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UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology

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Foreign Deities in Egypt

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UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 1(1)

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Zivie-Coche, Christiane

Publication Date
2011-04-05

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 FOREIGN DEITIES IN EGYPT
‫المعبودات االجنبية في مصر‬
Christiane Zivie-Coche

EDITORS

WILLEKE WENDRICH
Editor-in-Chief
University of California, Los Angeles

JACCO DIELEMAN
Editor
Area Editor Religion
University of California, Los Angeles

ELIZABETH FROOD
Editor
University of Oxford

JOHN BAINES
Senior Editorial Consultant
University of Oxford

Short Citation:
Zivie-Coche, 2011, Foreign Deities in Egypt. UEE.

Full Citation:
Zivie-Coche, Christiane, 2011, Foreign Deities in Egypt. In Jacco Dieleman, Willeke Wendrich (eds.),
UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles.
http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0027fcpg

1011 Version 1, April 2011

http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0027fcpg
 FOREIGN DEITIES IN EGYPT
‫المعبودات االجنبية في مصر‬
Christiane Zivie-Coche

Ausländische Götter in Ägypten

Dieux étrangers en Égypte

The presence of foreign deities in the Egyptian pantheon must be studied in the light of the
openness of Egyptian polytheism and as a reflection on cultural identity. Even if Egyptian self-
identity was defined as intrinsically opposed to the Other, i.e. the foreigner, Egypt always
maintained contact with its neighbors, particularly Nubia and the Near East. These intercultural
contacts had an effect on the religion. Since the earliest times, deities like Dedoun, Ha, or Sopdu
formed an integral part of the Egyptian pantheon, so much so that their likely foreign origin is not
immediately perceptible. Particularly important is the introduction of a series of Near Eastern
deities into the established pantheon at the beginning of the New Kingdom, under the reign of
Amenhotep II. Receiving cult from both the state and private individuals, these deities were
worshiped under their foreign name while depicted in Egyptian fashion. Their principal function
was providing protection. It is the very nature of Egyptian polytheism that allowed for foreign
divinities to acquire the same status as the indigenous gods.

‫إن وجود اآللھة األجنبية في مجمع اآللھة المصري أم ٌر يجب دراسته في ضوء إنفتاح تعدد‬
‫ حتى وإن كانت ھوية المصريين الذاتية معروفة‬.‫اآللھة المصرية وكإنعكاس الھوية الثقافية‬
‫ فمع ذلك كان لمصر دائما ً عالقة جيدة مع جيرانھا‬- ‫بالفطرة ضد »اآلخر« – أي األجنبي‬
‫ و كان لھذه اإلتصاالت الحضارية المتعددة تأثي ٌر على‬.‫خاصةً بالد النوبة والشرق األدنى‬
‫ أو‬،«‫ فمنذ بواكير العصورالقديمة كانت اآللھة األجنبية مثل »ديدون« و»حا‬،‫الدين‬
‫»سوبدو« اصبحت وبشكل كبير جدا جزء ال يتجزأ من مجمع اآللھة المصري لدرجة أن‬
‫ ومما ھو جدير بالمالحظة إنه تم إدخال‬.‫أصلھم األجنبي أصبح غير ملحوظ بطريق مباشر‬
‫مجموعة من آلھة الشرق األدنى إلى مجمع اآللھة المصري الرسمي منذ بداية الدولة‬
‫ حيث قدمت‬،‫الحديثة وخاصةً خالل عصر أمنحتب الثاني ھو أم ٌر ذو أھمية خاصة‬
‫الشعائروالطقوس إلى ھذه اآللھة من قِبَل الدولة و من قِبَل األفراد العاديين وقد احتفظوا‬
‫ وكانت وظيفتھم األساسية ھي‬، ‫باسمائھم األجنبية ولكن تم تصويرھم على ھيئة مصرية‬
‫ إن طبيعة العقيدة المصرية ھي التي أتاحت لآللھة األجنبية الحصول علي‬.‫توفير الحماية‬
.‫نفس وضع اآللھة المصرية‬

