies and findings, and identifies gaps. Clear reporting
strengthens the review's credibility.
●​ Purpose of the Literature Review:
○​ Identifying Research Needs and Relevance: Crucial for identifying the need for
a specific research question or topic.
○​ Demonstrating Knowledge of the Subject Area: Showcases a researcher’s
familiarity with key terms, ideas, theories, and seminal research.
○​ Discovering Important Variables: Aids in identifying critical variables related to
a topic.
○​ Synthesizing Information and Gaining New Perspectives: Enables
researchers to synthesize information from existing studies.
○​ Establishing Context and Significance: Establishes the background to
understand the current state of research, clarifying why the study is important
and what gaps it addresses.
○​ Clarifying Structure and Applications: Clarifies the structure of the subject
matter and links theoretical concepts to practical applications.
○​ Supporting Methodological Choices: Substantiates the selected
methodological approach, ensuring it aligns with existing scholarship and
addresses research gaps.
○​ Providing a Benchmark for Findings: Serves as a reference point for
comparing a study’s findings with existing research.
○​ Refining the Research Focus: Narrows the focus of a study by refining the topic
into an identifiable gap, leading to a problem statement.
●​ Steps in Conducting a Literature Review:
○​ Developing a Scholarly Foundation: Transitioning from scholar to researcher,
immersing oneself in existing literature.
○​ Creating a "Summary Phrase" or "Research Nugget": Creating a concise
descriptive statement that encapsulates the essence of the study.
○​ Focusing on Recent and Seminal Research: Prioritizing recent research while
engaging with older seminal studies.
○​ Reading Broadly to Build Expertise: Reading a range of studies until saturation
is reached.
○​ Evaluating and Critiquing Studies: Assessing the quality of research, including
methodologies and reporting standards.
 ○​ Employing Structured Strategies: Using frameworks like SALSA (Search,
Appraise, Synthesize, Analyze) for a systematic approach.
○​ Using Concept Mapping: Visually representing relationships between ideas to
structure understanding.
○​ Identifying Relevant Concepts and Connections: Identifying and linking
concepts to create a coherent framework.
○​ Focusing on Relevant Literature: Refining the scope to include only studies
relevant to the identified concepts.
○​ Utilizing Analytical Frameworks: Using tools like TCCM, ADO, 5W+1H, and
IMO to organize and analyze literature.

