Data Communications (Network Models)

★★Protocol Layering

In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules that both the sender and
receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively. When
communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol; when the communication is
complex, we may need to divide the task between different layers, in which case we need a
protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.

Let us develop two simple scenarios to better understand the need for protocol layering.

☆☆First Scenario

In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer. Assume Maria
and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas. Communication between Maria and Ann takes
place in one layer, face to face, in the same language, as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: A single-layer protocol

☆☆Second Scenario

In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her company, but
needs to move to another branch located in a city very far from Maria. The two friends still want to
continue their communication and exchange ideas because they have come up with an innovative
project to start a new business when they both retire. They decide to continue their conversation
using regular mail through the post office.

Now we can say that the communication between Maria and Ann takes place in three layers, as
shown in Figure 2.2.

Md. Zahidur Rahman, Lecturer, Dept. of CSE, Comilla University Page 1

 Figure 2.2: A three-layer protocol

★★Principles of Protocol Layering

Let us discuss two principles of protocol layering.

☆☆First Principle

The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to make each layer
so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction. For example, the first layer
needs to send letter (in one direction) and receive letter (in the other direction).

☆☆Second Principle

The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects under each
layer at both sites should be identical. For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be
a plaintext letter.

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★★OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model

This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a
first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers. It deals
with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other
systems.

The following figure shows how it works. A message is sent from sending machine to the receiving
machine. The message passes through many intermediate nodes, which are the first three layers i.e.
Physical, Network and Data link. These layers move data.

Every layer of OSI model defines a family of functions different from the other layers. The layers
were initially created to group networking functions, which are related to each other.

Figure: The OSI model

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We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer that directly serves the end user,
down to the physical layer.

(7) Application Layer

 Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer. This layer
serves as the interface between the end-user applications and the underlying network
services. This layer provides protocols and services that are directly utilized by end-user
applications to communicate across the network. Key functionalities of the Application
Layer include resource sharing, remote file access, and network management, file transfers,
database access, and e-mail.

 Application Layer include Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for web browsing, File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) for file transfers, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for email services, and
Domain Name System (DNS) for resolving domain names to IP addresses. These protocols
ensure that user applications can effectively communicate with each other and with servers
over a network.

(6) Presentation Layer

 Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked
computers. Think of it as the network's translator.

 It ensures that data sent from the application layer of one system is readable by the
application layer of another system. Within the sending computer, the presentation layer
translates data from the format sent down from the application layer into a commonly
recognized, intermediary format. At the receiving computer, this layer translates the
intermediary format into a format that can be useful to that computer's application layer.

 The presentation layer also manages data compression to reduce the number of bits that
need to be transmitted.

(5) Session Layer

 Layer 5, the session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and
close a connection called a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two
workstations.) The session layer is responsible for managing this dialog.

 This layer also implements dialog control between communicating processes, such as
regulating which side transmits, when, and for how long.

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(4) Transport Layer

 Layer 4, the transport layer uses transmission protocols including Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), to manage network traffic between
systems to ensure correct data transfers error recovery, and flow control.

 This layer segments and reassembles data for efficient transmission and provides reliability
with error detection and correction mechanisms.

 On the sending side, it takes data from the session layer and breaks it into segments for
the network layer.

 On the receiving side, it reassembles the segments from the network layer and passes
them on to the session layer.

(3) Network Layer

 The Network Layer is responsible for data routing, forwarding, and addressing. It determines
the best physical path for data packets to reach its destination based on network conditions,
the priority of service, and other factors.

 This layer manages logical addressing through IP addresses and handles packet forwarding.

 Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are examples of network-layer
protocols.

* Packets: All data sent over the Internet is broken down into smaller chunks called "packets".

(2) Data-Link Layer

 Like the network layer, the data link layer enables data transfer between two directly
connected nodes or systems on the same network. It takes packets from Network Layer and
encapsulates them into Frames. Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the Physical layer.

 The data-link layer is responsible for providing error-free transfer of these frames from one
computer to another through the physical layer.

 Usually, when the data-link layer sends a frame, it waits for an acknowledgment from the
recipient. Frames that were damaged during transmission or were not acknowledged are
then re-sent.

 This layer manages MAC (Media Access Control) addresses and is divided into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).

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(1) Physical Layer

 Layer 1, the bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This layer
transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network
cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of
establishing and maintaining a physical link between communicating computers. The
physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of the higher
layers.

 It also defines which transmission technique will be used to send data over the network
cable.

