BIOCHEMICAL PROCESS All biochemical conversion processes (such as

composting) are in essence two-step operations.

The three components of MSW of greatest The first step is the decomposition of complex
interest in the bioconversion processes are molecules of waste materials into simpler
garbage (food waste), paper products, and yard entities. If there is no nitrogen available, this is
wastes. the full extent of the process. If nitrogen is
available, however, the second step is the
The three methods of biochemical conversion synthesis of the breakdown products into new
discussed here all make use of the organic cells. These new microorganisms contribute to
fraction of refuse. The three methods (two the process, and the system operates in balance.
means of anaerobic digestion and composting)
are broad-spectrum processes, where the specific A C/N of 20:1 is the ratio at which nitrogen is not
organisms responsible for the bioconversion are limiting the rate of decomposition.
not identified or isolated and the processes are Above a C/N of 80:1, thermophilic composting
described by empirical data. cannot occur, because the nitrogen severely
limits the rate of decomposition. Most systems
The two basic metabolic pathways for the operate between these extremes.
decomposition or degradation of wastes are Some researchers recommend an optimal C/N
aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (in the ratio of 25:1.14 A higher C/N ratio than this can
absence of oxygen). increase the time to maturity.
Nitrogen can become limiting at a C/N ratio
The microorganisms responsible for anaerobic greater than about 40:1.15 At higher pH levels,
decomposition can be divided into two broad the nitrogen will be lost into the atmosphere as
categories: ammonia gas if the C/N ratio exceeds 35:1.
1. Acid formers that ferment the complex
organic compounds to more simple The pH of the compost pile varies with time,
organic forms, such as acetic and showing an initial drop, then increasing to
propionic acids. These hardy between 8.0 and 9.0, and finally leveling off
organisms can be either facultative or between 7.0 and 8.9.16
strict anaerobes.
2. Methane formers that convert the Regardless of what biochemical process is used,
organic acids to methane. These the organisms should have the following
organisms are strict anaerobes and characteristics:
have very slow growth rates—two Not Fastidious. They will work under adverse
characteristics that cause considerable conditions (e.g., wide temperature range) and be
problems in anaerobic processes in tolerant of environmental change.
wastewater treatment and will Ubiquitous. They should exist in nature, since
similarly plague anaerobic pure stock cultures degenerate with time and
decomposition of refuse. rarely stay pure.
Persistent. They must grow in the environment
Two different groups of methane formers seem without special assistance.
to exist: one group (mesophilic) operating best Not Picky. They should be able to use a broad
around 30 to 38oC (85 to 100oF) and a second spectrum of substrates.
group (thermophilic) operating best around 50 to
58oC (120 to 135oF). Composting on a municipal scale is an
uncomplicated process. At its simplest, shredded
Composting is often promoted as a “natural” and/or screened refuse or source-separated
process of solid waste treatment. organic waste is placed in long parallel piles,
called windrows, and the moisture content is
maintained near 50%.
 increase the volume available for the solid
waste.
• Non-residential Waste Changes. A per capita
generation rate takes into account all non-
residential waste currently going into the
landfill. In some cases, the non-residential
waste can account for more than 50% of the
Typically, windrows are constructed of sorted and landfill volume needed. Some examples are
shredded MSW, mixed with wastewater sludge, large military facilities, agriculture operation,
and laid in long rows of about 4 to 6 ft (1.2 to 2 manufacturing facilities, and cities with a
m) high. Because the reaction is aerobic, oxygen large percentage of communities and
must be made available to the microorganisms, tourists. Either the closing or opening of
and this is done either by turning the pile with a these facilities can significantly affect future
specially constructed agitator or by placing the waste projections.
pile on PVC pipes so that air can be pulled
through the pile. This is called the aerated static Once the geographical boundary of the potential
pile composting method. Both of these site has been determined, unsuitable locations
operations offer the advantage of low capital cost should be identified. This process is a pass/fail
and the simultaneous use of wastewater sludge, test referred to as a fatal flaw analysis. Some
but the operating cost can be high, and odor fatal flaws are established in regulations such as
problems can be serious if the piles are not Subtitle D of the Resource Conservation and
sufficiently well aerated. Recovery Act.

