Why DNA is more stable comparative to RNA?

Why the orientation of DNA is from 5 prime to 3?

Experiments that Describe that DNA is a genetic material ?

Experiments That Proved DNA as the Genetic Material

1. Griffith's Experiment (1928): The Discovery of the "Transforming Principle"

Story: Imagine a scientist named Frederick Griffith who had two groups of mice and two types of
bacteria. One was a dangerous bacteria with a smooth coat (S strain) that could make the mice sick.
The other was a harmless, rough bacteria (R strain).

Griffith tried four experiments:

1. He injected the mice with the S strain, and sadly, the mice died.

2. He injected the mice with the R strain, and the mice stayed healthy.

3. He killed the S strain by heating it up and injected the dead bacteria into mice — they stayed
healthy.

4. He mixed the heat-killed S strain with the live R strain and injected it into mice. Shockingly, the
mice died.

What Happened? The harmless R strain transformed into a deadly S strain by picking up something
from the dead S strain.

Conclusion: Griffith called this the "transforming principle," but didn’t know what it was yet.

2. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty's Experiment (1944): DNA Is the Transforming Principle

Story: Imagine three detectives — Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty — investigating what the mysterious
transforming principle was. They took the S strain bacteria and broke it into pieces. Then, they tested
each piece:

1. When they destroyed proteins, transformation still happened.

2. When they destroyed RNA, transformation still happened.

3. When they destroyed DNA, transformation stopped.

Conclusion: DNA was the ingredient that transformed the R strain into the deadly S strain. It was the
genetic material!

3. Hershey and Chase Experiment (1952): Final Proof Using Viruses

Story: Hershey and Chase worked with viruses that infect bacteria, called bacteriophages. These tiny
viruses were like syringes that injected genetic material into bacteria to make more viruses.

To find out if the genetic material was DNA or protein, they used two markers:

1. They labeled the virus’s DNA with a radioactive element called phosphorus ().

2. They labeled the virus’s protein coat with a radioactive element called sulfur ().

Then, they let the viruses infect bacteria and checked where the radioactivity went:

 The radioactive phosphorus (DNA) was found inside the bacteria.

 The radioactive sulfur (protein) was not.

Conclusion: This proved that DNA, not protein, carried the instructions for making new viruses.

4. Chargaff's Rule (1950): DNA Has Complementary Base Pairing

Story: Erwin Chargaff was like a detective analyzing a puzzle. He found that in DNA:

 The amount of Adenine (A) always equals Thymine (T).

 The amount of Cytosine (C) always equals Guanine (G).

This pattern suggested that A pairs with T and C pairs with G, making DNA’s structure stable.

5. Watson and Crick (1953): The DNA Double Helix

Story: Using Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray images of DNA, James Watson and Francis Crick built a 3D model
of DNA. They showed that DNA is shaped like a twisted ladder (double helix), with:

 Sugar and phosphate as the sides of the ladder.

 Base pairs (A-T and C-G) as the steps.

Conclusion: The double helix structure explained how DNA could replicate and store genetic
information.

AI-Generated Illustrations

1. Griffith’s Mice Experiments: A visual of mice and bacteria strains (smooth and rough) with
outcomes.

2. Avery's Test Tubes: Test tubes with proteins, RNA, and DNA, showing when transformation
stops.

3. Hershey and Chase Virus Experiment: Cartoon of bacteriophages injecting DNA into bacteria
with radioactive labels.
 4. Chargaff’s Puzzle: DNA bases pairing like a matching puzzle.

5. Watson and Crick’s Double Helix: A colorful twisted ladder showing base pairs.

Here’s a concise breakdown for the questions to help guide answers:

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA):

1. Do bacteria have DNA?

Y

Griffith’s Experiments (Pages 412-414):

2. What are the two bacteria types that Griffith used? What was the difference between them?
Type 1: Rough (R) strain (non-virulent, does not cause disease)
Type 2: Smooth (S) strain (virulent, causes disease)
Difference: The S strain had a protective capsule, while the R strain did not.