O
ne could qualify a deity as foreign that were always associated with Egypt’s
to the Egyptian pantheon when it frontier zones and formed part of the
has a well-established, non-native Egyptian pantheon since the earliest times are
origin and is known to have been introduced not considered foreign. Such deities are the
into Egypt at a specific point in time. Deities Nubian Dedoun attested since the Pyramid

Foreign Deities in Egypt, Zivie-Coche, UEE 2011 1

Texts; Ha, god of the West, who is likely with, for example, the name of the Libyan
Libyan in origin; and also Sopdu, Lord of the goddess Shehededet, no trace of a cult for this
East and the eastern borders, whose symbol deity has been recovered (Thirion 1986: 134 -
spd, which serves to write his name in 136). In fact, the Libyans seem to have had no
hieroglyphs, bears a resemblance to the Near influence on Egyptian religious practices; on
Eastern betyles or sacred stones. There were the contrary, they adopted them. The same
also deities of truly Egyptian origin that held applies to the Kushite Dynasty (722 - 664
power over these marginal regions. Min of BCE) and the Persian invaders (525 - 404 and
Coptos was the Lord of the Eastern Desert 343 - 332 BCE). They both showed great
and Hathor, besides being a goddess of love piety toward the Egyptian deities, with the
and sexual desire, was very much an itinerant exception of the Second Persian Domination
deity, honored at the mining sites in the Sinai (343 - 332 BCE), and did not “import” their
and Byblos in the Lebanon. This state of own gods. The Ptolemaic and Roman Periods
affairs reveals, even without considering the witnessed the creation of a deity of Egyptian
principles of interculturality, that Egypt was origin represented in Greek style, Serapis, a
not the self-contained and closed-off country combination of Osiris with Apis. Traditional
some scholars make it to be. The border Egyptian deities could thus undergo the
crosser par excellence was Seth, who effects of acculturation under the influence of
embodies this role in all his ambiguity, being foreign domination, in particular on the level
the protector of the sun god in the solar bark, of iconography. Other examples are
the murderer of his brother Osiris, and the Harpocrates (Horus the Child) and Isis, who,
god of the deserts, disturbing and as terracotta figurines, are always represented
threatening—a trickster. His Otherness led to in Greek style.
assimilation with the Near Eastern deity Ba’al
The deities that can truly be considered
in the New Kingdom. At the end of the Third
foreign in the Egyptian pantheon are primarily
Intermediate Period or the beginning of the
deities of Near Eastern, west-Semitic origin,
Late Period, his “demonization” led to almost
most notably Reshep, Hauron, Ba’al, Astarte,
complete exclusion from the Egyptian
Anat, Qadesh, and a few others. They were
pantheon, when he was regarded solely in his
introduced in the New Kingdom, more
role as fearful enemy of Osiris, and even more
precisely in the reign of Amenhotep II, with
so of Egypt as a unified state and society
the exception of Anat who did not appear,
through his identification with foreigners in
according to the documents at our disposal,
general (te Velde 1967: 138 - 151). The
before the reign of Ramesses II. Despite
dangerous Other was thus not necessarily
historical changes, they remained in the
located outside the group of Egypt’s familiar
Egyptian pantheon up into the Roman Period.
deities, but could be found in their very midst.
Contacts with foreign cultures, however well Historical and Cultural Context
established, did not necessarily lead to the
During the periods preceding the New
introduction of foreign deities on Egyptian
Kingdom, interaction with people from the
soil. The most striking example is that of the
Near East was mainly with those who had
Libyan immigration, which eventually brought
settled more or less permanently in Egypt,
the 22nd and 23rd Dynasties to power. These
primarily in the north of the country. The
kings were descendants of families coming
most significant episode was that of the
from the west, and later the “great chiefs” of
Hyksos, “rulers of foreign lands,” who, for
the Ma or the Libou, who governed
about one century, ruled in the Delta with
principalities of different size after the
Avaris (Tell el-Dabaa) as their capital.
disintegration of Pharaonic rule in the first
Excavations at the site have revealed obvious
quarter of the first millennium BCE. Even if
Near Eastern cultural influences, particularly
contemporary proper names attest to the
in the funerary domain (Bietak 1996). As
popularity of theophoric names composed