Composting is an old process and quite well On October 9, 1991, the EPA issued 40 CFR Part
understood. In the past, some processes were 258, regulations pertaining to landfills under
designed to compost MSW without the removal Subtitle D of the Resource Conservation and
of the inorganic fraction, which is a practice Recovery Act with implementation two years
referred to as mixed waste composting. later.

Landfill Processes
1. Biological Degradation
LANDFILL
Over the life of a landfill, the density may change.
The following factors could affect the volume
requirement of the landfill:
• New Regulations. Many states have adopted
waste diversion/recycling goals. If fully
implemented, diversion rates of 70% and
beyond may be achieved. Phase I—Initial Adjustment Phase
• Competing Facilities. Other landfills may This phase is associated with initial placement of
exist or be planned that would receive some solid waste and accumulation of moisture within
of the planned waste, or other existing landfills. An acclimation period (or initial lag time)
landfills may close, resulting in the is observed until sufficient moisture develops and
importation of solid waste. supports an active microbial community.
• Different Cover Options. Dirt used as daily Preliminary changes in environmental
and final cover at a landfill may consume 20 components occur in order to create favourable
to 50% of the available landfill volume, conditions for biochemical decomposition.
depending on the size of the landfill. The new
landfill may rely on foam, tarps, or mulched
green waste for cover and thus significantly
Phase II—Transition Phase However, the slow degradation of resistant
In the transition phase, the field capacity is often organic fractions may continue with the
exceeded, and a transformation from an aerobic production of humic-like substances.
to an anaerobic environment occurs, as The progress toward final stabilization of landfill
evidenced by the depletion of oxygen trapped solid waste is subject to the physical, chemical,
within the landfill media. A trend toward reducing and biological factors within the landfill
conditions is established in accordance with environment, the age and characteristics of
shifting of electron acceptors from oxygen to landfilled waste, the operational and
nitrates and sulfates and the displacement of management controls applied, as well as the site-
oxygen by carbon dioxide. By the end of this specific external conditions.
phase, measurable concentrations of chemical
oxygen demand (COD) and volatile organic acids 2. Leachate Production
(VOAs) can be detected in the leachate. 3. Gas Production

Phase III—Acid Formation Phase Landfill Design

The continuous hydrolysis (solubilization) of solid 1. Liners
waste, followed by (or concomitant with) the The liner system is required to prevent migration
microbial conversion of biodegradable organic of leachate from the landfill and to facilitate
content, results in the production of intermediate removal of leachate. It generally consists of
volatile organic acids at high concentrations multiple layers of natural material and/or
throughout this phase. A decrease in pH values is geomembranes selected for their low
often observed, accompanied by metal species permeability.
mobilization. Viable biomass growth associated
with the acid formers (acidogenic bacteria), and 2. Leachate Collection, Treatment, and
rapid consumption of substrate and nutrients are Disposal
the predominant features of this phase.  Leachate Collection and Storage
 Leachate Collection System Design
Phase IV—Methane Fermentation Phase Equations and Techniques
During Phase IV, intermediate acids are  Leachate Treatment and Disposal
consumed by methane-forming consortia  Emerging Technologies for the
(methanogenic bacteria) and converted into Treatment of Leachate
methane and carbon dioxide. Sulfate and nitrate
are reduced to sulfides and ammonia, Reverse osmosis has nothing to do with osmotic
respectively. The pH value is elevated, being pressure or osmosis, but is the common name for
controlled by the bicarbonate buffering system forcing a fluid through a semipermeable
and, consequently, supports the growth of membrane, thus separating soluble components
methanogenic bacteria. Heavy metals are on the basis of molecular size and shape. It is one
removed from the leachate by complexation and of the treatment systems capable of removing
precipitation. dissolved solids.

