Methods of Surface Improvement Some of the properties of Engineering components sharply depend on the surface quality of the component. The properties which are largely affected by surface quality and type of surface are corrosion resistance, wear resistance, abrasion resistance, reflectivity, hardness, conductivity, etc. To achieve these properties, many times the surface of a component is coated or covered with another material. This material changes the mechanical, electrical and physical properties of the component. The material at the surface provides a physical barrier between the enyironment and the sutface of the component. Such materials should have the desired properties and should be continuous and uniform in thickness. The effectiveness of these bartiers depends on the thickness, and also on the adhesion between the surface and the coated layer. A well-cleaned and properly pretreated surface of the component is essential in obtaining along service life of any protective barrier. The surface is cleaned properly before applying the coating material to achieve the best results. CLEANING AND PREPARATION OF METAL SURFACES ‘The purpose of cleaning the component surface is to remove dirt, extraneous materials such as grease or oil and scale present on the surface. Sometimes, surface preparation is necessary to achieve good adhesion, good corrosion resistance and other properties. Various methods of cleaning used are as below: (1)Solvent cleaning: It is used to remove oils, greases and fatty substances used on the component for temporary protection during storage. This is done by using organic solvents such as naphtha, toluene, xylene, acetone, alcohol, etc. After cleaning with these solvents, the components are cleaned with steam and hot water containing wetting agens and alkalies. This gives a surface to metals which get readily wetted by aqueous solutions which is particularly important in electroplating..ds of Surface Improvement Metho« aT (3) Mechanical cleaning: ‘This is done by using a bristle brush with some abrasive and devergent. This removes loose oxides and other extraneous materials present on the surface. Chisels, knife scrapers, wire brushes and grinders can also be used to remove hard oxides. The remaining dust and loose particles of dirt can be removed by solvents followed by steam or hot-water treatment. (@)Flame cleaning: Flame (usually oxy-acetylene) is used on the metal surfaces to remove moisture and loose scale. This is followed by wire brushing, (5)Sand blasting: It is used to remoye the oxide and also to make the surface slightly rough, which is suitable for painting. The operation consists of introducing sand (or abrasive particles) into an air stream under high pressure. The blast impacts on the surface to be cleaned, removing the scale present on the surface. The process also introduces compressive stresses on the surface which increases fatigue life of components. The surface hardness slightly rises. The process is very much suitable for cleaning of large surfaces and for painting; however, the equipment is costly. Instead of sand blasting, shot blasting can also be used. In shor blasting, small sized steel balls are blasted on the component surface. (Pickling and Etching: Pickling is usually done by immersing the metals (except aluminium) in an acid solution called pickling solution. Pickling of aluminium is ickling effectively removes scales, oils, etc. present on done i ine solution. P: in alkaline s ferent materials ickli d for di metal ifferent types of pickling agents arc used for es Why ates seal E Pickled in warm dilute sulphuric acid solution or cold ickli id remaining on the surface must be hydrochloric acid solution. After pickling, the aci the | pera ce last traces using some other suitable process or it is better to finish upto i horic acid. ‘The steel surface gets the i ickling in a solution of phosp! “The st ee eee ich is good for corrosion resistance and also covered with a film of iron phosphate w! I similar co pickling, Here, the components subsequent painting. Ezching is very much ® ‘di i The ; f \e. There are are immersel ia etching reagent which may be of ae ee ata a suitable Various etching reagents and depending on the type of compon , etching reagent is used.Material Science and Metallurgy for Engineers 658 PROTECTIVE COATINGS Protective coatings applied on the base metal in order to prevent ‘The protective coatings may be broadly classified into the follow (1) Metallic coatings and (2) Non-metallic coatings. (1) Metallic coatings: These are of two types: (a) Anodic coatings and (b) Cathodic coatings. or reduce the rate of corrosion ing two categories: (a) Anodic coatings: In anodic coating, the coating metal is anodic with respect to the base meral. The coatings of zinc and cadmium on izon or stecls are the examples of anodic coating. The coating metal will have a less potential than the potential of component metal. When the coating is dense, non-porous and continuous, the electrolyte (or environment) does not come in contact with the component and hence the component does not corrode. The component is completely prevented from corrosion because the coating metal completely separates the electrolyte from the base metal. If the coating is porous and discontinuous, the coating metal becomes anodic and gets corroded protecting the component cathodically. At the sacrifice of coating metal, the component is protected from corrosion and hence the term used for such a protectionis “Sacrificial cathodic protertion”. Such coatings are good under all conditions of coating i.e. irrespective of whether the coating is non-porous or porous and continuous ot discontinuous, and will provect the component from corrosion. (b) Cathodic coatings: In such coatings, the coating metal is cahtodic with respect to the component. Since, the component becomes anodic, the protection offered by the coating is of anodic type. Coatings of nickel and chromium on iron or steel components, and coatings of silver and gold on brass and bronze components are the examples of this type. When the coating is dense, non-porous and continuous, the electrolyte (or environment) does not come in contact with the component, and hence the component does not corrode. Under this situation, the coating offers complete Protection from corrosion. However, when the coating is porous or discontinuous, orit contains cracks, the electrolyte keeps contact with the component through these open areas and forms a galvanic cell. The component becomes anodic with respect to the coating metal and gets corroded in these areas. In a ‘ most of the cases, the area of pores and discontinuities is less as compared to the total ‘orrosion. Therefore, such coatings they are non- i . (For more details, please refer to Chapter 6 on “Comosion ont ae and connMethods of Surface Improvement 659 METHODS OF APPLICATION AND EXAMPLES OF COATINGS Before applying the coating on the bas, "© metal (i, essential. This is necessay f €. HY £0 obtain a good cone none» cleaning of the surface is ing on the component. A good coating the thickness should be unifi ‘orm with i ood corrosion products and any o} 800d appearance, Cleani ther leaning remove i This is done by various methods T rtnsous material present on ai aii tir, grease, oil, ich as : € of component. sand blasting and/or pickling. solvent cleaning alkali cleaning, mechanical cleanin . 4 > Li i ‘ oH “ ie can be apptied by the following methods: lectro-deposition (or Electroplati ° current (D.C.) through an el Plating): The coating is applied by passing a di aurea (O gh an clecurolye solution containing the sale ofthe coming mesa Electrolyte Component. (Cathode) ‘Anions Electroplating of components. Cathode of cell is the base metal and anode may be either a coating metal or an inert graphite, Due to passing the current, “material of good electrical conductivity such as the ions of coating metal from the electrolyte are reduced and deposited on the cathode nds on the composition of electrolyte, its pH giving a coating. The quality of coating depe agitation of electrolyee and current density. Protective orosity present in the coating. Irregularly value, temperature of electrolyte, value of coating depends on its uniformity and p shaped articles always give non-uniform coatings. a ining coatings of Zinc, Nickel, Chromium, The method is mostcommonly used for obraii ; Tin, Copper, Cadmium, Lead, Silver, Gold and Platinum on other metals, Chromium coating is used in large number of applications for corrosion resistance and decoration purpose. Howev chromium is cathodic to base metals (or components) aterial. This indicates that the plating must on which ie is commonly used as platit ‘on. Chromium s to avol . er, ing mi d the danger of pitting corrosis be non-porous and continuous660 Material Science and Metallurgy for Engineers can be deposited on metals by various techniques such as (a) Electro-deposition, (b) Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), (c) Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), etc. Chromium is generally deposited by electro-deposition and physical vapour