Chapter 01: Functions and Origins of Psychological Testing

Introduction

Anyone reading this book today can easily understand the concept of

psychological testing. Most people have encountered psychological tests in

schools, colleges, the armed forces, counseling centers, or workplaces. Some may

have even participated in research experiments using standardized tests.

Since the early 20th century, psychological testing has grown rapidly, expanding

its applications into various aspects of daily life. However, this growth has also

led to unrealistic expectations, misuse, and skepticism. To fully benefit from

psychological testing, it is important to consider both its advantages and

limitations.

Uses of Psychological Tests

The primary function of psychological tests is to measure differences between

individuals or analyze variations in an individual's reactions over time.

1. Clinical and Educational Uses

One of the earliest motivations for psychological testing was identifying

individuals with intellectual disabilities. Even today, detecting intellectual

deficiencies remains a key application of psychological tests.

Other clinical applications include assessing individuals with emotional

disturbances, delinquency, and behavioral disorders.

In the field of education, psychological tests play a significant role. Schools are

among the largest users of psychological tests for various purposes, including:

Classifying students based on their abilities.

Identifying gifted students as well as those with learning difficulties.

Diagnosing academic failures.

Providing educational and career counseling for high school and college students.

Selecting students for specialized academic programs and institutions.

2. Industrial and Military Applications

Beyond education, psychological tests are widely used in industry and the

military.

Industrial applications include hiring, job placements, promotions, transfers, and

terminations.

Military applications date back to World War I, expanding significantly during

World War II. Today, the armed forces continue to use psychological tests for

recruitment, training, and personnel classification.

3. Counseling and Personal Development

Initially, psychological tests were used mainly for educational and career

guidance. Over time, their role expanded to include emotional well-being,

interpersonal relationships, and self-development.

Modern psychological testing is increasingly focused on helping individuals

understand themselves better. Instead of just guiding career decisions, test results

are now used for personal growth and self-reflection.

Psychological Testing in Research

Besides practical applications, psychological tests are crucial in psychological

research. Most psychological studies rely on accurate testing methods for data

collection.

Key areas where psychological tests aid research include:

Studying individual differences.

Measuring and organizing psychological traits.

Analyzing biological and cultural influences on behavior.

Additionally, psychological tests are used to study:

Life-span development (changes over a person’s lifetime).

Effectiveness of psychotherapy.

Impact of community programs.

Effects of environmental factors on human performance.

Importance of Psychological Tests in Psychology

Given their diverse applications, it is clear that understanding psychological tests

is essential in contemporary psychology.

This book is not intended to train someone to become a test specialist. Instead, it

is designed for general psychology students who need to understand how

psychological tests are used and interpreted.

To properly evaluate and interpret test results, it is crucial to know:

How these tests are constructed.

Their accuracy and reliability.

Their limitations and potential biases.

Today, knowledge of psychological testing is important not only for professionals

who administer tests but also for all psychologists, as test results are widely

referenced in psychological literature and research.

Historical Origins of Psychological Testing

The origins of psychological testing can be traced back to ancient civilizations. P.

H. DuBois (1966) describes the civil service examination system in ancient China,

which lasted for over 3,000 years.

In ancient Greece, psychological testing was an integral part of the educational

process, used to assess both physical and intellectual skills. The Socratic method,
which involves questioning and dialogue-based teaching, shares similarities with

today’s programmed learning techniques.

By the Middle Ages, European universities had established formal examination

systems for awarding degrees and honors.

However, the most significant developments shaping modern psychological

testing emerged during the 19th century.

Early Origins of Psychological Testing

A more detailed account of the early origins of psychological tests can be found

in F. L. Goodenough (1949) and J. Peterson (1926). For a broader historical

background, refer to Boring (1950) and Murphy & Kovach (1972). A brief yet

comprehensive history is provided by P. H. DuBois (1970), while Anastasi (1965)

explores the historical antecedents of studying individual differences.

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Early Interest in Classification and Training of the Mentally Retarded

During the 19th century, there was a significant shift toward humane treatment of

the mentally retarded and the insane. Before this period, individuals with mental

disabilities were often subjected to neglect, ridicule, and even torture. As

awareness grew, the need for a systematic method to identify and classify these

individuals became evident.