Lesson 2: Theoretical Framework in Social Sciences Research

●​ Definition and Role of a Theoretical Framework: A theoretical framework is a

"blueprint" that guides the research process, providing direction. It is a structure based
on formal theories that explain phenomena and their relationships.
●​ Key Functions of a Theoretical Framework:
○​ Foundation for Research Development: Serves as the base from which the
research is developed.
○​ Providing a Lens for Interpretation: Acts as a lens through which the
researcher views the research topic.
○​ Explanation and Interpretation of Phenomena: Helps explain and interpret the
research problem by offering a specific perspective.
○​ Guiding the Selection of Relevant Theories and Concepts: Defines relevant
concepts and constructs from selected theories.
○​ Anchoring Research Components: Ensures that the literature review, research
questions, methodology, and analysis are aligned.
○​ Making Sense of Data: Provides a framework necessary to interpret and
contextualize findings.
●​ Theories in Research:
○​ Flexibility in Using Theories: Theories can be borrowed, revised, or created by
the researcher.
○​ Linking Theories to Research Questions: A theory logically connects ideas to
the research question.
○​ Guiding All Aspects of Research: Theories guide all parts of a study, ensuring
coherence and focus.
○​ Necessity for Sound Research: A well-defined theoretical framework is
essential for credible and structured research.
○​ Providing Structure and Vision: Theoretical frameworks provide structure and
embody the researcher’s philosophical approach.
●​ Purposes of a Theoretical Framework:
○​ Guiding the Research Process: Shapes each step from question formulation to
data analysis.
○​ Offering a Common Lens or Worldview: Provides a specific perspective for
understanding a problem and interpreting data.
 ○​ Informing Research Design: Helps researchers assess their goals, develop
questions, and choose methods.
○​ Explaining Phenomena Through a Particular Lens: Helps organize complex
information into a coherent narrative.
○​ Challenging and Extending Existing Knowledge: Allows researchers to
question established ideas and uncover gaps.
○​ Revealing Researcher Subjectivities: Helps make explicit the researcher’s
values, social experiences, and biases.
●​ Integrating the Theoretical Framework:
○​ Early Identification and Clear Articulation: Should be clearly stated at the
beginning of the research process.
○​ Consistency Throughout the Study: Should be explicitly mentioned and
consistently threaded throughout the research.
○​ Logical Interpretation and Alignment: The chosen theory should be
appropriate and directly linked to the research objectives.
○​ Connection to Key Research Elements: Provides a foundation for the study's
problem, purpose, significance, and research questions.
○​ Guiding the Literature Review: Provides a lens for identifying and organizing
relevant studies.
○​ Informing Methodological Planning: Serves as the basis for research design
and data collection.
○​ Aligning Data Collection and Analysis: Ensures that the study remains
focused and that the data are analyzed in a way that reflects the framework’s
main ideas.
○​ Integration into Discussion and Implications: Findings should be interpreted
through the lens of the framework.
●​ Steps in Developing a Theoretical Framework:
○​ Examine the Research Problem: The research problem provides the basis for
developing the theoretical framework.
○​ Identify Key Variables and Constructs: Determining the factors that caused,
influenced, or contributed to the phenomenon under investigation.
○​ Review Existing Literature: Helps researchers understand how similar research
problems have been addressed.
○​ Group and Categorize Constructs and Variables: Aids in organizing the
theoretical framework and clarifying the relationships.
○​ Select a Relevant Theory: Should provide a logical explanation of how and why
the phenomenon occurs.
○​ Reflect on Personal Beliefs and Epistemological Values: Researchers should
consider their own assumptions, values, and epistemological beliefs.
○​ Consult Databases for Applied Examples: Helps validate the choice of theory
and provides insights into practical applications.
○​ Choose a Theory That Provides Structure and Concepts: The theory must
provide a coherent worldview and lens to support the researcher’s thinking.
Module 4

Overview of Ethical Considerations in Research

●​ Ethical Guidelines for Social Research: Social research requires a strong ethical
framework to ensure participant safety and well-being while acknowledging their
contributions to scholarship.
●​ Human-Centric Nature of Social Research: Social research is human-centric,
emphasizing understanding human behavior, relationships, and social dynamics through
direct interaction with individuals and communities.
○​ Direct Engagement with Participants: Social research often involves in-person
interactions in natural settings to gain a deeper understanding of social contexts.
○​ Exploration of Internal Experiences: Researchers aim to uncover attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors related to relationships, family, work, and lifestyle,
requiring sensitivity and respect.
○​ Contextual Understanding: Individual experiences are shaped by social,
cultural, and economic contexts.
○​ Relational Dynamics: Trust, empathy, and reciprocity characterize the
researcher-participant relationship, requiring careful navigation of power
dynamics.
○​ Ethical Considerations: Protecting the safety, dignity, and well-being of
participants is paramount, including obtaining informed consent and ensuring
confidentiality.
○​ Ethical Responsibility: Researchers must be sensitive to the potential impact of
their work on participants, minimizing risks and discomfort.
○​ Co-Production of Knowledge: Participants are co-producers of knowledge, and
their insights are invaluable.
○​ Flexibility in Research Design: Research designs should be adaptable based
on insights gained during the research process.
○​ Diversity of Perspectives: Researchers must be attentive to differences among
individuals and groups, especially regarding race, gender, class, and culture.
○​ Societal Impact: Human-centric research can lead to findings that have practical
implications for policy, practice, and community development, addressing social
inequities and promoting social justice.

