Chapter Two: Logistics & Humanitarianisms

1. Disasters – General Aspects

The term “disaster” is usually applied to a breakdown in the normal functioning of a community
that has a significant adverse impact on people, their works, and their environment,
overwhelming local response capacity. This situation may be the result of a natural event—say, a
hurricane or earthquake—or it may be the result of human activity.

Some organizations make a distinction between “disasters”—the result of natural phenomena—

and “complex emergencies” that are the product of armed conflicts or large-scale violence and
often lead to massive displacements of people, famine, and outflows of refugees. Examples
would include the Balkan crisis, the Ethiopian, Somali and Sudanese famines, the genocide in
Rwanda and the violence in East Timor.

Each disaster is unique—its effects not only have to do with the type of natural or man-made
phenomenon, but also with the economic, health, and social conditions of the area. However,
there are common features, and identifying them can help improve the management of
humanitarian assistance and the use of resources. The following aspects should be taken into
account when considering the nature of a disaster.

1. There is a correlation between the type of disaster and its impact on health, particularly the
occurrence of injuries. For instance, earth-quakes cause many traumas that demand medical
attention, while floods tend to produce relatively few injuries;

2. Some of a disaster’s effects do not have an immediate impact on public health, but pose a
potential threat. Population displacements and environmental changes may increase the risk of a
spread in communicable diseases. In general, though, epidemics are not caused by natural
disasters;

3. Immediate and potential health hazards in the aftermath of a disaster seldom materialize
simultaneously; they tend to strike at different times, and with variable intensity within the
affected area. Thus, injuries tend to happen at the time and place of the impact, demanding
immediate medical attention, while the risk of an increase in communicable diseases evolves
more slowly and reaches maximum intensity with overcrowding and breakdowns in hygiene;

4. After a disaster, the need for food, clothing, shelter, and primary health care is rarely absolute;
even the displaced often have the resources to satisfy some of their own basic needs. Moreover,
it is common for the victims of a disaster to recover quickly from the initial shock and participate
spontaneously in search and rescue efforts and other relief initiatives, such as the storage and
distribution of emergency supplies;

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5. Wars and civil conflicts generate a particular set of health problems and operational obstacles.
Overcoming them requires dealing with many political, social, ethnic and geographical issues.

Effective humanitarian relief management is based on anticipating problems and identifying

them as they arise, and providing specific supplies at the right time where they are most needed.

2. Main Effects of Disasters

The various effects of disasters on the population and its surroundings generate different kinds of
needs and require different approaches to meet those needs. It is therefore important to have a
general sense of what these effects are, and which systems are most commonly affected.
However, experience shows that the effects in question cannot be taken as absolutes, since the
impact and form a disaster takes depends on the specifics of the affected region. Bearing this in
mind, the following is an overview of some basic characteristics of these effects.

Social Reactions

The behavior of disaster victims rarely explodes into general panic or sinks into stunned apathy.
After the initial shock, people tend to start acting positively to meet well-defined personal goals,
leading to an increase in individual activities that, in spite of being spontaneous, quickly self-
organize into collective endeavors. Earthquake survivors, for instance, are usually the first to
engage in search and rescue efforts, often within minutes of the impact; in a matter of hours, self-
organized groups have already assigned themselves specific tasks that play a key role in relief
and recovery.

It is only in exceptional circumstances that actively antisocial behavior such as looting takes
place. However, sometimes individuals’ spontaneous reactions, while perfectly rational from the
point of view of self interest, can prove detrimental to the community as a whole, as when public
utility employees do not show up at the workplace until they have taken steps to ensure the
safety of their family and possessions.

Since rumors abound after a disaster, especially concerning epidemics, the authorities may face
tremendous pressure to adopt emergency measures, such as massive vaccination campaigns
against typhoid or cholera, without there being solid public health evidence for doing so.
Moreover, many people are reluctant to apply the measures considered necessary by the
authorities.

After an early warning has been issued concerning a major risk, and even after a disaster has
actually taken place, many are reluctant to be evacuated, although their homes may no longer be
safe or, quite simply, may no longer exist.

Communicable Diseases

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Natural disasters do not cause massive outbreaks of infectious diseases, although in some
circumstances they may increase the odds of their spreading. In the short term, the increase in
morbidity is frequently the result of fecal contamination of drinking water and food, causing
gastrointestinal diseases.

