COURSE
GUIDE
BIO 101 (2 Credits)
General Biology I
Course Instructors:
Dr. Oladosu O.O. - 08034049078 (Course Coordinator)
Dr. Popoola J.O.- 08064640018
Dr. Aromolaran O. - 08062225745
Dr. Omotayo O.E. - 08023799838
Reproduction
Objectives
i. Appreciate that reproduction is a characteristic feature of organisms for the continuance
of their species and that asexual and sexual reproduction are the two different modes of
reproduction;
ii. identify the different types of asexual reproduction in organisms;
iii. identify the sex organs and describe in brief the process of reproduction in flowering
plants;
iv. state facts about reproduction in animals
Introduction:
Reproduction may be defined as the biological process by which organisms give rise to
their own kind
Reproduction may occur in two ways:
— Asexual reproduction
— Sexual reproduction
Bacterial and protozoan offspring may be produced by single individuals. This is termed asexual
reproduction. Certain animals and many plants reproduce asexually. When two individuals are
involved in reproduction, it is termed sexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, male gamete
fuses with female gamete to mark the beginning of a new individual. This is a more common
mode of reproduction in plants and animals.
(i) Asexual reproduction in lower organisms
Asexual reproduction is of various types:
(a) Binary fission: A cell may divide to give rise to two individuals and lose its own identity
as in binary fission that takes place in amoeba and bacteria.
Binary Fission in Amoeba
(b) Budding: In budding, a bud forms from the body of the mother cell and remains attached
to it. The parental nucleus elongates and then divides into two, one of which moves into
the bud. Example: yeast.
Budding in Yeast
In animals like sponges and hydra which are multicellular; a bud arises from some part of
the body, enlarges and then detaches from the parent body after all its body parts have
been formed
Budding in Hydra
(c) Spore formation: The cytoplasm and nucleus of algae such as Chlamydomonas divide
successively to form 4 to 8 spores. Spores are also formed for reproduction in fungus,
moss and fern. Spores are single cells which upon their release from the parent plant
develop into new individuals
Spore formation in Chlamydomonas
Fragmentation: In some organisms like Planarians, when the body of an organism breaks into
several pieces each piece grows into an individual offspring. This is known as fragmentation. It
can occur through accidental damage by predators or otherwise, or as a natural form of
reproduction. In a few animals such as sea stars, a broken arm grows into a complete organism.
Parthenogenesis: This is a form of asexual reproduction where the egg develops without
fertilization. This process occurs in bees, wasps, ants, aphids, rotifers, etc. Ants, wasps, and bees
produce haploid males. Parthenogenesis has been observed in a few vertebrates such as
hammerhead sharks, Komodo dragons, and blacktop sharks when the females were isolated from
the males.
(ii) Asexual reproduction in plants
Vegetative Propagation: In nature, new plants may arise from root, stem or leaves that is from
the vegetative parts of the plant. This form of asexual reproduction in plants is termed vegetative
propagation.
Modes of vegetative propagation with examples
Mode of Reproduction Specialised Plant Part Examples
(A) Natural Methods
(a) Roots Adventitious roots Sweet potato, Dahlia
(b) Stem
1. (a) Runner Lawn grass,
2. (b) Sucker Chrysanthemum
3. (c) Bulb Onion
4. (d) Tuber Potato, Canna
5. (e) Rhizome Ginger
(c) Leaves 6. (f) Adventitious buds Bryophyllum
Figure: Natural vegetative propagation in plants
(iii) Artificial propagation in plants
Humans have taken hints from natural methods of vegetative propagation to grow many plants
through artificial propagation. There are various methods by which farmers and nursery owners
multiply desired plants using the method of artificial propagation.
(a): Cutting: A piece of branch is cut (b): Layering: A branch of the plant is laid on the
and embedded in the soil. Roots form ground and a portion is embedded in the soil.
and a new plant result This part strikes root and gives rise to new plant.
(c): Vegetative reproduction
by gootee
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Sexual reproduction requires fusion of male and female gametes.
case a developing flower. Sepals are the sterile parts of the
eaf like.
e organ of a flower. The stamen consists of an anther and a
(i) Sexual reproduction in plants
ponsible for producing pollen that
The reproductive contains
organ sperm
of flowering cells.
plants is the flower. Stamens (Androecium) which produce
pollen are the male part. Pollen grains contains male sex cells. There may be several stamens in
organ of a flower.
eachThe pistil
flower. consists
Each stamenof(Androecium)
an ovary, stigma, andparts. The upper part is known as anther which
has two
e between thebears
ovarypollen.
and theIt isstigma.
held onThe ovary part
the lower is responsible
called filament. The pistil (Gynoecium) is the female
stigma has an part
adhesive
and itsarea
basalthatpartallows
is the the pollen
ovary fromeggs
carrying the or ovules or female sex cells. The parts of the
pistil are the stigma, style and ovary. In most plants, each flower bears both male and female parts.