Core Principles (2022 Philippine Research Ethics Guidelines)

●​ The guidelines aim to establish ethical standards for research involving human
participants, promoting responsible conduct and protecting individual rights and welfare.
○​ Respect for Persons: Researchers must honor the dignity, autonomy, and rights
of individuals.
■​ Autonomy: Individuals have the right to make their own decisions about
participating in research and can withdraw at any time without penalty.
 ■​ Informed Consent: Potential participants must receive comprehensive
information about the research, including its nature, purpose, procedures,
risks, benefits, and their rights. Consent must be voluntary and free from
coercion.
■​ Protection of Vulnerable Populations: Additional safeguards are
needed for vulnerable groups like children, the elderly, and individuals
with disabilities to protect them from exploitation and harm.
■​ Confidentiality and Privacy: Researchers must maintain the
confidentiality and privacy of participants by securely storing and using
collected information.
■​ Cultural Sensitivity: Researchers must be aware of and sensitive to
participants' cultural contexts and values to ensure meaningful and
appropriate consent processes.
○​ Beneficence: Researchers have a moral obligation to maximize benefits and
minimize potential harm to participants.
■​ Maximizing Benefits: Studies should advance scientific knowledge and
provide tangible benefits to participants and the community.
■​ Minimizing Harm: Researchers must identify and mitigate potential
physical and psychological risks.
■​ Risk-Benefit Analysis: A thorough analysis should evaluate whether
potential benefits outweigh the risks.
■​ Monitoring for Adverse Events: Researchers must monitor participants
for any adverse effects.
■​ Feedback and Follow-Up: Researchers should provide participants with
feedback on the study results.
■​ Ethical Review Committees: Research proposals must undergo review
to ensure alignment with beneficence principles.
■​ Community Engagement: Engaging with the community and
stakeholders can enhance the ethical dimensions of research.
○​ Justice: Emphasizes fairness in the distribution of research benefits and
burdens, ensuring no group is unfairly exploited or excluded.
■​ Fair Distribution of Benefits and Burdens: Research benefits should
be shared equitably, and no group should bear undue burden.
■​ Equitable Selection of Participants: Participant selection should be
based on scientific reasons rather than convenience or bias.
■​ Inclusion of Vulnerable Groups: Vulnerable populations should be
included in research when appropriate, with special protocols to prevent
exploitation.
■​ Avoiding Coercion and Undue Influence: Participation should not be
compelled by unequal power dynamics.
■​ Community Engagement: Engaging with affected communities ensures
their perspectives and needs are considered.
■​ Transparency: Researchers should be transparent about the research's
purpose, use of findings, and participant benefits.
Key Components

●​ Informed Consent: A fundamental ethical requirement to respect participants'

autonomy, rights, and welfare.
○​ Researchers must provide comprehensive information about the study's
purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, confidentiality, and voluntary participation.
○​ Ensuring understanding through accessible language and verification.
○​ Guaranteeing voluntariness without coercion or undue influence.
○​ Assessing capacity to consent, with special considerations for vulnerable
populations.
○​ Documenting consent through signed forms or alternative methods.
○​ Providing ongoing consent and keeping participants informed of any significant
changes.
●​ Ethics Review: A critical process to ensure studies are conducted ethically and
responsibly.
○​ Protection of Participants: Safeguarding the rights, welfare, and dignity of
research participants.
○​ Ensuring Ethical Standards: Adhering to ethical principles, including respect for
persons, beneficence, and justice.
○​ Compliance with Regulations: Assessing compliance with national laws,
regulations, and institutional policies.
○​ Promoting Responsible Research Practices: Encouraging best practices in
study design, participant recruitment, and data management.
●​ Confidentiality: Protecting participants' privacy by safeguarding their personal and
sensitive information.
○​ Protection of Personal Information: Implementing measures to protect
personal data from unauthorized access or disclosure.
○​ Data Anonymization and De-identification: Removing identifiable information
from datasets.
○​ Informed Consent and Disclosure: Informing participants about how their data
will be handled, stored, and shared.
○​ Secure Data Storage: Ensuring all data collected is stored securely.
○​ Limited Access: Restricting access to personal data to authorized personnel
only.
○​ Ethics Committee Oversight: Ensuring researchers have adequate plans for
maintaining confidentiality.
○​ Handling Breaches of Confidentiality: Establishing procedures for reporting
incidents and mitigating harm.
●​ Research Integrity: Adhering to ethical standards and principles throughout the
research process, including honesty, transparency, accuracy, and accountability.
○​ Honesty and Transparency: Presenting findings, methodologies, and data
honestly and transparently.
○​ Accuracy: Ensuring accuracy in data collection, analysis, and reporting.
 ○​ Accountability: Being responsible for actions and decisions throughout the
research process.
○​ Responsible Authorship: Properly attributing authorship.
○​ Prevention of Misconduct: Proactively preventing research misconduct.
○​ Peer Review and Collaboration: Engaging in peer review and collaborating with
others.
○​ Data Management and Sharing: Establishing robust data management
practices.