Foreign Deities in Egypt, Zivie-Coche, UEE 2011 2

 back deities encountered abroad. These new
cults installed at several locations in Egypt
have often been taken as initiatives of
foreigners—prisoners of war serving in the
estates of temple or king, who continued their
own cults (Stadelmann 1967: 146 - 150).
The available documentation indicates
otherwise. The first mentions of Reshep,
Hauron, and Astarte occur in royal documents
dating to the beginning of the reign of
Amenhotep II (1425 - 1399 BCE): the Victory
Stela of Memphis, a rock stela of year 4 in a
quarry at Tura (opposite Memphis; fig. 1), the
Sphinx Stela at Giza from the beginning of his
reign, foundation plaques of the chapel of
Harmachis at Giza, and the so-called Astarte
Papyrus mentioning his regnal year 5. As for
Qadesh, the earliest attestation dates to the
reign of Amenhotep III (1389 - 1349 BCE)
occurring on a statue of Ptahankh, an
associate of the high priesthood of Ptah. All
these documents share another particularity:
Figure 1. Astarte of Peru-nefer on a rock-cut stela they come from Memphis and make frequent
from Tura (lower register, fourth deity from the allusions to Peru-nefer, the port of Memphis
left). Year 4 of Amenhotep II. with an important military and economic
function. Peru-nefer had a pantheon that was
regards cult, however, there is no evidence to
quite unique, comprising the majority of
affirm, as certain scholars do, that the Near
known foreign gods under the aegis of Amun
Eastern Ba’al or Anat received cult there. The
“Lord of Peru-nefer,” whose membership has
epigraphic documents, few in number,
recently been established (Collombert and
mention Seth but never Ba’al, whereas Anat
Coulon 2000: 217 - 219). Far from signaling
occurs only once as a component in a
the presence of foreigners, these documents
theophoric name (Schneider 1998: 133). One
translate an all too clear willingness, political
can only conclude that Seth was the principle
and religious, on the part of the state to put
deity, if not the sole one, adopted by the
new cults in place. If this were not the case,
Hyksos.
how can the presence of foreign deities on
After the reconquest of the territory and the royal monuments be explained? The same
installation of the 18th Dynasty, Egypt rapidly maneuver can be seen in the 19th Dynasty,
opened up to the Near East, the when Ramesses II (1290 - 1224 BCE) declares
Mediterranean coast, Ugarit, and Mitanni; this himself protected and beloved by the goddess
was at first achieved primarily through military Anat and lets himself be represented at her
conquest and subsequent subjugation of the side in two monumental dyads (fig. 2), or even
Near East to Egypt, but eventually also figures as a child underneath the throat of the
through marriage alliances with the Mitanni Hauron-falcon (fig. 3)—all statues erected at
and the Hittites, as well as economic and Pi-Ramesses. The same pharaoh erected a
linguistic exchange. As much as the Egyptians stela commemorating the 400th year of rule of
erected cult places for their own deities in the Seth depicted as Ba’al (fig. 4). Once officially
foreign cities they dominated, most likely to adopted, these deities became widespread in
serve soldiers stationed in these posts or Egypt, occasionally as far south as Nubia.
functionaries on mission, they also brought Outside of Memphis, it is Thebes, the official

Foreign Deities in Egypt, Zivie-Coche, UEE 2011 3

 Figure 4. Seth(-Ba’al) of Ramesses on the 400 Year
Stela facing Ramesses II and the vizier Sety. Tanis.
Cairo JE 60539.

Delta. Here, foreign deities were, with more

or less success, venerated by private
individuals.

Polytheism and Otherness

Like so many other traditional societies, Egypt
Figure 2. Dyad associating Anat and Ramesses II. defined itself ethnocentrically as the center
Tanis. Cairo JE 56366.
and origin of civilization. Egyptians are
“humans” (rmT), whereas foreigners are called
by their ethnic name. The foreigner is the
Other; a being that does not speak Egyptian
and is a source of danger and disorder. This
explains the innumerable representations,
from the Old Kingdom up into the Roman
Period, that depict the king holding several
foreign enemies by their hair, ready to sever
their heads. If only symbolic in meaning, this
violent image lays bare how the Other is
viewed in Pharaonic ideology. The cosmic,
political, and social order, embodied in Maat
and upheld by the king, is perpetually
menaced by the Other. This Other can be an
earthly enemy, like a foreigner, but also a
divine enemy, like Apep, the snake that each
day threatens the journey of the bark of Ra
along the sky and through the duat. This
fragile equilibrium can only be maintained by
the daily performance of rituals.
In contrast with this ideology, there was a
Figure 3. Hauron-falcon protecting the child practical reality, which, since the earliest times,
Ramesses II. Tanis. Cairo JE 64735. encouraged Egyptians to interact with
foreigners, and not only in a military context,
capital, which has provided most
to learn foreign languages and to use
documentation and, to a lesser extent, the
translators, and to increase foreign trade. This