Phase V—Maturation Phase Direct osmosis concentration is a cold-

During the final state of landfill stabilization, temperature-membrane process that separates
nutrients and available substrate become limiting, waste streams in a low-pressure environment.
and the biological activity shifts to relative The system operates by placing a semipermeable
dormancy. Gas production dramatically drops, membrane between the leachate and an osmotic
and leachate strength stays steady at much lower agent, typically a salt brine with a concentration
concentrations. Reappearance of oxygen and of approximately 10%.
oxidized species may be observed slowly.
Evaporation will actually dispose of the water
component of water-based waste streams, such
as leachate. This technology can reduce the total and equipped for dispensing natural gas in the
volume of leachate to be managed to less than proper form.
5% of the original volume.
Conversion of landfill gas to synthetic fuels and
A vapor compression distillation process differs chemicals is also possible, if not economically
from an evaporation process in that a clean feasible. The technologies include hydrocarbon
effluent is produced. Leachate is introduced into production by the Fischer-Tropsch process and
the VCD system through a recirculation loop. methanol synthesis by high-pressure chemical
catalysis and partial biological oxidation.
The mechanical vapor recompression process
uses the falling film principle in a vacuum. The Electrical power generation (internal combustion
core of the process is a polymeric evaporation engines and gas turbines) is by far the most
surface (heat transfer element) on which water common landfill gas-to-energy application. The
can boil at a temperature of 50 to 60 oC (120 to generation of electricity from LFG makes up
140 oF). The process functions similarly to a heat about two-thirds of the currently operational
pump. projects in the United States.

Several different types of land treatment systems Electrical power generation (fuel cells) is another
are available for treating landfill leachates. technology that is subject to unfavorable
However, these systems are usually sized for economics when using landfill gas. Fuel cells are
small leachate flows, since a significant amount of basically electrochemical batteries utilizing
land could be required to handle larger flows. molten carbonate or phosphoric acid, fueled by
coal, petroleum, natural gas, or other such
 Leachate Recirculation hydrocarbon feedstocks.

3. Landfill Gas Collection and Use Purification to pipeline-quality gas is also an

There are two basic systems for gas emissions attractive option for the use of landfill gas.
control: passive collection and active extraction.
Passive collection systems collect landfill gas
using vent collectors and release the gas to the Disposal of Solid Waste in Landfills
atmosphere without treatment or conveyance to The disposal of solid wastes is a misnomer.
a common point.
Active collection systems link collection wells
with piping and extract the gas under vacuum
created by a central blower. Active extraction SOLID WASTE MINIMIZATION
wells may be vertical or horizontal wells, although
vertical wells are more frequently employed. Acronyms and Symbolism
 White office paper (WOP). This is one of the
Applications of Landfill Gas Use highest grades of paper and is also known as
Boilers and other direct combustion applications white ledger. WOP is clean white sheets from
are by far the cheapest and easiest options and laser printers and copy machines. Colored,
represent about one third of the current contaminated, or lower-grade paper is not
operating projects. Direct uses of landfill gas to acceptable. The wrappers the paper comes in
replace or supplement coal, oil, propane, and are of lower grade, and not WOP.
natural gas have been successfully demonstrated.
 Mixed office paper (MOP). This is a catch-all
The potential for use as vehicle fuel exists if the for types of paper not specifically mentioned
gas is upgraded to natural gas quality, vehicles above. Everything—magazines to packaging
are modified to operate on some form of natural —is acceptable. The paper must still be clean,
gas, and refueling stations are widely available
 dry, and free of food, most plastic, wax, and  Type 4––LDPE (low-density polyethylene).
other contamination. Many plastic bags, shrink wrap, and garment
bags.
 Corrugated containers (OCC). This is a paper-  Type 5––PP (polypropylene). Refrigerated
based construction material consisting of a containers, some bags, most bottle tops,
fluted corrugated sheet and one or two flat some carpets, some food wrap.
linerboards. It is widely used in the  Type 6––PS (polystyrene). Throwaway
manufacture of corrugated boxes and utensils, meat packing, protective packing.
shipping containers. The corrugated medium  Type 7––Other. Usually layered or mixed
and linerboard are made of paperboard, a plastic. This generally has limited recycling
paper-like material usually over 10 mils potential and is disposed at the landfill.
(0.010 in, or 0.25 mm) thick. Paperboard and
corrugated fiberboard are sometimes called In terms of communicating and promoting solid
cardboard by nonspecialists, although waste minimization the three Rs and the two Es
cardboard might be any heavy paper-pulp- have served as very effective tools. The three Rs
based board. are
■ Reduce
 Newspapers (ONP). This is widely available ■ Reuse
and of uniform consistency, which makes it ■ Recycle
valuable. The entire newspaper, including ■ Environment
inserts is acceptable, except for things like ■ Economics
plastic, product samples, and rubber bands.
Economic benefits from solid waste analysis and
 Phone books. These are made with special minimization can be achieved a variety of ways.
glue that breaks down in water. (Some phone The most common economic benefits derived
books use glue that interferes with recycling.) from solid waste minimization are listed below:
Printed in the phone book should be
information on the source and type of paper  Cost avoidance. Organizations can save
used, the nature of the binding, and where money by diverting solid waste streams
phone books can be recycled locally (old from the landfill back to the company
Corrugated containers[OCC]). through reuse or to an off-site recycler. The
monetary savings are derived from no
 Waxed cartons. These, often used for milk or longer paying a waste hauler to remove the
juice, are plastic laminated on the inside, trash and dispose of it at the landfill.
even if they don’t have a plastic spout.
 Recycling revenue. Substantial additional
The next set of acronyms and abbreviations that revenue can be earned by selling
is important to understand regards plastics. The recyclables to third-party processors or
breakdown is as follows: recycling commodity brokers. For example,
1 ton of baled cardboard sells for $100 to
 Type 1––PETE (polyethylene terephthalate). $180 on the market.
Soda and water containers, and some
waterproof packaging.  Reduced raw material costs. When an
 Type 2––HDPE (high-density polyethylene). organization is able to utilize in-process or
Milk, detergent, and oil bottles, also toys and on-site recycling they reduce their raw
plastic bags. material needs directly by replacing virgin
 Type 3––PVC (vinyl/polyvinyl chloride). Food material purchases with in-house scrap,
wrap, vegetable oil bottles, blister packages. rework, or process by-products.
  Reduced energy costs. By reducing the 5. Extrusion
amount of materials within a facility 6. Pelletizing
through reduction and reuse, material-
handling costs can be minimized. ALUMINUM RECYCLING
Aluminum recycling can be broken down into
 Increased sales. Many consumers and three steps:
businesses look favorably on 1. Sorting
organizations that are environmentally 2. Baling
conscious and purchase products or 3. Compressing
services from them.
The benefits of solid waste minimization and
 Increased productivity. As workers are recycling can be separated into four areas:
engaged in efforts that they see as 1. Environmental
meaningful, many of them take pride 2. Economic
and put additional efforts into their 3. Corporate image
work. In addition, absenteeism may 4. Personal and social
reduce as well.