Additional Considerations

●​ Special Populations: Addressing the ethical complexities involved in research with

groups that may have unique vulnerabilities or specific needs.
○​ Definition of Special Populations: Includes children, pregnant women, the
elderly, persons with disabilities, and economically disadvantaged individuals.
○​ Enhanced Protection and Ethical Considerations: Recognizing and
addressing vulnerabilities to coercion, exploitation, or harm.
○​ Informed Consent: Adapting the informed consent process to suit the specific
needs of special populations.
○​ Participation and Inclusion: Prioritizing rights and welfare when including
special populations in research.
○​ Community Engagement: Involving community members in the research design
process.
○​ Cultural Sensitivity: Being aware of and respecting the cultural values and
practices of special populations.
○​ Ongoing Monitoring and Support: Establishing mechanisms for ongoing
monitoring of the welfare of special populations.
●​ Community Engagement: Involving communities in the research process to ensure
studies are relevant, respectful, and beneficial.
○​ Inclusivity and Representation: Actively including community members and
ensuring diverse perspectives are represented.
○​ Mutual Respect: Approaching communities with respect for their knowledge,
values, and cultural practices.
○​ Collaborative Research Design: Engaging communities in the research design
process.
○​ Clear Communication: Providing clear information about the research
objectives, processes, and potential impacts.
○​ Feedback Mechanisms: Establishing mechanisms for community members to
provide feedback.
●​ Compliance with Laws and Regulations: Adhering to relevant legal frameworks and
institutional policies.
○​ Adherence to National Laws: Complying with Philippine laws governing
research involving human subjects.
○​ Institutional Policies: Following institutional policies and procedures.
 ○​ Ethics Review Requirements: Undergoing review by an ethics committee or
institutional review board.
○​ Informed Consent and Legal Capacity: Ensuring the informed consent process
complies with legal requirements.
○​ Protection of Vulnerable Populations: Complying with legal provisions to
ensure the ethical treatment of participants from vulnerable groups.
○​ Reporting and Surveillance: Adhering to reporting requirements for adverse
events or breaches of confidentiality.
○​ Transparency and Accountability: Maintaining transparency in research
practices and being accountable for actions.

Ethical Guidelines for Research Involving Indigenous Peoples (IPs)

●​ Requires special ethical considerations due to their unique cultural, social, and historical
contexts.
○​ Challenges and Context: Existing mainstream research ethics guidelines may
not fully capture the complexities of Indigenous worldviews.
○​ Oversight Considerations: RECs must understand the unique needs of
IPs/ICCs, identify stakeholders, and adhere to regulatory compliance.
○​ Informed Consent: Requires obtaining Free and Prior Informed Consent (FPIC),
reflecting the community’s consensus.
○​ Researcher Competence: Researchers must understand the culture and
language of the IPs being studied.
○​ Respect for Traditions and Customs: Research designs must show respect for
the traditions and rituals of IPs/ICCs, avoiding methods that could infringe on
sacred practices.
○​ Addressing Vulnerabilities and Risks: Researchers must consider risks to IPs
and non-IP populations in their assessments and protect against exploitation.
○​ Benefit Sharing and Ownership: Research agreements must detail how the
community will benefit from the study results and acknowledge their intellectual
property rights.
○​ Role of Research Ethics Committees: RECs must have a deep understanding
of the cultural and ethical considerations specific to IPs/ICCs and include
Indigenous representatives in the decision-making process.