They are termed bisexual. In some plants there are male flowers with only androecium and female
flowers bearing only gynoecium. They are unisexual
n together in
ation is the
art of a plant
zation is the
aterial
nd
o
A Typical Flower
y blowing seeds to another location. Sometimes a plant needs
ation, such as bees. Animals with
(ii) Pollination fur can also help in the
and fertilisation
s a plant’s fruit, which contains seeds, the animal will release
For fusion of their nuclei, pollen and ovule are brought together by several agencies like the wind,
water, and insects. This transfer of pollen grain from anther to the stigma of a flower is called
pollination. Self-pollination is when pollen of a flower falls on its own stigma and fertilizes the
ovule. In Cross pollination pollen from one flower falls on the stigma of another flower of a
different plant of the same species and then fertilizes the ovule of that flower. Agents like wind,
water or insects help to transfer pollen from one flower to another.
For fertilization or fusion of nuclei of pollen and ovule, pollen is brought by any pollinating
agent mentioned above, on the stigma of the pistil. Each pollen grain forms a pollen tube and
2
pollen grain nucleus reaches the ovule as pollen tube pushes through the pistil. The fertilized ovules
develop into seeds which are capable of germinating into seedlings and new plants. Once seeds
are formed, they get dispersed or are carried away from the parent plant
and then germinate under favourable conditions.
Fertilization in Plants
Sexual Reproduction in Animal
Lower animals like the sponge and hydra can reproduce through asexual methods. They can,
however, also reproduce sexually. In all animals, the female produces eggs and the male produces
sperms. An egg and a sperm fuse to form the zygote which then develops into the embryo and the
embryo into a full-fledged individual. The development may occur partially or completely, inside
the egg. Such animals that lay eggs include fish, frog, reptiles and birds and are thus called
oviparous. In mammals such as cats, dogs, cows and humans, the baby develops inside the
mother’s womb. They are termed viviparous.
In tapeworms and earthworms both female and male sex organs are in the same individual. Such
individuals are termed hermaphrodite. Sexes are separate in all other animals, and the male
individual has male organs like testes etc., while the female has ovaries etc. Humans also belong
to the animal kingdom. They are mammals and hence viviparous.
Modes of Reproduction
Depending on the number of parents involved, there are different modes of reproduction in
animals and they are:
1. Sexual Reproduction.
2. Asexual Reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
The process in which the male and female gametes fuse together to form a new individual is
called sexual reproduction.
Reproductive Organs
The male reproductive organs comprise a pair of testes, sperm ducts, and a penis. The sperms are
produced by the testes. The female reproductive organs comprise a pair of ovaries, oviducts, and
the uterus. The eggs (ova) are produced by the ovaries.
Process of Sexual Reproduction in Animals
Fertilization
The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum. When sperms
come in contact with an egg, one of the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of the egg and
the sperm is called fertilisation. During fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to
form a single nucleus. This results in the formation of a fertilised egg or zygote.
Fertilisation Zygote
Fertilization is of two types:
• Internal Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female is known as internal fertilization.
For eg., humans, cows, dogs, etc. This method is more prevalent in terrestrial animals. However,
some aquatic animals also adopt this method. This may take place by direct introduction of sperms
by the male in the female reproductive tract, or the male deposits the sperms in the environment
which is picked up by the female in her reproductive tract.
There are three ways by which offspring are produced by internal fertilization:
1. Oviparity– The fertilized eggs are laid outside, where they receive nourishment from the
yolk.
2. Ovoviviparity– The fertilized eggs are retained in the female’s body where they receive
nourishment from the yolk. The eggs are laid right before they are hatched.
3. Viviparity– The offspring are born directly instead of hatching from the eggs. They receive
nutrition from the mother. This can be seen in mammals.
• External Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place outside the female is called external fertilization. For eg., frogs,
and fish. Most fertilization takes place during the process of spawning. Environmental signals such
as water temperature trigger spawning.
Asexual Reproduction in Animals
This type of reproduction is mostly observed in lower organisms and unicellular microbes. It is
the process in which a new individual is formed by the involvement of a single parent without
the involvement of the gamete formation. The individuals produced are genetically and
morphologically similar. The cells divide by mitotic division and no fertilization takes place. The
division occurs very rapidly.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction is of the following types:
Binary Fission
Budding
Fragmentation
Regeneration
Parthenogenesis