deposition and less commonly by chemical vapour deposition. Chromium deposition by electro deposition method has two distinct purposes and according to the purpose, the process parameters are properly selected. One purpose is the decoration and some corrosion resistance. Such coatings are called decorative chromium coatings. The other purpose is to increase hardness to resist wear, abrasion and corrosion. Such coatings are called hard chromium coatings. They are mainly used for salvaging mismatched and worn out parts. Decorative chromium plating: These coatings ate thin and usually an undercoat is used. They are applied over undercoatings such as nickel, or copper and nickel which give a bright, semi-bright, or satin cosmetic appearance to che chromium. They are very thin and usually their thickness does not exceed 1.5 microns. Because they are very thin, the finish of the undercoat should be very good to obtain the best appearance. Conventional bath used for decorative plating consists ofan aqueous solution of chromic anhydride (CrO,) containing 2 small amount of sulphuric acid or sodium sulphate. Hard chromium plating: Hard chromium platingis produced by electro-deposition from a solution containing chromic acid (CrO,) and a catalytic anion in proper proportion. The chromium deposited is extremely hard and cortosion resistant. The process, apart from wear and corrosion resistance, is used for rebuilding (salvaging) mismatched or worn out parts for number of applications. These coatings are applied for the purpose of - (1) To increase service life of components by increasing their resistance to wear, abrasion, heat and corrosion, and (2) To restore dimensions of worn out parts or undersized parts. Their thickness varies from 2.5 to 500 microns. (It is considerably higher than the thickness of decorative coatings). ‘With certain exceptions, they are directly applied on thecomponent. (Thisisin contrast | to the application of decorative coating.) The coating hardness varies from 850 to 1000 ! V.PN.. The hardness value depends on the deposition technique and the parameters | used during the deposition e.g. thermally evaporated chromium deposit shows hardness between 780 to 1250 V.PN.. (For some more information on chromium coating, plea | refer to article 6.31 of Chapter 6 on “Corrosion and Prevention”.) (2) Immersion (or Displacement plating): Here the base metal is simply immersed in electrolyte solution containing ions (or salt) of the coating metal. No current is thu te ect. Le pe on the principle that a less noble metal will diet c 3 a solution containing its ions, Accordingly any metal standin8 above in aes ts cowards anodic end) will displace any other rere atending blow towards ai A a ) in the series from dilute solutions containing their ions, From this it is very clear that the coating metal is more noble (i.e. cathodic) than the base metal.. of Surface Improvement 664 eal However, by adjusting the bath composi ir is possible to obtain coatings of a rertings can be obtained on base metals Immersion coatings are very thi ; ; asa base for subsequent metallic or qe uniform, Due to this, they are often used Nickel, Tin, Gold and Silver coatings coatings. : Pome oopesonce sn ee ;ome times obtained by this method for Hot dipping: In this method, Or me inn hot pein eb molten flux. The fux prevents the molten coating metal fem ovider ered wih 2 ayer of Te fice oF the campancat. "The ig metal from oxidation and also cleans eT lux usually used is ZnCly:3NH,Cl. 2 ie 7 eae fa applying coatings of low melting point metals s ly high melting points, Usually Zinc, Lead, Aluminum and Tin are coated on Iron, Steel and Copper by this method. The coatings are highly non-uniform in thickness unless special care is taken particularly with regard to the temperature control of the molten bath and the method of removal of component from bath. (4) Metal spraying: Sprayed (also known as metallised) coatings are obtained by impinging molten metal particles against the base metal surface. When the molten particles strike the metal surface, they flatten into lakes and interlock with the surface irregularities. Therefore, the structure of sprayed coatings consist of laminated flakes bent into surface. This method is very much similar to spray painting. Thee ore two methods for obtaining such coating. The first one is the wire gun mnethod and the second one is powder method. In the wire gum method, the wire of the coating metal is melted by an oxyacetylene flame and atomized by a blast of compressed ai. In the powder method, powder of coating