 This layer provides data encoding and bit synchronization.

☆☆ How Does Communication Happen in the OSI Model? A Practical Example

Let’s consider how OSI layers play a role in an everyday activity like sending an email to a person
overseas:

 When a user in New York sends an email to a colleague in London, the process starts at the
Application Layer (Layer 7). The user’s email client, such as Outlook, uses SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol) to handle the email message.

 The email is then passed to the Presentation Layer (Layer 6), where it is formatted and
encrypted to ensure proper transmission.

 Next, the email moves to the Session Layer (Layer 5), where a session is established between
the sender’s email server in New York and the receiver’s email server in London. This layer
manages the session, keeping the connection open long enough to send the email.

 The email data then reaches the Transport Layer (Layer 4), where it is divided into smaller
packets. TCP ensures these packets are sent reliably and in the correct order.

 At the Network Layer (Layer 3), each packet is assigned source and destination IP addresses,
allowing it to be routed through multiple networks, including routers and switches, to reach
the recipient in London.

 The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) then uses MAC addresses to handle the packets’ journey across
local networks and correcting any errors that occur.

 Finally, the Physical Layer (Layer 1) converts the data into electrical signals, which are
transmitted over fiber-optic cables under the Atlantic Ocean.

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Upon reaching the recipient’s server in London, the process is reversed:

 The Physical Layer converts the signals back into data packets, which are reassembled at the
Data Link Layer.

 The Network Layer ensures the packets have arrived correctly, and the Transport Layer
reorders them if necessary.

 The Session Layer maintains the session until the email is fully received.

 The Presentation Layer decrypts and formats the email, and the Application Layer delivers
the email to the client, where it appears in their inbox.

★★The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in
the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network.

When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation, are missing
from the TCP/IP protocol suite. These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after
the publication of the OSI model. The application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the
combination of three layers in the OSI model, as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: TCP/IP and OSI mode

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☆☆Application Layer of TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack.
Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

TELNET A two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote

machine and run applications on it.
FTP (File Transfer A protocol that allows File transfer amongst computer users connected
Protocol) over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
TFTP (Trivial File TFTP is used when a file transfer does not require an acknowledgment
Transfer Protocol) packet during file transfer. TFTP is used often in the router configuration.
TFTP is similar in operation to FTP. TFTP is also a command-line-based
utility.

SMTP(Simple Mail A protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail between a source
Transport and destination, directed via a route.
Protocol)
DNS(Domain It resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected over a
Name Server) network.
ARP (Address The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is an Internet layer protocol that
Resolution helps TCP/IP network components find other devices in the same
Protocol) broadcast domain. ARP uses a local broadcast at layer 3 and at layer 2 to
discover neighboring devices.

RARP (Reverse RARP is sort of the reverse of an ARP. In an ARP, the device knows the layer
Address 3 address, but not the data link-layer address. With a RARP, the device
Resolution doesn’t have an IP address and wants to acquire one. The only address that
Protocol)
this device has is a MAC address. Common protocols that use RARP are
BOOTP and DHCP

ICMP (Internet ICMP provides network diagnostic functions and error reporting. ICMP also
Control Message provides a little network help for routers. When a router is being
Protocol) overloaded with route requests, the router sends a source quench message
to all clients on the network, instructing them to slow their data requests
to the router.

IGMP (Internet The Internet Group Management Protocol is a communications protocol

Group Multicast used to manage the membership of Internet Protocol multicast groups.
Protocol) IGMP is used by IP hosts and adjacent multicast routers to establish
multicast group memberships. IGMP can be used for online video and
gaming and allows more efficient use of resources when supporting these
uses.

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★★Comparison of OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /

Internet Protocol)
1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard
standard, acting as a communication gateway protocols around which the Internet has
between the network and end user. developed. It is a communication protocol,
which allows connection of hosts over a
network.
2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does
the delivery of packets. not guarantees delivery of packets. Still the
TCP/IP model is more reliable.
3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.
4. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate
and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.
5. Network layer of OSI model provides both 5. The Network layer in TCP/IP model
connection oriented and connectionless service. provides connectionless service.
6. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 6. TCP/IP model does not face such problem.
protocols into the model.

★★Peer-to-peer (P2P) network/process

A peer-to-peer network is a group of computers, each of which acts as a node for sharing files within
the group. Instead of having a central server to act as a shared drive, each computer acts as the
server for the files stored upon it. There are no fixed division into clients and server in P2P.

Figure 1-3. In a peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers.

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