Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
6 PLANAR
GRAPHS
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
• be able to use tests to decide whether a graph is planar;
• be able to use an algorithm to produce a plane drawing of a
planar graph;
• know whether some special graphs are planar;
• be able to apply the above techniques and knowledge to
problems in context.
6.0 Introduction
This topic is introduced through an activity.
Activity 1
A famous problem is that of connecting each of three houses, as
A B C
shown opposite, to all three services (electricity, gas and water)
with no pipe/cable crossing another.
Try this problem. Four of the nine lines needed have already
been put into the picture.
Investigate the problem for different numbers of houses and
services.
What happens if the scene is on the surface of a sphere (which in
reality it is) or on a torus (a ring doughnut!) or on a Möbius
strip?
You will have found graphs which can be completed without
their edges crossing and some graphs which cannot. If a graph
can be drawn in the plane (on a sheet of paper) without any of its
edges crossing, it is said to be planar.
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
The graph shown on the right is planar, although you might not
think so from the first diagram of it. The next diagram is the
same graph and confirms that it is planar. This diagram is called
a plane drawing of the graph.
As you should have found in the activity above, the graph shown
on the previous page, which represents the services problem,
cannot in fact be drawn without crossing edges and is therefore
described as non-planar. This has repercussions for the
electronics industry, because it means that a simple circuit with
six junctions and wires connecting each of three junctions to
each of the other three junctions cannot be made without cross-
overs. In an integrated circuit within a ‘chip’, this would mean
two ‘layers’ of wires.
6.1 Plane drawings
Activity 2 1
Try re-drawing the two graphs shown on the right so that no 8 2
edges cross.
7 3
The second of the two graphs is called K5, the complete graph
with five vertices: each vertex is joined to every other one by an
edge. Of course, K6, K7, ..., are similarly defined. Although K5 6 4
looks simpler than the one shown above it, it is in fact non-
planar, whereas the one above it is planar. 5
Later on it will be proved that both K5 and another graph called
5 2
K3,3 (which is the one associated with the gas, water and
electricity problem in Activity 1) are non-planar, and you will
see the significance of this when you look at Kuratowski’s
Theorem later in this chapter.
4 3
Exercise 6A
1. Sketch the graphs of K 4 and K 6. Are they planar? 2. For which values of positive integers is K n
For which values of n do you think K n is planar? Eulerian?
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
3. There are five so-called Platonic solids with a 4. The graph K n can be used to represent the
very regular structure. Graphs based on the first games played during a ‘round robin’
three are shown below. tournament in which each player plays
Make plane drawings of each, if possible. every other player.
How many games take place when there
are
(a) 5 players
(b) n players?
5. Draw a graph with six vertices, labelled
tetrahedron 1 to 6, in which two vertices are joined by
cube an edge if, and only if, they are co-prime
(i.e. if they have no common factor
greater than 1). Is the graph planar?
octahedron
6.2 Bipartite graphs
The graph associated with the activity in Section 6.1 is called a
bipartite graph. Such graphs consist of two sets of vertices,
with edges only joining vertices between sets and not within a
set. The diagrams opposite are of bipartite graphs. In the
second one the two sets of vertices contain three vertices and
two vertices and every vertex in the first set is joined to every
vertex in the second: this graph is called K3,2 (and, of course, Kr ,s
could be defined similarly for any positive integers r and s).
Exercise 6B
1. Sketch K 3,4 and K 4,2 . 3. Two opposing teams of chess players meet for
2. How many edges are there in general in the some games. Show how a bipartite graph can be
used to represent the games actually played. If
graph K r, s ?
the graph turned out to be K r, s what would it
mean?
4. For which r and s is K r, s Eulerian? For which r
and s is it semi-Eulerian?
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
6.3 A planarity algorithm 1
Naturally, for very complicated graphs it would be convenient to 8 2
have a technique available which will tell you both whether a
graph is planar and how to make a plane drawing of it.
7 3
Activity 3
Using the first graph shown opposite as an example, try to 6 4
develop an algorithm in order to construct a planar graph.
5
1
The algorithm described below can be applied only to graphs
which have a Hamiltonian cycle; that is, where there is a cycle 8 2
which includes every vertex of the graph.
The method will be illustrated by applying it to the graph shown
7 3
in Activity 3, above.
The first stage is to redraw the graph so that the Hamiltonian
cycle forms a regular polygon and all edges are drawn as straight
6 4
lines inside the polygon. The graph used here is already in this
form, but for other graphs this stage might involve 'moving' 5
vertices as well as edges.
1
The edges of the regular polygon now become part of the
solution (shown dotted in the second graph ). 8 2
The next stage is to choose any edge, say 1 - 3, and decide
whether this is to go inside or outside: let's choose inside, as
illustrated in the third graph opposite. 7 3
6 4
Since 1 - 3 crosses 2 - 8, 2 - 7 and 2 - 5, all these edges must go 8 2
outside as shown.
7 3
6 4
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
Originally edge 2 - 7 crossed 1 - 4, 1 - 5, 8 - 5 and 8 - 6 , so all
1
these edges must now remain inside (or they would cross 2 - 7
outside). 8 2
Finally, because 1 - 4 stays inside, 3 - 5 must go outside, and
since 8 - 6 stays inside, 7 - 5 must also go outside, as shown.
7 3
6 4
This is now a planar graph, as shown opposite, where the dotted 8 2
lines have been redrawn as solid lines.