metal is heated and gets melted as the I the flame of the blow pipe, and atomised by a blast of compressed powder passes througl air. The jet from the gun is directed on to the metal surface. / _ These coatings can be applied with high speed and hence the time required is less as compared to other methods. Also, the coating can be easily applied a the selected areas/ places. These coatings are porous and most suitable for further painting. / 6)Cementation (or Diffusion): Here the coating is obtained by diffusion of coating metal into the surface of base metal at high aap in powder of ee is ‘ciently high temperature. Due to heating, Sprayed on the component and heated t0 4 suffi ; sah ie per oe the powdered metal diffuses into the surface of ; controlled by controlling the temperature of heating and time of treatment. Zinc, Chromium and Aluminium are frequently coated on iron or steel by this method. ion and usi is a a using a reducing agent in the bath, tals on more noble metals ie. anodic corrugations of the metalMaterial Science and Metallurgy for Engineers 662 METALLIC COATINGS ron or steel components by any of (1)Galvanising: Ic is the process of coating tine on & the methods except diffusion method and such a ee components called i i ting depends on the proce ae galvanised components. The quality of coating acP! eee is applied and can be controlled by controlling the process parametess of that math In general, electro-deposited coatings are thin and more uniform in thickness ane have good reflectivity / shining, Hot dipped coatings are thick and slightly non-uniform in thickness. “These coatings are anodic with respect to iron or stcel ing is porous, i sacrificial cathodic type. Even if the coat ce of zinc. corrosion and the protection continues upto the last tra Such coatings are widely used on corrugated sheets for building roofs, screws, nuts, bolts, drums and containers for water storage, wires, fencing wites, nails, pipes, tubes, ce. Food should not be stored in galvanised containers because the corrosion products of zinc are poisonous. Large quantity of galvanised components are produced by hot-dip process. The process in brief is as below: and protection offered is of a ‘ron or steel is protected from (i) The iron or steel components are first thoroughly cleaned by a suitable process. Usually the components are cleaned by dilute sulphuric acid solution containing small amount of stannine (0.05 to 0.1%). This removes the oxide scale present on the metal surfaces. (A dilute hydrochloric acid solution containing about 0.05% hexamine can also be used for cleaning the components, Addition of stannine to H,SO, and hexamine to HCI reduces the attack of acid on steel and the scale is gently removed.) (i) After the acid treatment, the components are thoroughly washed with water. (ii) Subsequently the components are dipped in a solution of zinc-ammonium chloride, taken out from the solution and dried. (iv) These components are then dipped in a molten bath of zinc covered with a suitable flux such as ZnCl3NH,,Cl and taken out. They will be coated with zinc. (v) For sheet components, the coating is made uniform by passing through pairs of rollers. (2)Tinning: In this process, tin is coated on iron or steel component and the tin coated | component is called a tinned component. Tin is usually applied on the base metal by | hoe dipping and less commonly by spraying or electro-deposition process. Tin forms an | Tera eeal ae ee compan Lee or steel (FeSn,) and hence adhesion is good. It forms mpounds with large number of metals and alloys and hence tin can be coated on many metals. One of the common example is the coating of tin on brass and | copper utensils. i |nethods of Surface Improvement 663 Tin is non-toxic and i . aa and is also resistant to oxidatic * used for coating of containers which are used far 5, by food acids; and hence it is widely After filling the container with fond ised for packaging of food products. sin coating becomes anodic with respect evacuated and sealed, Under this condition, , ec i Fe ' protection. Tin cotrodes and pone t to steel and provides a sacrificial cathodic ‘ in i ee iast ace of tin, Corrosion previoen of ron/steel container and this continues upto the tin one 5 ‘ aretnor haiti. However omer he ener Paseo (ie. non-toxic) and hence . . > iner i i i with respect to iron or steel and steel is opened, tin coating becomes cathodic ; ‘eel corrodes. The corrosion products of Fe/steel are toxic and hence after opening the lid of th: . a e ¢ lid of the container, the food should not be