Foreign Deities in Egypt, Zivie-Coche, UEE 2011 4

opening up to the world eventually led to
changes in religious beliefs. Hymns written
during the New Kingdom evoke the demiurge
as creator of all peoples, distinguished by the
color of their skin and speaking in different
tongues since the time of creation (Great Aten
Hymn; Murnane 1995: 114). The
cosmographic books, found in the royal
tombs of the New Kingdom, depict the four
races—Egyptian, Nubian, Libyan, and
Asiatic—as participating in the afterlife in the
Egyptian duat (Book of Gates, 5th hour;
Hornung 1979: 176 - 181). The demiurge is
now recognized, in a non-theoretical way, as
the creator of all humanity.
What is the status of foreign deities in such a
worldview? The existence of foreign gods or
the gods of foreigners, despite evident
ethnocentric tendencies, could easily be
accepted into the framework and worldview
of Egyptian religion, because it is polytheistic.
Figure 5. Stela in the name of Tutuia, representing
Egyptian polytheism accepts every other deity, Hauron in the form of the Great Sphinx at Giza.
every new deity, as such, based as it is on the New Kingdom. Cairo JE 72264.
principle of plurality of divine beings, forms,
and names. Not based on the principles of so closely associated with Harmachis, name of
truth and exclusion, the existence of no deity the Great Sphinx of Giza in the New
can be refuted on the ground of falsity. This is Kingdom, that one addressed him
not a matter of what one calls today religious indifferently as Harmachis, Hauron, or
tolerance, but a fundamentally different Hauron-Harmachis (fig. 5; Zivie 1976: 312 -
concept of the divine, which allows for the 316). As regards Ba’al, his name is often
addition, if the need is felt, of a new deity in a written with the Seth-animal as its
long-established pantheon—irrespective of determinative, a sign that could also serve as
the deity’s origin, as it is of the same nature as an ideogram for writing the name of Seth.
those deities with which it will be integrated. One could consider reading the name as
Ba’al-Seth; whatever the case, it reveals that
Names and Epithets Egyptians felt a close association between the
When introduced into the Egyptian world of two deities. Moreover, in documents of the
the divine, foreign deities were qualified as Ramesside Period there is an image of an
netjer, “god,” like indigenous deities. In every easternized god with exotic clothing that is
case, their original name was preserved, always accompanied by the name of Seth
transcribed into Egyptian hieroglyphic or (Cornelius 1994: pls. 34 - 40). Two aspects are
hieratic with so-called syllabic-writing, a combined here: a Seth-Ba’al, an Egyptian
common method to transcribe words of deity made eastern to convey Egyptian power
Semitic origin into Egyptian. One can across the borders, and a Ba’al-Seth, an
therefore not speak of an interpretatio aegyptiaca: eastern deity installed at Memphis and later
foreign deities were not simply equated with elsewhere in Egypt. The goddess Qadesh,
Egyptian deities of a similar nature, but fully who is not a simple hypostasis of Astarte and
adopted into the pantheon. There are, Anat, represents a unique case, because her
however, some particular cases. Hauron was name is an Egyptian invention (Zivie-Coche