3. What happened when the bacteria were heat-treated? Why would Griffith do this?
Heat-treated S strain bacteria were killed, rendering them non-virulent.
Why: To determine if dead bacteria could still transfer genetic material to live bacteria.

4. Explain the four different results that Griffith saw:

a. Injecting live R strain → Mouse survived (non-virulent).
b. Injecting live S strain → Mouse died (virulent).
c. Injecting heat-killed S strain → Mouse survived (non-virulent).
d. Injecting heat-killed S strain + live R strain → Mouse died; live S strain found.

5. What does the term transformation mean?

Transformation refers to the process by which one strain of bacteria takes up genetic material
from another strain and changes its traits.

Hershey-Chase Experiments (Pages 414-415):

6. What is a bacteriophage? What do they do?
A bacteriophage is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria.

7. Which two chemicals did Hershey and Chase grow their bacteriophages in?
Chemical 1: Phosphorus-32 (P-32, labels DNA).
Chemical 2: Sulfur-35 (S-35, labels proteins).

8. What happened to the bacteria infected with the P-32 bacteriophage?

The radioactive P-32 was found inside the bacteria, indicating DNA entered the cells.

9. What happened to the bacteria infected with the S-35 bacteriophage?

The radioactive S-35 was not found inside the bacteria, indicating proteins did not enter.
 10. What did Hershey and Chase learn about the method of infection by bacteriophages?
They learned that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material responsible for infection.

11. Explain the three main roles of DNA:

a. Storage of genetic information: Holds instructions for traits and functions.
b. Replication: Copies genetic information for cell division.
c. Transmission: Passes genetic information to the next generation.

Let me know if you need any further clarification!

What Does the Vector Do?

1. Carries the Gene:

o It holds your gene of interest (GOI) and delivers it into a host cell.

2. Helps with Expression:

o Once inside the host cell, the vector helps the cell read the gene and make the desired
protein.

Types of Vectors

1. Plasmids (Circular DNA in bacteria):

o Most common type of vector for experiments in labs.

2. Viral Vectors:

o Modified viruses used to carry genes into human or animal cells.

3. Artificial Chromosomes:

o Used when you need to carry very large pieces of DNA.

Main Parts of a Vector

1. Origin of Replication (Ori):

o Helps the vector make many copies of itself in the host.

2. Selectable Marker:

o Identifies which cells received the vector (e.g., antibiotic resistance).

3. Multiple Cloning Site (MCS):

o A region where your gene of interest can be inserted.

 4. Promoter:

o A “starter signal” to turn the gene on for protein production.

Fun Analogy

A vector is like a USB drive:

 It carries data (your gene).

 You plug it into a computer (the host cell).

 The computer reads the data and does something useful (makes a protein).

The choice of a good host cell—prokaryotic or eukaryotic—depends on what you’re trying to do. Let
me break it down in a simple way for you!

Prokaryotic Host Cells (e.g., E. coli)

 Good for:

o Simple experiments.

o Producing small, basic proteins (like insulin).

o Cloning DNA (making many copies of your gene).

 Why?

o Easy to grow.

o Fast replication (you get results quickly).

o Cheaper and less complicated.

 Limitations:

o Can’t handle complex or big proteins.

o No post-translational modifications (e.g., folding or adding sugars to proteins).

Eukaryotic Host Cells (e.g., Yeast, Mammalian Cells)

 Good for:

o Producing complex proteins (like antibodies).

o Studying genes and proteins from animals or humans.

o Making proteins with post-translational modifications.

  Why?

o They work more like human cells.

o Can process and modify proteins correctly.

 Limitations:

o Slower growth.

o More expensive.

o Harder to maintain.

Simple Decision Guide

 If you’re just starting out or need something simple and fast: Go for prokaryotic cells (like E.
coli).

 If your project needs human-like protein or more complexity: Go for eukaryotic cells (like
mammalian cells).