kept in the ime. It i , ‘i fee salons stect gS should be kept in some other container of a suitable material Tin coated steel sheet is known as sin plate. Tin plate is manufactured by hor dip method using the following steps: (i) The steel sheer is cleaned by using dilute sulphuric acid containing small amount of stannine. This removes scale and other extraneous materials from the surface. (i) Then the sheer is thoroughly washed with water. (ii) Next, the steel sheet is passed through a molten bath of tin covered with a suitable flux such as zinc chloride (Fig. 17.2). In this stage, the sheet gets coated with tin. Ig: ig Pair of rollers Steet sheet ! Tin coated sheet Bath of zine chloride flux az Tinning process: lers immersed in 2 suitable oil without i i the pair of rol 0 oe inconte wba ee i prevents ‘oxidation of tin from the surface of sheet 7) carry eet through a series of hor rollers to remove the superfluous ly 4 ~ ji ness uniform. ; vk cod male ihe ce ar the manufacture of containers for food packaging ese sheets are ma industry.664 Material Science and Metallurgy for Engineers Lead-tin coated sheet of steel is known as terne plate and is produced in a manner similar to tin plate which contains 20 to 25% tin and 80 to 75% lead. Terne plate, besides having a good atmospheric corrosion resistance, has also a good formability due to the presence of lead. These sheets have excellent press work characteristics and hence are used for press work, roofs, oil drums and containers other than the storage of food. (3) Cladding: This is a process in which a dense and homogeneous layer of metal is permanently bonded to the base metal on one or both the sides. The two metals form a composite material. The protective layer of the covering metal is called as the cladding metal and can be 5 to 20% of the total thickness of the composite. The base metal is called as clad. The most commonly used base metal is mild steel. However Al, Cu, Niand their alloys are also sometimes used as base metals (clad). Common cladding metals for mild steel are stainless steels, Ni and Ni alloys, Cu and Cu alloys, Pb and Pb alloys and such other corrosion resistant alloys. Cladding can be done by subjecting the two metals to sufficient heat and pressure or by casting the molten cladding metal around the solid core of the base metal and subsequently rolling to thin sheets. Sometimes, a different procedure of bonding than described above is used such as ‘sandwich’ rolling, hot pressing, fusion welding or vacuum brazing. These components have corrosion resistance same as that of cladding metal. The strength of the composite material can be controlled by choosing a high strength base metal (i.e. clad). Examples of clad steels are high.carbon or high speed steel bonded to mild steel for use in hacksaw blades, copper cladding to stainless steel utensils for increasing thermal conductivity and uniform heating, and copper cladding on steel wire for combined advantage of electrical conductivity and strength. (4 Sherardizing: In this method a zinc coating on iron or steel component is produced by cementation or diffusion technique, which has already been described in brief in cementation (or diffusion) process of applying the coatings. Here the components ate packed in a steel drum with a fine powder of zinc and the drum is sealed. The drum is heated to a temperature of 350 to 370°C and rotated for about 3 to 12 hours. Due t0 this, zinc diffuses into the steel surface and a coating is obtained which is uniform in thickness. The coating thickness depends on temperature and time of the process and increases with the increase in any one or both. This process is particularly used for nuts, bolts, washers and miscellaneous small parts. (5) Calorizing: In chis method, coating of aluminium on base metal is obtained by diffusion technique. The base metal is heated at a temperature of 800 to 1000°C for 4 to 6 houtsMethods of Surface Improvement 665 in a mixture of powdered aluminium, na aluminium oxide and ammonium chloride in an airtight box. (@)Chromising: Here the coating of chromium is obtained on base metal by diffusion technique. The base metal is heated in a con alumina at 1300 to 1400°C for 3 t0 4 hours. of chromium particles. NON-METALLIC COATINGS These are coatings of non- tainer with a mixture of powdered Cr and ‘Thesuse of alumina prevents the coalescence metals which are applied on the component for corrosion prevention, decoration or some other specific purpose. They can be of organic or inorganic type. (1) Organic Coatings: Organic coatings are inert