The risk of epidemic outbreaks of communicable diseases is proportional to the density and
displacement of the population, since these factors degrade living conditions and substantially
increase the demand for drinking water and food, which tend to be scarce in such circumstances.
In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, the risk of contamination grows—as in the case of
refugee camps—as existing sanitation services such as water supply and sewerage systems break
down and it becomes impossible to maintain or restore public health programs.

In the case of complex disasters, malnutrition, overcrowding, and the lack of basic sanitary
conditions are frequent. In such circumstances, outbreaks of cholera and other diseases have
occurred.

Population Displacements

When large population displacements take place, whether spontaneous or organized,

humanitarian assistance becomes crucial—and urgent. People tend to flock to urban areas, where
public services do not have the capability to handle sudden, very large increases in the
population served, leading to increased mortality and morbidity rates. If the disaster destroys
most homes in a given area, large local “migrations” may take place within the same urban
environment, as victims look for shelter in the homes of relatives and friends.

In situations in which large numbers of the population flee their homes due to war or other forms
of violence, and the threat to life is imminent, organized reactions are much less likely, since the
chief priority of the victims is to get away from the danger as quickly as possible. In these cases,
the timely intervention of international aid organizations can still make the difference between
life and death. Even so, these agencies may find among these populations attitudes of mutual
assistance and organized response that can maximize the effectiveness of the intervention.

Exposure to the Elements

Health hazards associated with exposure to the elements are not common in temperate zones,
even after a disaster, as long as the displaced are kept in dry places where they can remain
sheltered from the wind and cold. However, in other climates with significant extremes in
temperature, whether too hot or too cold, proper shelter can be vital. Hence, the need to provide
emergency shelter should not be seen as a given, but depends instead, to a large extent, on local
circumstances.

Food and Nutrition

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Food shortages in the aftermath of a disaster are generally due to two causes. The first is the
destruction of food stocks in the affected area, which combines with personal losses to reduce the
immediate availability or affordability of food. The second is disorganized distribution systems,
which may contribute to shortages even if there is no absolute scarcity of food.

After an earthquake, lack of food is rarely severe enough to cause malnutrition. River floods and
unusually high tides causing coastal flooding may affect food stocks and ruin crops, as well as
interfering with distribution. Efficient food distribution may be a key need in the short term, but
large-scale imports or donations of food are seldom needed.

One crucial exception must be mentioned. In the case of mass displacements of people, the
victims do not carry much in the way of provisions, if they carry anything at all. All too
frequently, supplies in the population centers that play host to them are insufficient and are
quickly.

Water Supply and Sewerage

Water supply and sewage systems are especially vulnerable to natural disasters. The interruption
of such services leads to severe health risks. These systems are widely distributed, often poorly
maintained or in disrepair even before a disaster strikes, and exposed to a variety of hazards.
Deficiencies in the quantity and quality of drinking water, or the safe disposal of fecal and other
human waste, bring about a degradation of sanitary services, which in turn contributes to creating
favorable conditions for the spread of water-borne diseases.

Mental Health

In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, anxiety, neurosis and depression are not a major public
health issue, and can generally be handled temporarily by other members of rural or traditional
communities without external support. Confounding expectations, it is relief workers who may
comprise a high-risk group. Whenever possible, all efforts must be made to preserve the social
structure of families and communities. Likewise, the indiscriminate use of sedatives or
tranquilizers during the relief stage of the disaster must be vigorously discouraged.

In the industrialized or urbanized areas of developing countries, a significant increase in mental

health problems often accompanies the longterm rehabilitation and reconstruction phase.
Treatment must be provided.

Special reference must be made to the traumas that are the result of contact with the horrors of
armed confrontation and other forms of extreme violence. The violent death, disappearance, or
injury of relatives and friends aggravates the trauma, which generally calls for protracted
therapy.

Damage to Infrastructure

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Natural disasters frequently cause severe damage to key facilities, affecting the health of those
sectors of the community that depend on the services provided. In the case of hospitals and
health centers whose structure is unsafe, natural disasters put its occupants at risk and limit
institutional capacity to provide services to the victims. The 1985 Mexico City earthquake
triggered the collapse of 13 hospitals. In three of them alone, 866 people died, including 100
hospital staffers; some 6,000 beds were lost. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch damaged or destroyed the
water supply systems of 23 hospitals in Honduras and affected 123 health centers. The disasters
set off by the El Niño phenomenon in Peru between 1997 and 1998 affected almost 10% of the
country’s health services.

