Part A: Basics of Fluidization

Packed bed and Pressure Drop Analysis

Packed Bed Concept:

A packed bed is a type of reactor or column commonly

used in chemical engineering where solid particles
(packing material) are packed within a container. The
packed bed allows fluids (liquid or gas) to flow through
the void spaces between the solid particles. These
beds are used in various applications, including
chemical reactions, filtration, distillation, and
absorption. The solid packing material increases the
surface area for mass and heat transfer, making
packed beds efficient for processes requiring contact
between a fluid and a solid surface.

Pressure Drop in Packed Beds:

When fluid flows through a packed bed, it encounters

resistance due to the tortuous path it has to navigate
around the solid particles. This resistance leads to a
pressure drop across the bed. The Ergun equation is a
well-established empirical relation that describes this
pressure drop for both laminar and turbulent flow
regimes.

Derivation of the Pressure Drop Relation Using Ergun's Equation:

The Ergun equation combines the effects of viscous and inertial forces to estimate the pressure
drop in a packed bed. The equation is given as:

Where,
ΔP = Pressure drop across the packed bed
L = Length of the packed bed
ϵ = Void fraction (porosity) of the bed
μ = Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
U = Superficial velocity of the fluid
dp = Diameter of the particles
ρ = Density of the fluid

The equation consists of two terms:

Viscous term: Dominates in low flow rates (laminar flow) and is proportional to the fluid's
viscosity and the square of the particle diameter.
Inertial term: Dominates at higher flow rates (turbulent flow) and is proportional to the fluid's
density and particle diameter.

Significance of the Kozney-Karman Equation in Packed Bed Analysis:

The Kozeny-Carman equation is a fundamental equation used to relate the permeability of a

porous medium to its physical properties, and it serves as a basis for understanding the flow
through porous media, including packed beds. It is derived from Darcy's law and considers the
effects of porosity and specific surface area of the packing material.

The Kozeny-Carman equation is expressed as:

This equation is particularly significant in packed bed analysis as it helps to estimate the
pressure drop for laminar flow conditions. It forms the foundation for the viscous term in the
Ergun equation, emphasizing the importance of particle size, shape, and distribution in
determining flow resistance.

Onset of Fluidization

Definition:

The onset of fluidization is the point at which the upward drag force exerted by the fluid on the
particles equals the gravitational force pulling them downward. At this point, the particles begin
to lift off and become suspended in the fluid, transitioning from a packed bed to a fluidized state.

The velocity at which this occurs is known as the minimum fluidization velocity (𝑈𝑚𝑓). Below

velocity exceeds 𝑈𝑚𝑓 , the bed behaves like a fluid, with particles moving freely within the fluid
this velocity, the bed remains packed, and the particles do not move significantly. Once the fluid

stream.
Experimental method to determine the minimum Fluidization velocity:
To determine the minimum fluidization velocity experimentally, set up a fluidization column filled
with a known quantity of solid particles. Begin by slowly introducing a fluid (either gas or liquid)
from the bottom of the column and gradually increase the flow rate. As the fluid flows upward
through the bed, measure the pressure drop across the bed at various flow rates using a
manometer or pressure gauge. Initially, the bed remains packed, and the pressure drop
increases linearly with the flow rate. However, as the flow rate continues to increase, a point is
reached where the pressure drop stabilizes, and the particles begin to lift and move, indicating
the onset of fluidization.

fluidization velocity (𝑈𝑚𝑓). This velocity can be calculated by dividing the flow rate at the onset
At this stage, the fluid velocity corresponding to this point is identified as the minimum

of fluidization by the cross-sectional area of the column. The process involves observing the
bed's behavior and confirming that beyond this velocity, the bed becomes fully fluidized with
particles moving freely. This method provides an accurate determination of the minimum
fluidization velocity, essential for the design and operation of fluidized bed systems.

The minimum fluidization velocity can be calculated using the recorded flow rates and the
corresponding cross-sectional area of the fluidization column:

𝑈𝑚𝑓=𝑄𝑚𝑓/𝐴

𝑄𝑚𝑓 = Flow rate of the fluid at the onset of fluidization

where:

𝐴= Cross-sectional area of the column

Properties and Development of Fluidized Beds

Comparison of Fluidized Beds and Fixed Beds:

1. Particle Movement:
Fixed Bed: In a fixed bed, the solid particles are stationary and packed tightly together.
The fluid flows through the void spaces between the particles without causing them to move.
Fluidized Bed: In a fluidized bed, the fluid flow is sufficient to suspend the particles,
causing them to move freely within the bed. The bed behaves like a fluid, with particles
continuously in motion.