Foreign Deities in Egypt, Zivie-Coche, UEE 2011 5

1994: 71). Using the Semitic root q-d-š,
Egyptians created the theonym, “the Blessed,”
which was otherwise unknown in the ancient
Near East.
The epithets associated with these deities
only rarely give information about the deity’s
geographical origin. For example, an epithet
on a sphinx statuette indicates that Hauron is
originally from Lebanon (Leibovitch 1944:
171), and a private stela (Copenhagen ÆIN
134) records that Astarte is from Kharou
(Syria; Ranke 1932: 412 - 418). Their origin
was neither forgotten nor unknown but held
little importance in the new Egyptian setting.
Most epithets are rather commonplace,
expressing the power of the divinity (“great
god”) and its celestial role (“lord/lady of the
sky”); goddesses were often called “Mistress
of the Gods” or “Mistress of the Two Lands.”
Occasionally, family ties are specified: Astarte
is the daughter of Ptah of Memphis, or of Ra,
Figure 6. Stela in the name of Pashed, representing
as is Anat. These two goddesses are frequently Reshep seated on a throne. 19th Dynasty. Deir el-
associated, without their sisterhood being Medina. Cambridge E.GA. 3002.1943.
clearly stated. They may also play a role in an
Egyptian myth. For example, in the Harris ribbons and a gazelle head in place of a
Magical Papyrus, Anat and Astarte appear to uraeus. This symbol is by no means
be pregnant by Seth, but are unable to deliver characteristic of the Asiatic god: Shed, the
the baby (P. London BM 10042 r° III, 5 - 10; child archer god, is equipped with it likewise.
Leitz 1999: 35, pl. 14). Reshep is generally represented with shield,
quiver, and arrows, which do not mark him as
Iconography a god of war but a god ensuring protection of
those who invoke him. The image of Ba’al or
Upon their adoption into Egypt, a visual
rather of Seth-Ba’al is not very different,
image had to be developed for the
except that he is unarmed and wears a slightly
newcomers, whose iconography was neither
different crown. Hauron is the only foreign
well established nor often represented in their
deity to have adopted a mixed form of half
region of origin. The preserved documents,
animal, half human body. He is represented as
statues, stelae, and temple reliefs show that
a sphinx or a human with falcon head, which
their visual form followed the Egyptian model
both are Egyptian forms of old and closely
and its stringent rules of representation.
associated with the deity Harmachis. Astarte,
Foreign deities can be recognized by
mistress of horses, is represented as a young
attributes, which serve less to mark their
woman, sometimes androgynous, on
“foreignness” than their function and
horseback. Qadesh is recognizable by the fact
character. Thus, Reshep, who may be dressed
that she is represented frontally, generally
with an Egyptian loincloth or a Syrian kilt
nude, while standing on a lion, holding
with shoulder strap, is shown with an
serpents and a bouquet of papyrus in her
Egyptian divine beard or with the Asiatic
hands and donned with a Hathor wig that is
pointed goatee while wearing a crown similar
occasionally surmounted by different crowns
to the Egyptian white crown (fig. 6). The
(fig. 7). Frontal representation and nudity are
crown is often adorned with two floating
rare in Egyptian iconography, though not

Foreign Deities in Egypt, Zivie-Coche, UEE 2011 6

 names nor professional titles in private
documents allow the conclusion, as has often
been stated, that these cults testify to the
presence of foreign communities that
maintained their deities and customs. For
example, in the Memphite region and in Deir
el-Medina, where several foreign deities were
worshipped, the devotees were fully integrated
into Egyptian society. It is true that no major
temples were ever dedicated to these deities,
as their significance was never big enough, but
in this respect they resemble indigenous
deities of limited local importance. Being
protectors of the king, private individuals
turned to them for help and protection, in
conformity with the principles of personal
piety, a religious phenomenon that became
prevalent in the New Kingdom. The scribes
of the Houses of Life, who composed
formularies like the Magical Papyrus Harris,
Papyrus Chester Beatty VII, and Papyrus
Leiden I 348, often invoked foreign deities as
an efficacious cure against scorpion stings,
serpent bites, and various diseases and
Figure 7. Qadesh between Reshep and Min on a illnesses, in the same way they invoked Seth,
stela dedicated by Ramose. 19th Dynasty. Deir el-
Isis, or others. In other words, these deities
Medina. Turin 50066.
had acquired an identity proper to Egypt,
unique to Qadesh; they can also be observed which only partially depended upon their
in child deities, such as Horus on the original characteristics.
Crocodiles, and Bes, the deformed dwarf with
prophylactic power. In conclusion, the Why Foreign Deities?
attributes serve to identify the deities in the Deities of the ancient Near East were thus
same way as indigenous gods without marking introduced through official channels into the
them as foreign per se. Once created in Egypt, Egyptian pantheon from the 18th Dynasty
this imagery exerted in return a strong onwards, which is not so surprising given the
influence on the iconography of the Near close relations between centralized
East in the second millennium BCE, which government and religion in ancient Egypt.
was largely Egyptianized. The iconographic The question remains, though, if there is a
motifs found at Ugarit, on Cyprus, and later in clear answer to why these deities were
Phoenicia testify to the impact of Egyptian adopted, enabling them eventually to play a
culture in these regions. role in all domains of Egyptian religion.
Theologically, nothing prevented the presence
Cult of foreign deities in the Egyptian pantheon.
The cult rendered to these deities, once After a period of occupation followed by
integrated in Egypt, appears to have been reconquest of its territory, Egypt affirmed its
Egyptian in form, with Egyptians as devotees supremacy over its neighbors, while
and cult specialists. It cannot be excluded that appropriating some of their practices and
immigrants from the Near East rendered cult technical innovations, thus showing a certain
to them as well. However, neither proper degree of permeability to other cultures. In
this process, foreign deities, at least some of