These destructive effects also have an impact on infrastructure, equipment, and other useful
resources for managing the arrival, storage, and distribution of emergency supplies.

3. Logistics and emergencies

Originally the term “logistics” referred to a military technique for the transportation,
provisioning, and mobilization of troops. Today, it has practical applications in the civil sector.
In general, it deals with a system in which the interrelation of the parts facilitates reaching an
objective faster, in a more orderly fashion, and more efficiently through optimal resource
utilization. This implies that the success or failure of one of the segments has repercussions on
the final outcome.

Many business organizations have, under this or another name, a logistics department that
coordinates, through a logical and sequential system, all aspects related to the purchase,
transportation, maintenance, inventory, and flow of raw materials and, in general, to activities of
the manufacturing and marketing processes.

In emergency operations, logistics is required to support the organization and implementation of

response actions for them to be prompt, quick, and effective. The mobilization of personnel,
equipment, and material necessary for the work of assistance organizations, plus the activities
related to the evaluation of casualties and relocation of populations affected by the disaster,
require a logistic system in order to be implemented efficiently.

4. Logistics planning and preparedness

This section does not necessarily refer to how to plan the logistics system for emergencies, but it
does attempt to provide some basic components for its elaboration as well as to stress that
planning is a crucial and determining factor.

Logistics activities may be planned and they require a preparation that will be decisive in their
appropriate implementation. Therefore, the erroneous idea that logistics may be improvised at
the moment of a disaster depending on needs “indicated by the situation” must be eliminated, the

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reason being for this that both the disasters we are exposed to and the needs that arise from them
are usually predictable.

In fact, logistics must be an active component of any country’s National Emergency Plan as well
as of the plans of particular organizations that intervene in disasters. Logistics should be related
to other operational activities in the response context.

The plan

Planning and precaution are vital to establish an adequate logistics system. This planning should
be based on good knowledge of the geographic, social, political, and physical context in which
the operations are to be implemented. Building this system also requires an effective
implementation and operational plan, one that has to be understood by all involved in its
application.

This plan should respond to the following questions with clear, detailed answers:

􀀻 Which tasks are to be performed? How do they relate to other activities, and what is the
sequence for their implementation?

􀀻 Who are responsible for these tasks? (Rather than just individuals, sections or departments
should be identified).

􀀻 Who will be in charge of the global coordination of the logistics system?

􀀻 Which resources will be necessary? How and where will they be acquired?

􀀻 Which alternative actions will be implemented in case the defined system breaks down?

The preparations

This implies a list of preparation activities that require an important investment of effort but that
will contribute greatly to improve the knowledge of the possible areas of operation, to identify
weaknesses, potential needs, and possible solutions and alternatives. These activities, which are
described below, may be performed regionally, depending on the size of the country, beginning
with those considered high-risk areas. Otherwise, organizations may prioritize their geographic
intervention areas.

These activities, in turn, are directly related to the vulnerability and resource assessment that
must be done for the elaboration of a national or regional emergency plan. We insist on the fact
that logistics must be a component of such a plan.

a. Infrastructure vulnerability assessment

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This aims at identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the country’s or region’s real estate
properties and resources under study as well as at forecasting alternative actions in case the
available infrastructure collapses. Some tasks to be developed are:

- Systematic mapping and revision of key elements of the national transportation infrastructure
(shipping ports, airports, roads, railroads, navigation facilities), such as capacities and difficulties
of strategic routes, possible bottleneck points (bridges, ferries); communication resources
availability; risks and blockage due to the event’s impact. It is vital to determine the vulnerability
of ports and airports to hazards. This may include, for instance, hangar, storeroom, and refueling
equipment exposure to the effects of a cyclone, or the impact of an earthquake on key systems.

-Analysis of annual climate records to determine weather impact on the transportation system
capacity in different seasons.

-Regular monitoring of large modifications or constructions that may cause temporary blockages
or detours. For example, a bridge’s weight and width restrictions, closing of a road due to
reparations, etc.

b. Determining the availability of strategic resources for logistic support

These resources are changeable, thus a periodic and frequent review is required to keep
information on them as up to date as possible. This review should include the private sector, the
public sector (governmental institutions resources), and the nongovernmental sector (both
national and international organizations):

-Do a nationwide inventory of the sources and location of different kinds of supplies that could
be needed during an emergency, including medical equipment, food products, blankets, fuel, and
rescue equipment. The analysis should include delivery time for the supply of critical resources.

