HISTORICAL NOTE

George Boole
(bool) was born in
1815 in Lincoln, England.
He was raised
in poverty, but he
was very industrious
and had learned Latin
and Greek by the age of 12. Later he
mastered German, French, and Italian.
His first profession, at the young age
of 16, was that of an assistant school
teacher. At the age of 20 he started his
own school.
In 1849 Boole was appointed the
chairperson of mathematics at Queens
College in Cork, Ireland.
Mathematical
Logic
Many of Boole’s mathematical
ideas, such as Boolean algebra, have
applications in the areas of computer
programming and the design of electronic
circuits.
Jean Marc Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Teresita B. Dulay
Mathematical Logic
•Symbolic logic is a powerful tool for analysis and
communication in mathematics.
•It represents the natural language and
mathematical language with symbols and
variables.
•Logic defined as the science that evaluates
arguments. It is the study of the methods used to
distinguish correct reasoning from poor
reasoning.
1. Statement or Proposition
A statement is an assertion which can be regarded as
true or false but not both.
These will be denoted by the letters
p, q, or r.
A simple statement is a single statement which does
not contain other statement as parts.
The truthfulness or falsity of a statement is called its
truth value.
Examples of Proposition or Statement
1. The earth is round.
2. 3 + 5 = 64 .
3. 12 is an odd number.
4. Batman is left-handed.
5. My mother went to market.
6. The sky is cloudy.
7. The f(x)=2x+3 is linear.
8. You will receive your package tomorrow.
Examples of Not a Statement
1. What is your name?
2. The square of an integer x
3. Please study your lessons.
4. When is the next holiday?
1. Statement or Proposition
Some statements are composite, that is,
composed of sub-statements.

A logical connective combines simple statements

into compound statements.
2. CONJUNCTION
•Any two statements can be combined by the
word “and” to form a composite statement
which is called the conjunction of the original
statements.

•Notation: p  q
2. CONJUNCTION
Examples:
1. Let p be “It is raining”, and
q be “The sun is shining”.
Then p  q denotes the statement
“It is raining and the sun is shining”.
2. The symbol  can be used to define the
intersection of two sets; specifically,
A  B = {x  x  A  x B}.
2. CONJUNCTION
The truth value of the composite statement p  q
satisfies the following property:

P1: If p is true and q is true, then p  q is true;

otherwise p  q is false. In other words, the
conjunction of two statements is true only if
each component is true.
2. CONJUNCTION
Example:
Let p be “San Beda is in Manila”, and
q be “1 + 1= 2”.
Then p  q denotes the statement
“San Beda is in Manila and 1 + 1 = 2”.
2. CONJUNCTION
Consider the following statements:
(1) San Beda is in Manila and 1 + 1 = 2.
(2) San Beda is in Manila and 1 + 1 = 3.
(3) San Beda is in Baguio and 1 + 1 = 2.
(4) San Beda is in Baguio and 1 + 1 = 3.
By P1, only (1) is true. Each of the other statements is
false since at least one of its substatement is false.
2. CONJUNCTION
A convenient way to state P1 is by means of a
table as follows:
p q pq
p and q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
3. DISJUNCTION

Any two statements can be combined by

the word “or” to form a new statement which
is called the disjunction of the original two
statements.

Notation: pq
3. DISJUNCTION
Examples: 1. Let p be “He studied Tagalog at the
university”, and let q be “He lived in the
Philippines”. Then p  q is the statement “He
studied Tagalog at the university or he lived in the
Philippines”.
2. The symbol  can be used to define the
union of two sets; specifically,
A B = {x  x  A  x B}.
3. DISJUNCTION
P2: If p is true or q is true or both p and q are
true, then pq is true; otherwise, pq is false.
In other words,
the disjunction of two statements is false
only if each component is false.
3. DISJUNCTION
Examples: Consider the following four statements:
(1) San Beda is in Manila or 1 + 1 = 2.
(2) San Beda is in Manila or 1 + 1 = 3.
(3) San Beda is in Baguio or 1 + 1 = 2.
(4) San Beda is in Baguio or 1 + 1 = 3.

Only (4) is false. Each of the other statements is true since

at least one of its components is true.
3. DISJUNCTION
P2 can also be written in the form of a table as follows:

p q pq
p or q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
4. NEGATION
Given any statement p, another
statement, called the negation of p, can be
formed by writing
“it is false that…” before p or, if possible,
by inserting in p the word “not”.
Notation: p or p
 4. NEGATION
Example 1: Consider the following statements:
p: Manila is in the Philippines.
Thus, p: It is false that Manila is in the Philippines.
or p: Manila is not in the Philippines.
2: Consider the following statements:
q: 2 + 3 = 5.
Then, q is It is false that 2 + 3 = 5.
or q: 2 + 3  5.
4. NEGATION
Examples:
3. 2 is a rational number.
Negation: 2 is not a rational number.
or 2 is an irrational number.
4. 8 is an odd number.
Negation: 8 is not an odd number.
8 is an even number.
4. NEGATION
The truth value of the negation of a statement satisfies the
following property:
P3: If p is true, then p (or p ) is false; if p is false, then
p is true. In other words, the truth value of the negation
of a statement is always the opposite of the truth value of
the original statement.
p p
T F
F T
5. CONDITIONAL
Many statements, especially in mathematics, are of
the form “If p then q”.
Such statements are called conditional statements.
Notation: pq or p  q
The conditional pq can also be read:
(a) p implies q (c) p is sufficient for q
(b) p only if q (d) q is necessary for p
5. CONDITIONAL
The conditional pq satisfies the following
properties:
P4: The conditional pq is true unless p is true
and q is false. In other words, P4 states that a
true statement cannot imply a false statement.
 5. CONDITIONAL
Consider the following statements:
(1) If San Beda is in Manila then 1 + 1 = 2.
(2) If San Beda is in Manila then 1 + 1 = 3.
(3) If San Beda is in Baguio then 1 + 1 = 2.
(4) If San Beda is in Baguio then 1 + 1 = 3.
5. CONDITIONAL
p q pq
p implies q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
6. BICONDITIONAL
Another common statement is of the form “p
if and only if q” or, simply, “p iff q”.
Such statements are called biconditional
statements and are denoted by
pq
or pq .
6. BICONDITIONAL
The truth value of the biconditional statement
pq satisfies the following property:
P5: If p and q have the same truth values, then
pq is true; if p and q have opposite truth values,
then pq is false.
 6. BICONDITIONAL
Consider the following statements:
(1) San Beda is in Manila if and only if 1 + 1 = 2.
(2) San Beda is in Manila if and only if 1 + 1 = 3.
(3) San Beda is in Baguio if and only if 1 + 1 = 2.
(4) San Beda is in Baguio if and only if 1 + 1 = 3.

According to P5, (1) and (4) are true and (2) and (3) are false.
6. BICONDITIONAL
p q pq
p iff q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Summary:
pq pq pq pq
p q p and q p or q p implies q p iff q
CONJUNCTION DISJUNCTION CONDITIONAL BICONDITIONAL

T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T