2. Pressure Drop:
Fixed Bed: The pressure drop across a fixed bed increases linearly with fluid velocity.
The bed remains in a packed state, and the pressure drop is primarily due to frictional forces.
Fluidized Bed: In a fluidized bed, the pressure drop initially increases with velocity until
fluidization begins. Once fully fluidized, the pressure drop stabilizes and remains relatively
constant, regardless of further increases in fluid velocity.
3. Heat and Mass Transfer:
Fixed Bed: Heat and mass transfer in a fixed bed are limited by the static nature of the
particles. There are relatively low rates of mixing, leading to potential temperature gradients and
uneven distribution of reactants.
Fluidized Bed: Fluidized beds offer excellent heat and mass transfer due to the constant
movement of particles, leading to uniform temperature distribution and efficient contact between
fluid and particles.

4. Fluid Flow Patterns:

Fixed Bed: Fluid flows in a predictable path through the fixed void spaces. There is
minimal back-mixing, and the flow tends to be more plug-like.
Fluidized Bed: Fluidized beds exhibit more complex and dynamic flow patterns, including
bubble formation and back-mixing, leading to enhanced mixing and uniformity.

5. Bed Expansion:
Fixed Bed: The bed height remains constant since the particles are fixed in place.
Fluidized Bed: The bed expands as fluidization occurs, with bed height increasing as
particles become suspended and the void fraction increases.

Development Process of Fluidization: From Fixed Bed to Fully Fluidized State

1. Initial Fixed Bed State:

At low fluid velocities, the bed remains in a fixed state, with particles packed tightly
together. The fluid flows through the interstitial spaces between the particles. The pressure drop
across the bed increases linearly with the fluid velocity.

2. Onset of Fluidization:
As the fluid velocity increases, the drag force on the particles also increases. At a critical
velocity, known as the minimum fluidization velocity Umf, the upward drag force exerted by the
fluid balances the gravitational force on the particles. At this point, the particles start to lift
slightly and become less tightly packed. The bed begins to expand, and the pressure drop
across the bed reaches a maximum and then stabilizes.

3. Partially Fluidized State:

With further increases in fluid velocity beyond Umf, more particles are suspended, and
the bed continues to expand. The particles are no longer stationary but are moving in relation to
each other, though not yet fully fluidized. The bed appears to be in a transition state, with
regions of fluidization interspersed with more packed regions.

4. Fully Fluidized State:

When the fluid velocity exceeds the minimum fluidization velocity by a sufficient margin,
the bed becomes fully fluidized. All particles are suspended and move freely, with the bed
behaving like a fluid. The pressure drop across the bed remains constant, and the bed reaches
a stable expanded height. At this stage, excellent mixing, heat transfer, and mass transfer occur
due to the continuous movement of particles within the fluidized bed.

Part B: Fluidized Bed Types

Minimum Fluidization Conditions

Definition:

Minimum fluidization conditions refer to the specific set of conditions at which a packed bed of
solid particles transitions to a fluidized state. This occurs when the upward fluid velocity is just
sufficient to balance the gravitational force acting on the particles with the drag force exerted by
the fluid. At this point, the particles start to lift and become suspended within the fluid, initiating

velocity (𝑈𝑚𝑓). Below this velocity, the bed remains in a packed, fixed state; above it, the bed
fluidization. The velocity at which this transition occurs is known as the minimum fluidization

becomes fluidized, with particles moving freely within the fluid.

Factors Affecting Minimum Fluidization Velocity

1. Particle Size and Shape:

Size: Larger particles require a higher fluid velocity to achieve fluidization because they have a
greater mass and require more force to overcome gravity.

𝑈𝑚𝑓. Conversely, spherical particles tend to have a lower 𝑈𝑚𝑓 because they experience less
Shape: Irregularly shaped particles create more resistance to fluid flow, leading to a higher

drag.