The establishment of special institutions for the care of the mentally retarded in

Europe and the United States made it essential to develop admission standards

and an objective classification system. The first step was to differentiate between

mental illness and mental retardation:

Insane individuals exhibited emotional disorders, which could or could not be

accompanied by intellectual decline from a previously normal level.

Mentally retarded individuals had an intellectual deficiency present from birth or

early childhood.
One of the earliest explicit distinctions between these conditions appeared in

1838 in a two-volume work by the French physician Esquirol (1838). He devoted

over 100 pages to mental retardation and introduced the idea that intellectual

impairment exists on a continuum, ranging from mild to severe (low-grade

idiocy).

In his efforts to develop a classification system, Esquirol concluded that an

individual’s use of language is the most reliable indicator of their intellectual

level. Interestingly, modern intelligence tests still rely heavily on verbal ability to

assess intellectual functioning. This demonstrates the lasting influence of

language-based criteria in defining intelligence.

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Contributions of Seguin: A Pioneer in Training the Mentally Retarded

Another significant figure in this field was Seguin, a French physician who was
among the first to explore educational methods for the mentally retarded. Unlike

his contemporaries, Seguin rejected the belief that mental retardation was

incurable.

In 1837, he founded the first school dedicated to educating mentally retarded

children.
He developed the physiological method of training, which focused on sensory

discrimination and motor skill development.

In 1848, he emigrated to the United States, where his ideas gained widespread

recognition.

Many of the training techniques Seguin introduced later became standard

practices in institutions for the mentally retarded. His work laid the foundation for
performance-based (nonverbal) intelligence tests.

One such example is the Seguin Form Board, a test where individuals insert

variously shaped blocks into matching recesses as quickly as possible. This test

assesses spatial reasoning, coordination, and problem-solving skills—all crucial

components of modern intelligence testing.

1. Alfred Binet's Work:

Binet emphasized that children struggling in normal schooling should be

assessed before dismissal.

He influenced the French Ministry of Public Instruction to take steps for special

education.

His work led to the first intelligence tests.

2. Early Experimental Psychologists:

Psychologists in the 19th century focused on general behavior patterns rather

than individual differences.

They saw variations between individuals as "errors" rather than meaningful traits.

Early psychology labs, such as Wundt’s in Leipzig (1879), mainly studied sensory

and reaction-time experiments.

3. Francis Galton's Contributions:

Galton was a pioneer in psychological testing, focusing on heredity and

measuring human traits.

He established an anthropometric lab in 1884 to test sensory and physical

attributes.
He believed sensory discrimination could be linked to intelligence.

He introduced rating scales, questionnaires, and statistical methods for analyzing

individual differences.

4. James McKeen Cattell and Mental Tests:

Cattell, influenced by Galton, introduced the term "mental test" in 1890.

His tests measured sensory and motor functions, assuming they correlated with

intelligence.

Early intelligence tests showed weak correlations with academic performance.

5. Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale:

Developed in 1905 to assess children’s intelligence.

Focused on judgment, comprehension, and reasoning rather than sensory

abilities.

Later revisions (1908, 1911) introduced the concept of "mental age."

The test was widely adapted, leading to the Stanford-Binet IQ test.

6. Group Testing and World War I:

During WWI, psychologists developed mass intelligence tests (Army Alpha and

Beta).

These tests were used for military recruitment and later adapted for civilians.

The popularity of IQ tests led to overuse and criticism.

7. Aptitude Testing:
Intelligence tests primarily measured verbal and abstract reasoning skills.

Psychologists developed specialized aptitude tests for vocational and industrial

applications.

These included mechanical, clerical, and musical aptitude tests.

Development of Multiple Aptitude Tests and Factor Analysis

While practical testing applications highlighted the need for multiple aptitude

tests, a parallel development in trait organization studies provided a foundation

for constructing such tests. Statistical research on intelligence explored the

relationships between scores obtained by individuals across a variety of tests. This

research began with English psychologist Charles Spearman (1904, 1927) in the

early 20th century. Later, American psychologists like T. L. Kelley (1928) and L. L.

Thurstone (1938, 1947b), along with other researchers from the US and UK,

further advanced these methods, which became known as factor analysis.