-Analyze the means of transportation to mobilize people and supplies: a detailed review of
transportation capability, such as fleet size, type and capacity, location, rates, availability, etc.

-Examine sites for the operation of logistic bases, collection centers, and refueling points,
including public and private facilities, large storage complexes, factories, and other facilities that
could be adapted.

-List availability of spare parts and access to both public and private repair shops.

-Check port and airport capacity to handle emergency supplies under different scenarios. Assess
other transportation options: determine routes and alternate options that may be used in case of
emergency.

c. Revision of governmental policies, plans, and preparedness

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For NGO it is very important to know what the State’s policies and plans are regarding
emergencies. The Government, being through its disaster office, the main responsible entity for
relief actions, it is essential for organizations to be part of such activities and coordinate with
these organizations. Likewise, contact should be taken advantage of to reach the previous
agreements or mutual collaboration and facilitation of our organization’s activities in times of
emergency, such as tax exemptions for humanitarian supplies, priority treatment at customs, etc.

All the data gathered and the activities performed in this planning and logistic preparedness
phase should be the basis for devising a plan that describes the procedures, responsible parties,
and time needed for their execution.

5. Assessing Logistical and Supply Needs

The Importance of Needs Assessment

Assessing logistical and supply needs is crucial to determine as accurately as possible:

_ The needs of the population after a disaster;

_ Available local capacity and resources;

_ Complementary capabilities and resources required for meeting those needs.

Such assessments should be fully integrated into the general needs assessment process that is
carried out in a disaster area to determine the type and severity of the damage and the most
urgent intervention priorities. The quality of this assessment is very important, since requests for
supplies will be based on the disaster situation as identified on the ground.

It should be emphasized that the need for accurate assessments should not lead to paralysis.
While assessments are the tool that enables relief managers to identify the affected sectors and
the nature of the damage, and to quantify and qualify more precisely the type of assistance
required, there is no need for them to be completed before the most pressing relief actions are
undertaken.

Needs assessments should make it possible to answer the following questions:

_ What are the needs?

a . What are the needs of the population?

b . What are the operational needs?

_What is available capacity?

a . What is the capacity of the local infrastructure?

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b . What resources (including human and information resources) are available locally?

_ What factors may hinder or facilitate relief efforts?

_ What are the social, cultural and environmental characteristics of the potential disaster area that
may have a bearing on the effectiveness of the relief efforts?

It is important to determine not just the needs of the affected population, but also of the
organizations in charge of providing relief assistance.

Some of the key questions that need to be answered are the following:

_ What is needed?

_ How much is needed?

_ When is it needed? (Is it urgent?)

_ Where is it needed?

We also know that disasters are dynamic, changing processes. Accordingly, an assessment of this
sort must not only help us to identify the current situation, but also to foresee likely needs in the
future.

Needs of the Population

As we have seen, it is important not to stereotype disasters, since the needs they generate depend
not only on the kind of event but also on the socioeconomic and other characteristics of the
affected region or country. Nevertheless, experience shows that some aspects of everyday life are
more likely to be affected by disasters, making it possible to foresee the most probable needs for
survival.

Such aspects include the following:

_ Health care: Most catastrophic events tend to affect public health to a greater or lesser extent,
generating additional or urgent needs in this area.

_ Availability of water: It is common for drinking water supply systems to suffer damage or fail
to function.

_Availability of food: Not all events lead to dwindling stocks of food, but people who have lost
their homes or belongings will likely require some temporary support in this regard.

_ Shelter: The impact of a disaster might force people to look for temporary shelter until they
resolve their housing situation.

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_ Sanitation: The generally sudden disruptions of the everyday functioning of a community, as
well as the displacement or temporary resettlement of the victims, can cause environmental
degradation and imperil health due to a rise in unsanitary conditions.

Bearing in mind which kind of disaster we are facing, we can come to preliminary conclusions
on what type of assistance will most likely be necessary, and launch an appropriate response in
the field until more thorough assessments reveal to us in greater detail the needs that must be
met.