Foreign Deities in Egypt, Zivie-Coche, UEE 2011 7

them, were able to be “imported” into Egypt’s of deities of other peoples nor by the denial
imaginary world. They represented an of their existence and veracity. On the
additional, new, and beneficial force, which contrary, the principle of polytheism allowed
could be claimed by the king and, following for integrating new deities without challenging
his example, by priests and private individuals its conception of the world of the divine, but
alike, either in an official setting or as refuge instead enriching and diversifying it.
in private life. The validity of Egyptian
- Translated from the French by Jacco Dieleman
religion was neither measured by the rejection

Bibliographic Notes
A comprehensive study of the nature, function, and spread of Near Eastern deities in ancient
Egypt is Stadelmann (1967); many new sources have come to light since its publication. Cornelius
(1994) is a detailed and well illustrated study of the iconography of the gods Reshep and Ba’al;
Lipinski (1996) is a review article of this book including discussions of Hauron and Anat. The
iconography of Anat and Astarte are addressed in Cornelius (2000); a comprehensive catalog,
including Qadesh, is Cornelius (2004). For Hauron, see van Dijk (1989) and Lilyquist (1994); the
close associations between Harmachis and Hauron are discussed in Zivie (1976: 305 - 328). Why
they were adopted into New Kingdom Egypt is addressed in Tazawa (2009). On the various
modes and channels of adopting foreign gods into Egypt, see Helck (1966). A crucial resource for
studying relations between Egypt and the Near East remains Helck (1971: 446 - 473).
Acculturation in New Kingdom Egypt is the topic of Schneider (2003, 2006). Issues of alterity in
Egyptian religion are addressed in Zivie-Coche (1994).

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Image Credits
Figure 1. Astarte of Peru-nefer on a rock-cut stela from Tura (lower register, fourth deity from the left).
Year 4 of Amenhotep II. (After Vyse 1842: pl. opposite p. 95.)
Figure 2. Dyad associating Anat and Ramesses II. Tanis. Cairo JE 56366. Photo Archives Montet, Centre
Golenischeff, EPHE, Paris.
Figure 3. Hauron-falcon protecting the child Ramesses II. Tanis. Cairo JE 64735. Photo Archives Montet,
Centre Golenischeff, EPHE, Paris.
Figure 4. Seth(-Ba’al) of Ramesses on the 400 Year Stela facing Ramesses II and the vizier Sety. Tanis.
Cairo JE 60539. (After Montet 1933: pl. XIII.)
Figure 5. Stela in the name of Tutuia, representing Hauron in the form of the Great Sphinx at Giza. New
Kingdom. Cairo JE 72264. Photograph by J. J. Clère.
Figure 6. Stela in the name of Pashed, representing Reshep seated on a throne. 19th Dynasty. Deir el-
Medina. Cambridge E.GA. 3002.1943. (After Martin 2005: 74.)
Figure 7. Qadesh between Reshep and Min on a stela dedicated by Ramose. 19th Dynasty. Deir el-
Medina. Turin 50066. (After Keel 1992: 243, fig. 211.)

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