Ethical AI in Academic Research: A Detailed Guide for Students

●​ Provides guidance on using AI tools ethically and effectively in academic research.

○​ Transparency and Proper Attribution: Always be upfront about using AI tools,
stating which tools were used and for what purposes.
○​ Maintaining Academic Integrity: Use AI as a tool rather than a replacement for
your own work, developing your own arguments and conclusions.
○​ Critical Evaluation of AI-Generated Content: Approach AI outputs critically,
cross-referencing information with reputable academic sources.
 ○​ Respecting Intellectual Property Rights: Be cautious about potential copyright
issues when using AI, ensuring proper citation and originality.
○​ Addressing Bias and Ensuring Fairness: Be aware of potential biases in
AI-generated content and discuss any identified biases.
○​ Preserving Human Creativity and Original Thinking: Use AI to organize
information but develop your own unique arguments and insights.
○​ Ensuring Reproducibility: Document your use of AI tools thoroughly, including
version numbers and specific settings.
○​ Ethical Use of Data: Be mindful of ethical data handling when using AI tools,
ensuring you have the right to use the data and protecting sensitive information.

Module 5

The source discusses key components of effective research introductions, their functions, and
common pitfalls to avoid. Here's a summary of how to approach writing a strong introduction:

Key Components and Functions

●​ Establish Research Context: A good introduction provides background information,

summarizes existing knowledge, and identifies gaps in the literature to highlight the
necessity of the study. It should showcase the relevance and significance of the
research.
●​ Highlight Relevance, Novelty, and Significance: The introduction should demonstrate
the study's relevance to scholarly debates and practical issues. It should articulate how
the study addresses gaps, providing new insights or solutions, and clearly state what is
unique about the study.
●​ Define Research Objectives: The introduction, along with the purpose statement,
should outline the specific objectives, research questions, and scope of the study. This
ensures the research is focused and structured.
●​ Align with Prior Research: An introduction should align the study with existing research
trends while addressing critical gaps. It should provide a concise review of relevant
literature and emphasize how the study contributes new knowledge.
●​ Provide Background and Context: This section is essential for summarizing existing
knowledge and identifying gaps that the study aims to address.
●​ Give a Broad Overview: Start with a broad discussion of the research area before
narrowing down to the specific problem, using the funnel method to contextualize the
study.
●​ Summarize Existing Knowledge: Provide a snapshot of the current state of knowledge,
highlighting significant contributions and theoretical advancements, while avoiding an
exhaustive literature review.
●​ Identify Gaps or Controversies: Pinpoint what remains unresolved or debated,
emphasizing contradictions or methodological limitations to justify the need for the study.
●​ State the Research Question Clearly: Present the central research question early in
the introduction to ensure readers understand the study’s focus and objectives. The
research question should be explicit, concise, specific, focused, and answerable.
 ●​ Define the Study Aim: Present the aim early in the introduction to provide immediate
clarity on the study’s objectives.
●​ Overview the Research Design: Briefly explain the methodological approach
(qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods) used to address the research question.
●​ Ensure Clarity and Focus: A well-structured research question, aim, and scope prevent
unnecessary complexity, making the study more coherent and manageable.

Establishing Relevance and Significance

●​ Motivation and Justification: Establish the relevance, necessity, and originality of the
research.
●​ Summarize Relevant Past Research: Provide a concise review of relevant literature to
contextualize the study.
●​ Highlight Gaps: Explicitly state research gaps to justify the need for the study.
●​ Explain Novel Contributions: Highlight how the research contributes novel insights or
offers practical applications.
●​ Use a Funnel Structure: Guide readers from a broad perspective to the specific focus
of the study to enhance clarity and coherence.
●​ Ensure Smooth Transitions: Use transition sentences and logical progression of ideas
to maintain the logical flow of the introduction.
●​ Discuss Limitations of Previous Studies: Acknowledge limitations to demonstrate a
thorough understanding of the field and justify further research.
●​ Reference Conflicting Findings: Acknowledge existing contradictions within the field to
justify further investigation.
●​ Resolve Inconsistencies or Offer New Perspectives: Explain how the study aims to
resolve inconsistencies or provide new insights.