2. Particle Density:
Therefore, 𝑈𝑚𝑓 increases with the density of the particles.
Higher density particles are heavier and require a greater fluid velocity to become fluidized.

3. Fluid Properties:

the 𝑈𝑚𝑓. Conversely, a less viscous fluid may result in a higher 𝑈𝑚𝑓 due to less resistance
Viscosity: A fluid with higher viscosity exerts more drag force on the particles, which can reduce

Density: The fluid density also affects 𝑈𝑚𝑓. Higher fluid density can support the weight of
to particle movement.

particles more effectively, reducing the 𝑈𝑚𝑓.

4. Bed Porosity (Void Fraction):

The initial packing of the bed (porosity) impacts 𝑈𝑚𝑓. A bed with higher porosity (more void
space) allows easier fluid flow, potentially lowering 𝑈𝑚𝑓. Conversely, a densely packed bed
with low porosity restricts fluid flow, increasing the minimum fluidization velocity.

5. Gravitational Force:

The gravitational force acting on the particles is a direct factor in determining 𝑈𝑚𝑓. Higher
gravitational acceleration (as on larger planets) would increase 𝑈𝑚𝑓, while lower gravity (as in
space or on smaller celestial bodies) would decrease it.

6. Fluid-Particle Interaction:

forces, can also influence 𝑈𝑚𝑓. For instance, particles that tend to clump together due to
The interaction between the fluid and particles, such as surface roughness and electrostatic

surface forces may require a higher fluid velocity to fluidize.

Expanded Bed and Elutriation

Concept of an Expanded Bed and Its Difference from a Fixed Bed:

Expanded Bed: An expanded bed is a state in a fluidized bed system where the particles are
partially fluidized but not fully suspended. As the fluid velocity increases beyond the minimum
fluidization velocity, the particles begin to move apart, leading to an expansion of the bed. In this
state, the bed height increases, and the particles are no longer in close contact with each other
as in a fixed bed. However, they are not yet completely fluidized and still have some interaction
with one another. The bed exhibits characteristics of both fixed and fluidized beds, with
improved mixing and contact between the fluid and particles but not the complete fluid-like
behavior seen in fully fluidized beds.
Fixed Bed: A fixed bed is a system where solid particles are packed closely together, and the
fluid flows through the void spaces between them without causing any significant movement of
the particles. The bed remains static, with no expansion, and the fluid flows in a relatively
straightforward path through the interstitial spaces. The pressure drop across a fixed bed
increases linearly with fluid velocity, and there is limited mixing or interaction between the fluid
and particles compared to an expanded or fluidized bed.

Difference: The primary difference between an expanded bed and a fixed bed lies in the state
of the particles. In a fixed bed, the particles remain stationary, while in an expanded bed, the
particles are partially suspended and move slightly, causing the bed to expand. The expanded
bed offers better contact between the fluid and particles, leading to improved mass and heat
transfer compared to a fixed bed.

Elutriation in Fluidized Beds:

Elutriation is the process in a fluidized bed where fine particles are carried out of the bed by the
fluidizing medium (typically gas or liquid) due to the fluid's upward velocity exceeding the settling
velocity of the particles. Elutriation occurs when the fluid velocity is sufficiently high that smaller
or lighter particles become entrained in the fluid stream and are transported out of the bed,
leaving behind larger or heavier particles.

Process of Elutriation:

1. Particle Suspension: As the fluid velocity increases, particles within the fluidized bed
become suspended, with the smallest and lightest particles lifting first.
2. Particle Segregation: Due to differences in particle size and density, a segregation
occurs where finer particles tend to rise towards the top of the bed while larger particles
remain at the bottom.
3. Particle Ejection: When the fluid velocity is high enough, fine particles at the top of the
bed are carried out of the bed by the fluid stream. This process is known as elutriation.
The particles that leave the bed are often collected in a cyclone separator or a filter
downstream of the bed.
4. Continuous Process: Elutriation can occur continuously if the fluid velocity remains high,
leading to the gradual removal of fine particles from the bed over time. This can lead to a
change in the particle size distribution within the bed, potentially affecting the
performance of the fluidized bed system.