7 3
6 4
1 2
The method illustrated above can also be used to show whether
or not a graph is planar. For example, consider K5, and, as
before, the regular polygon is first included as part of the
solution.
5 3
1 2
Choose an edge, say 1 - 3, which stays inside. Since this
crosses 2 - 5 and 2 - 4, both of these will have to go outside as
shown.
5 3
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
1 2
Now 2 - 5 crosses 1 - 4, so 1 - 4 must stay inside, as shown.
Finally, consider edge 3 - 5. Since it crosses 1 - 4, it must go
outside; but it also crosses 2 - 4 which is already outside; so 3 - 5 3
5 must also go outside! This is a contradiction and it is
concluded that the graph is non-planar.
4
1
14 2
Example 13 3
Use the planarity algorithm to find a plane drawing of the graph
opposite. 12 4
Solution 11 5
The graph has a Hamiltonian cycle
10 6
9 7
1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 11 - 12 - 13 - 14 - 1
8
1
which is part of the solution, as indicated by the dotted lines in 14 2
the second graph. 13 3
12 4
11 5
10 6
9 7
8
1
14
2
13 3
Choose any edge, say 13 - 3, and keep it in place (shown
dotted). All edges that cross this line must now be put
12 4
outside.
11 5
10 6
9 7
8
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
Since 1 - 4 crosses 14 - 3 and 14 - 2, they must go inside,
1
and similarly 1 - 3 must go outside. 14
2
13 3
12 4
11 5
10 6
7
9
8
Also,14 - 4 crosses 10 - 3 so 10 - 3 must stay inside; 1
and since 14 - 9 is now outside, 10 - 4 and 10 - 7 14
2
must stay inside. Also 14 - 12 outside implies
13 3
13 - 10 and 13 - 11 inside, which then means that
12 - 10 must be drawn outside (as shown opposite).
12 4
11 5
10 6
7
9
8
Continuing in this way, 10 - 7 inside means that
9 - 4, 8 - 4, 8 - 5 all go outside; which in turn means that 1
14
9 - 7 , 7 - 4 and 6 - 4 go inside. 7 - 5 must go outside. 2
13 3
You now have a plane drawing of the graph as shown
opposite; the lines are not dotted since this is the final
12 4
solution.
11 5
Is this solution unique?
10 6
7
9
8
Exercise 6C
1. Make plane drawings of the following two 3. By first redrawing with a regular polygon, use the
graphs 1 planarity algorithm to produce a plane drawing of
the graph shown below.
1 2 3
6 2
6 1
5 3
5 4 5
2
4
2. Show that the graphs of K 6 and K 3,3 are not planar
by using the algorithm. (Note that K 3,3 must first 4 3
be redrawn to form a regular polygon.)
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
6.4 Kuratowski's Theorem
The non-planar graphs K5 and K3,3 seem to occur quite often.
In fact, all non-planar graphs are related to one or other of these
two graphs.
To see this you first need to recall the idea of a subgraph, first
introduced in Chapter 1 and define a subdivision of a graph.
G G1
A subgraph is simply a part of a graph, which itself is a graph.
G1 is a subgraph of G as shown opposite.
A subdivision of a graph is the original graph with added
vertices of degree 2 along the original edges. As shown
opposite, G2 is a subdivision of G.
When a planar graph is subdivided it remains planar; similarly if
it is non-planar, it remains non-planar.
Kuratowski's Theorem states that a graph is planar if, and only G G2
if, it does not contain K5 and K3,3, or a subdivision of K5 or K3,3
as a subgraph.
This famous result was first proved by the the Polish
mathematician Kuratowski in 1930. The proof is beyond the
scope of this text, but it is a very important result.
The theorem will often be used to show a graph is non-planar by
finding a subgraph of it which is either K5 or K3,3 or a
subdivision of one of these graphs.
Example 1 2
Graph G has been redrawn, omitting edges 3 - 6 and 4 - 6. Thus G
G' is a subgraph of G.
6 3
5 4
1 2
G'
Also G' without vertex 6 is isomorphic to K5. The addition of
vertex 6 makes G' a subdivision of K5. So G', a subdivision of
K5, is a subgraph of G, and therefore G is non-planar. 6 3
5 4
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
Exercise 6D
1. Which of these graphs are subdivisions of K 3,3 2. Use Kuratowski's Theorem to show that the
and why? following graphs are non-planar.
1 6 1
4 3 2 1
8 2
7 3 5 7 2
5 6 7 8 9
G1 G2 G3
6 4
4 3
5
G4 G5 G6
3. Show that this graph, called a Petersen graph, is
non-planar.
1
6
5 2
10 7
9 8
4 3
6.5 Miscellaneous Exercises
1. Give examples of 5. Show that this graph is planar.
(a) a planar graph in which each vertex has
degree 4, and
(b) a planar graph with six vertices and a
shortest cycle of length 4.
2. For which values of r, s is the complete bipartite
graph K r, s non-planar? 6. The graph below represents connections in an
3. The crossing number of a graph is the least electrical circuit. Use a planarity algorithm to
number of points at which edges cross. What are decide whether or not it is possible to redraw the
the crossing numbers of connections so that the graph is planar.
(a) K 3,3
(b) K6
A B
(c) K 1,2?
4. Use Kuratowski's Theorem in order to prove that
the graph G is non-planar. F C
1
8 2 E D
(AEB)
7 3
6 4
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Chapter 6 Planar Graphs
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