Rationale for the Study

●​ Importance and Necessity: Explain why the research matters both within academia
and in broader societal contexts.
●​ Biological, Social, Economic, or Practical Significance: Demonstrate the study’s
broader implications.
●​ Justify with Evidence: Draw on existing literature to establish the study's necessity and
address existing gaps.

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

●​ Avoid Excessive Details: Provide only the most relevant details, focusing on key
studies directly related to the research question.
●​ Ensure Current Citations: Use current, relevant, and directly related citations.
●​ Avoid Vague Problems: Research questions should be specific, clear, and
researchable.
●​ Use Logical Framing: Use straightforward language and logical framing.
 ●​ Connect Past Research: Synthesize past research to show how the current study fits
into the existing body of knowledge.
●​ Demonstrate How the Study Builds on Previous Work: Clearly articulate how the
study extends, refines, or challenges existing research.
●​ Maintain Reader Interest: Start with a compelling hook.
●​ Ensure Logical Flow: Each paragraph should logically lead to the next, creating a
smooth narrative.
●​ Lead to the Research Question: Every part of the introduction should build up to the
research question.
●​ Avoid Unnecessary Details: Keep introductions concise and directly relevant to the
research question.

By adhering to these guidelines, researchers can craft effective introductions that establish the
significance of their work and engage their audience.

Module 6

To effectively select and develop research topics, problems, objectives, and questions, it's
important to understand the guidelines provided in the source. Here’s a breakdown:

I. Understanding the Research Problem

●​ A research problem is a significant, perplexing, and challenging phenomenon

requiring systematic investigation. It aims to produce new knowledge, inform
decision-making, or solve real-world issues.
●​ Research problems can be issues requiring discussion and analysis or practical
and theoretical concerns in need of solutions.
●​ Issues needing discussion often involve social, political, and behavioral phenomena that
require deep analysis to uncover underlying mechanisms. Examples include social
inequality, electoral behaviors, and public perceptions.
●​ Practical concerns address immediate societal, institutional, or organizational needs,
such as evaluating programs or assessing policy effectiveness.
●​ Practical and theoretical concerns often intersect, where studies address practical issues
while contributing to theoretical development. For example, research on
community-based policing informs law enforcement strategies and tests criminological
theories.

II. Sources of Research Problems

●​ Scholarly literature, including journals, theses, dissertations, and published research, is

a common and reliable source. A comprehensive literature review helps identify
knowledge gaps and unresolved debates.
●​ Journals offer up-to-date findings and emerging trends.
 ●​ Theses and dissertations provide in-depth examinations and recommendations for future
research.
●​ Published studies serve as benchmarks for methodological approaches and theoretical
frameworks.
●​ Academic experiences such as coursework, seminars, and research-oriented classes
can inspire research problems.
●​ Coursework may raise questions about the applicability of concepts across different
contexts.
●​ Seminars and conferences often discuss unresolved issues and potential research
directions.
●​ Methodology and thesis-writing courses encourage students to refine research
problems.
●​ Personal interests and observations, especially when they intersect with societal
issues and academic knowledge, can be compelling sources.
●​ Professional engagements in fields like public administration or social work often reveal
practical challenges.
●​ Everyday interactions and observations may reveal patterns or anomalies worth
studying.
●​ Pressing social issues like poverty, inequality, climate change, and political polarization
frequently prompt research. These often have policy implications.
●​ Theoretical frameworks can reveal gaps, inconsistencies, or unexplored areas that
require further empirical validation or conceptual refinement.
●​ A critical appraisal of literature is essential for identifying research problems.
Identifying recurring themes and underexplored aspects, evaluating methodologies, and
investigating contextual variations can be fruitful.
●​ Consultations with experts, mentors, and colleagues can provide insights based on
their expertise and familiarity with current debates.