Moving Solids and Dilute Phase Spouted Bed

Movement of Solids in a Fluidized Bed and Its Impact on Bed Behavior:

Movement of Solids in a Fluidized Bed:

In a fluidized bed, the movement of solids is a key factor in determining the bed's behavior and
performance. When the fluid velocity exceeds the minimum fluidization velocity, the solid
particles within the bed begin to move. The fluid exerts an upward drag force on the particles,
causing them to lift and become suspended in the fluid stream. This results in the bed
expanding and the particles entering a dynamic state where they continuously circulate and mix.

Types of Movement:
 Bubbling: In gas-fluidized beds, as fluid velocity increases, bubbles of gas form within
the bed. These bubbles rise through the bed, causing local fluidization and enhanced
mixing. The movement of these bubbles plays a significant role in particle distribution
and bed dynamics.
 Churning and Slugging: At higher fluid velocities, larger bubbles can form, leading to
churning or slugging, where the bed oscillates, causing large portions of the bed to move
together. This can lead to irregular and unstable fluidization, impacting bed uniformity.
 Axial and Radial Mixing: Particles in a fluidized bed experience both axial (vertical) and
radial (horizontal) movement. Axial mixing ensures uniform distribution of particles
throughout the bed height, while radial mixing promotes uniform temperature and
concentration profiles across the bed.

Impact on Bed Behaviour:

The movement of solids in a fluidized bed significantly enhances heat and mass transfer
rates, as the continuous circulation of particles ensures close contact with the fluid phase. This
leads to more efficient reactions, uniform temperature distribution, and improved process
control. However, excessive particle movement can also lead to challenges such as elutriation
(loss of fine particles), uneven fluidization, and potential wear on equipment. The overall
behavior of the bed, including its stability, efficiency, and effectiveness, is directly influenced by
the characteristics of particle movement.

Principles and Applications of Dilute Phase Spouted Beds:

Principles of Dilute Phase Spouted Beds:

A dilute phase spouted bed is a type of fluidized bed where the fluidizing gas or liquid
velocity is significantly higher than in typical fluidized beds, leading to a more dilute distribution
of particles. In this system, a high-velocity fluid jet is introduced through a central orifice at the
bottom of the bed, creating a spout of fluid that propels particles upward. The particles rise
through the spout, reach the top of the bed, and then fall back around the spout in an annular
region. The spouted bed typically operates in a non-uniform fluidization regime, with most of the
particles concentrated in the annular region and a relatively low concentration of particles in the
spout.

Key Characteristics:
  High Gas/Fluid Velocity: The velocity of the fluidizing medium in the spout is much
higher than in the surrounding bed, leading to a vigorous movement of particles within
the spout.
 Dilute Phase: The particle concentration in the spout is low, leading to a dilute phase
where particles are dispersed within the fluid stream.
 Cyclic Particle Movement: Particles experience a cyclic motion, being lifted in the spout
and falling back in the annular region, promoting good mixing and circulation.

Applications of Dilute Phase Spouted Beds:

Dilute phase spouted beds are particularly useful for processes that require effective mixing,
drying, or coating of particles. Some common applications include:

 Drying of Granular Materials: The high-velocity spout provides efficient drying by

ensuring that particles are in constant contact with the fluidizing medium, which is often
hot air in drying applications. This is particularly effective for drying large, irregular, or
sticky particles that are difficult to fluidize uniformly in a conventional fluidized bed.
 Coating Processes: In the pharmaceutical and food industries, dilute phase spouted
beds are used to coat particles with a thin layer of material. The spouting action ensures
uniform coating by keeping the particles in constant motion and allowing for even
application of the coating material.
 Gas-Solid Reactions: The enhanced mixing and contact between gas and solid particles
in a spouted bed make it suitable for gas-solid reactions, such as combustion,
calcination, or catalytic reactions. The dilute phase allows for better gas penetration and
reaction efficiency.
 Granulation and Particle Size Control: Spouted beds are also used in granulation
processes, where fine powders are agglomerated into larger granules. The controlled
movement of particles in the spouted bed helps achieve uniform granule size and
density.

McCabe, Warren L.; Smith, Julian C.; Harriot, Peter (2005), Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering (seventh ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 152–153, ISBN 0-07-284823-5

Kunni, D., Levenspiel O., “Fluidization Engineering”, Second Edition, Butterworth –

Heinmann, 2012