PAPER RECYCLING Six Sigma is a comprehensive and flexible system

Collected paper must be sorted and graded for achieving, sustaining, and maxi- mizing
before being recycled. The recycling business success. It is uniquely driven by a close
process itself can be separated into eight steps under- standing of customer needs; disciplined
1. Sorting use of facts, data, and statistical analysis; and
2. Baling diligent attention to managing, improving, and
3. Pulping reinventing business processes.
4. Screening
5. De-inking Six Sigma methodologies are broken into six
6. Pouring fundamentals as related to solid waste
7. Rolling minimization:
8. Packing 1. Define products or services.
2. Know the stakeholders and customers
This section provides a brief overview of each of and their critical needs.
these steps. Paper recycling can be challenging 3. Identify processes, methods, and
because there are over 50 grades of waste paper. systems to meet stakeholders’ critical
The main four groups are: needs.
1. Low grade (mixed paper, corrugated 4. Establish a process of doing work
board) consistently.
2. De-inking grade (newspapers, 5. Error-proof process and eliminate
magazines, office paper) waste.
3. Kraft grade (unbleached brown 6. Measure and analyze performance.
backing)
4. High grade (printer cut-offs and The solid waste minimization process consists of
unprinted paper) 11 steps:

PLASTIC RECYCLING 1. Establish the solid waste minimization

Plastic recycling can be separated into six steps team and charter
1. Sorting 2. Review existing solid waste and
2. Shredding recycling records
3. Cleaning 3. Create process flowcharts and conduct
4. Melting throughput analyses
4. Conduct the solid waste sorts at the
facility
5. Analyze the data to determine annual
generation by work unit or area and
establish baseline data
6. Identify major waste minimization
opportunities
7. Determine, evaluate, and select waste
minimization process, equipment, and
method-improvement alternatives
8. Develop the waste minimization
deployment and execution plan
9. Execute and implement the waste
minimization plan and timeline
10. Validate the program versus goals
11. Monitor and continually improve
performance
DAO 1992-29 DAO 2001-34 RA 6969