Operational Needs

All too often, local organizations involved in emergency response do not have the resources to
respond effectively to a disaster. It is therefore important to determine what resources an
organization has (or is lacking), and what is required for relief operations to be carried out
effectively. If logistical planning and preparations have taken place before the event, this will
make it easier to determine which resources are available—and which are lacking and must be
procured elsewhere. (See also the section on Logistics Planning and Preparedness)

Assessment of Local Capacity

By local capacity we mean not only the physical resources available at the site of an emergency,
but any factors that may help emergency supply management, such as local knowledge of the
terrain or weather patterns, or social capital in the form of community organizations, formal and
informal communications channels, and the like.

Local Infrastructure Capacity

Since disasters tend to affect lifelines, including roads and infrastructure in general, it is essential
to carry out a quick inventory of their availability and operational capacity for the mobilization
and reception of incoming supplies.

From the point of view of infrastructure, the following issues must be dealt with:

_ The state of roads, waterways, and other transport infrastructure needed to guarantee the arrival
of emergency supplies in the region or country that has been affected. Are there any restrictions
on their effective use, such as the threat of landslides blocking access to a town, or a landing strip
that may be unavailable in the event of flooding? Are any changes being contemplated, such as
the digging of a tunnel? Is maintenance so deficient that the infrastructure is becoming
increasingly vulnerable to the impact of an earthquake or hurricane?

_ The existence and availability of supply storage facilities;

_ The existence and availability of means of transport;

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_ The state and capacity of points of arrival (airports, ports, borders, and so on). Are there any
restrictions on their use? Are changes in the works, such as the expansion of a runway? Is
maintenance a problem?

Local Availability of Resources

One can frequently find the necessary supplies locally, or at least not far from the emergency
zone. Part of our assessment, then, must involve identifying the existence and location of such
resources. Attention should not be paid only to commercially available goods that need to be
purchased; there may also be public, and even private, resources that can eventually be put to use
in relief efforts. This applies to resources for the affected population as well those required by
relief organizations.

Factors That May Restrict or Facilitate Relief Efforts

Many factors may hinder or, alternatively, facilitate relief efforts. For instance, during a complex
emergency, or in particular political contexts, national authorities may restrict humanitarian
operations and supplies. A government may ban foreign-based relief organizations from entering
the disaster or conflict area, or even the country itself. Another may put forward religious,
political, or health reasons for preventing the arrival of a given product or material.

On the other hand, some governments may adopt exceptional measures to facilitate the efforts of
relief organizations and the arrival of humanitarian assistance into the country or the area where
operations are underway. This would include offering priority treatment at customs, lowering or
eliminating tariffs and taxes, or making government facilities available to humanitarian
operations.

The assessment report must mention the existence of any such measures, since they will have an
impact on the supplies that may or may not be used and the movement of relief teams.
Restrictions may have to be circumvented, while favorable measures should be maximized.

Other Relevant Issues

Any other information that may affect supply availability, transport and distribution should also
be recorded to assist in decision-making—weather forecasts, other events related to the event
causing the emergency, or safety and security considerations that must be taken into account
regarding the movement and positioning of supplies.

Social, Environmental and Cultural Features of the Affected Population and

Region
In order to provide the most appropriate and effective assistance to the affected population, it is
imperative to identify and understand their social and cultural customs, as well as environmental
characteristics of the area they occupy.

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This information must be taken into account when making decisions about the type of supplies
needed, how they can best be distributed, and how they are likely to be used—in the case of
clothing, housing, or household items—or consumed, when it comes to water, food, and drink.

The following are essential tasks:

_ Identifying the population’s dietary habits, including the types of food they will not consume
for religious, cultural, or traditional rea- sons, the kitchen utensils they use for cooking, and any
other relevant information that can help determine what kind of assistance to offer and what kind
to avoid;

_ Identifying local and regional producers before asking for food assistance or negotiating the
acquisition of food in other regions;

_ Finding out what type of clothes are used, and which ones are not worn due to cultural or
environmental reasons;

_ Identifying the most common types of housing and construction materials, including the
cultural or environmental reasons, if any, for such buildings and building practices;

_ Collecting information about the needs and type of assistance considered a priority by the
community itself;

_ Identifying ethnic or cultural minorities & their specific needs, in order to prevent any form of
exclusion.

Once again, a proper assessment will help to guide the decisions needed to provide appropriate
and effective assistance. Defining the need for specific supplies must be done as part of the
overall assessment of the emergency.

Chapter Three: Coordination

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