Factor analysis played a significant role in test construction. Studies using this
method revealed multiple relatively independent traits or factors. Some of these

traits were reflected in traditional intelligence tests, such as verbal comprehension

and numerical reasoning, while others, like spatial, perceptual, and mechanical

aptitudes, were more prominent in special aptitude tests rather than intelligence

tests.
One major outcome of factor analysis was the development of multiple aptitude

batteries, which measured individuals across various traits instead of providing a

single IQ score. These tests assessed different abilities separately, such as verbal

comprehension, numerical aptitude, spatial visualization, arithmetic reasoning, and

perceptual speed. This approach allowed for a more precise analysis of an

individual’s strengths and weaknesses, replacing older intelligence tests that often

yielded inaccurate or misleading results.

Military and Civilian Applications of Multiple Aptitude Batteries

Multiple aptitude batteries emerged as a significant advancement in testing,

mostly after 1945. During World War II, military psychologists extensively used

factor analysis to develop specialized aptitude tests for different military roles. For

example, the U.S. Air Force designed specific test batteries for pilots,

bombardiers, radio operators, and range finders. Reports on these tests occupied

9 out of 19 volumes in the aviation psychology program from 1947 to 1948.

After the war, research on multiple aptitude batteries continued in both military

and civilian sectors. These tests became widely used for educational counseling,
vocational guidance, and personnel selection. Chapter 13 will discuss specific

examples of these batteries in detail.

Distinguishing Between Intelligence and Aptitude Tests

To avoid confusion, it is important to clarify terminology:

Intelligence Tests: Traditionally measure overall cognitive ability, providing a

single IQ score.

Aptitude Tests: Assess specific abilities (e.g., numerical, verbal, spatial reasoning).

Multiple Aptitude Batteries: Measure multiple aptitudes separately, producing a

profile of scores rather than a single IQ.

Standardized Achievement Tests

While intelligence and aptitude tests were developing, traditional school

examinations were also improving (Caldwell & Courtis, 1923; Ebel & Damrin,

1960). A significant milestone occurred in 1845, when Boston public schools

replaced oral student examinations with written tests. Horace Mann praised this

innovation, arguing that written exams ensured fairness, broader content

coverage, and reduced examiner bias—similar to later arguments for replacing

essay questions with multiple-choice tests.

In the early 20th century, standardized tests for measuring school learning

outcomes began to emerge. E. L. Thorndike pioneered this movement, applying

psychological measurement principles to education. Early examples included

rating scales for handwriting and written compositions, as well as tests in spelling,

arithmetic computation, and arithmetic reasoning.

In 1923, the first Stanford Achievement Test was published by Truman L. Kelley,

Giles M. Ruch, and Lewis M. Terman. This test marked a major step in modern

assessment by providing comparable performance measures across different

school subjects, all evaluated using a single normative group.

By 1930, research had revealed significant inconsistencies in teachers' grading of

essay tests. Essay-based assessments were time-consuming and less reliable

compared to objective multiple-choice tests. This shift led to the rise of

standardized achievement tests that focused on testing students' understanding

and application of knowledge, rather than just memorization.

The 1930s also saw the introduction of test-scoring machines, which made it

easier to evaluate objective tests efficiently.

Development of Nationwide Testing Programs

Another parallel development was the rise of statewide, regional, and national
testing programs. One of the most influential programs was the College Entrance

Examination Board (CEEB), established in the early 1900s to standardize college

admissions testing.

In 1947, CEEB merged with the Carnegie Corporation and the American Council

on Education to form Educational Testing Service (ETS). Over time, ETS became
responsible for conducting major testing programs for universities, professional

schools, and government agencies.

In 1959, the American College Testing (ACT) Program was launched to serve

colleges not covered by the CEEB. Additionally, national programs were

introduced to identify high-achieving students for scholarships.

Use of Achievement Tests Beyond Education

Achievement tests were soon used for purposes beyond education, including

industrial and government job selection. Civil service examinations became

systematic and standardized to ensure fairness in hiring decisions.

Research comparing essay vs. multiple-choice tests continues to shape

educational assessment, influencing how standardized tests are designed for

schools and workplaces.