III. Research Agenda in Political Science and Other Social Sciences

●​ The research agenda is shaped by the need to understand complex social, political, and
behavioral phenomena.
●​ Key areas include:
●​ Policy analysis: Examining the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of laws and
policies.
●​ Power dynamics: Analyzing the distribution, exercise, and consequences of power
within political systems.
●​ Public perceptions and behavior: Understanding how individuals form opinions and
respond to government actions.
●​ Indigenous political practices: Exploring governance systems of indigenous
communities and their interaction with state structures.
●​ Political variables: Examining relationships between political, social, and economic
factors across different contexts.
 ●​ Interdisciplinary research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of complex
social phenomena.

IV. Criteria for Selecting Research Topics

●​ Topic selection involves balancing personal, academic, and societal considerations.

●​ Criteria are categorized into internal (personal) and external factors.
●​ Internal (Personal) Criteria:
●​ Researcher’s interest: Passion for the subject matter sustains motivation.
●​ Researcher’s competence: Skills and expertise ensure methodological rigor and
validity.
●​ Researcher’s resources: Availability of time, funding, and materials impacts feasibility.
●​ External Criteria:
●​ Researchability: Feasibility of investigating the topic using available methods and tools.
●​ Social relevance: Addresses issues of significance to society, policymakers, or
academic communities.
●​ Novelty: Contributes new insights, perspectives, or empirical findings.
●​ Feasibility: Practicality of conducting the research given resources, time, and participant
availability.
●​ Ethical considerations: Adherence to ethical principles of respect for persons,
beneficence, and justice.

V. Developing the Research Problem

●​ Developing a research problem involves identifying the core phenomenon,

understanding its significance, and specifying the scope and participants.
●​ Elements of a Research Problem:
●​ What: Subject matter or topic.
●​ Why: Purpose or aim of the study.
●​ Where: Geographical scope.
●​ When: Time frame.
●​ Who: Participants or unit of analysis.
●​ How: Methodological approach.
●​ Components of the Statement of the Problem:
●​ Clear, precise, and succinct statements.
●​ Contextualized within the background of the study.

VI. Identifying the Unit of Analysis

●​ The unit of analysis is the primary entity that the researcher intends to examine and draw
conclusions about.
●​ Types of Units of Analysis:
●​ Individuals: Studying single entities such as people.
●​ Groups: Studying multiple individuals sharing common characteristics.
 ●​ Organizations: Studying structured social units with defined roles.
●​ Social Artifacts: Analyzing human-made objects or recorded social interactions.
●​ Identifying the correct unit of analysis is essential to align research questions with data
collection and interpretation.

VII. Identifying the Focus of Analysis

●​ The focus of analysis specifies the particular aspects or dimensions of the unit that the
research intends to investigate.
●​ Three Primary Aspects:
●​ Characteristics: Structural or demographic attributes.
●​ Orientations: Psychological and cognitive elements such as beliefs and attitudes.
●​ Actions: Observable behaviors and social activities.

VIII. Developing Research Objectives

●​ Research objectives guide the study's design, data collection, and analysis.
●​ Key Purposes:
●​ Clarify the study’s goals.
●​ Guide the research process.
●​ Ensure research feasibility.
●​ Facilitate evaluation of outcomes.
●​ Communicate the research intent.
●​ Types of Research Objectives:
●​ General Objective: The overarching aim of the study.
●​ Specific Objectives: Concrete, actionable research aims.
●​ Specific objectives should adhere to the SMART criteria (Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound).

IX. Formulating Research Questions

●​ Research questions guide the design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of
findings.
●​ Characteristics of Good Research Questions:
●​ Clear, focused, and answerable.
●​ Aligned with the research objectives.
●​ Grounded in theory or empirical observation.
●​ Types of Research Questions:
●​ Descriptive: Document and describe phenomena.
●​ Exploratory: Investigate underexplored areas.
●​ Explanatory: Examine causal relationships.

X. Common Challenges in Research Topic Selection and Problem

Formulation
●​ Challenges include:
●​ Difficulty in identifying significant research gaps.
●​ Ethical dilemmas in research implementation.
●​ Practical constraints in data access and participant recruitment.