organic barriers applied on the surfaces of metals and other construction materials for both corrosion protection and decoration purpose. The coating thickness is very less and is applied in multi-coats for better uniformity of coating thickness, If the coating thickness exceeds 30 microns, the coating is called lining, The examples of this type are: (@ Paints: Paint is a dispersion of one or more pigments in a vehicle consisting essentially of a drying oil and a solvent thinner. When a paint is applied to the component surface, usually by brushing or spraying, the thinner evaporates and the drying oil slowly oxidises forming a dry, pigmented film. Normally, various natural and synthetic resins are added to the paint to improve the durability of the paint film for atmospheric exposure. Paint should be applied in minimum three coats. This reduces porosity in the paine coating and increases its durability, increasing the life of component. (ii) Varnishes, Enamels and Lacquers: An oleoresinous varnish consists of a drying oil, a natural or thermosetting synthetic resin, and a solvent thinner. On application to component surface, the thinner evaporates and the oil-resin mixture oxidises and polymerizes and forms a clear dry film. ‘An enamel consists of an intimate dispersion of pigments in a varnish or resin vehicle. Ie differs from varnish because it is pigmented. The properties of an enamel vary widely and depend on the nature of the varnish vehicle and resins. The drying may occur at room temperature (for air-dry type enamels) by oxidation or polymerization, or it may occur at elevated temperature either in the presence or absence of oxygen (for baking type enamels). The lacquer is a solution of resins and plasticizers with or without any pigments. When athin coat oflacquerisapplied, tdriesout quickly, hus leavinga ery fine coating which does not allow the surface to come in contact with the corrosive environment, The evaporation of solvents forms a film from its non-volatile constituents,666 Material Science and Metallurgy for Engineers (2)Inorganic (i.e. Non-metallic / Ceramic) Coatings: Ceramic materials are applied on metal surfaces because of their high corrosion resistance, high resistance to oxidation at elevated temperature, high refractoriness and high chemical inertness to most of the corrosive environments. They also give hard, wear resistant and easy to clean surfaces with attractive appearance. They also offer good electric and thermal insulating properties They are of the following types: @ Vitreous enamels: These are glass-like materials of a wide range of composition which are fired onto metal surface to provide the required protection. The term vitreous enamel is broad and covers such vitreous coatings as porcelain enamels and glass linings. Glass linings are generally used to cast iron and steel components such as tanks, kettles, piping and for similar components. The coating thickness usually exceeds 50 microns, The enamel coat consists of a thin, adherent layer composed mainly of borosilicates and other basic oxides of varying composition. The basic raw materials for enamels are feldspar, borax, quartz and soda ash, together with some metallic oxides and clays, The ingredients are intimately mixed and melted in a furnace at a temperature above 1000°C. The molten mass is quenched in water where it shatters into small pieces, These pieces are ground to fine powder of suitable fineness by a proper method. This powder is known as “frit”. Frit melts at a much lower temperature and it is possible to carry out the enameling process at a much lower temperature such as 750°C. The enameling or glass lining can be done by a wet ot dry process, In the wet process, the slurry of frit is applied on the metal surfaces by a suitable technique. After drying the coated component, it is heated in the furnace at a temperature of about 700°C. This gives a glassy and strongly adherent layer, In the dry process, the powdered frie is sprinkled on the hot metal component, The temperature of the component is more than 700°C. The frit powder adheres to the metal surface by partial fusion. Two or more coaté are usually applied for better result, either by wet and / or dry process. If the coating contains even minute holes, cracks, etc., it may lead to a very short life because of severe corrosive conditions. The component fails quickly by rapid corrosion at the exposed areas. (ii) Porcelain enamels: Porcelain enamels are applied in a similar way to that of vitreous enamels, The total coating thickness usually does not exceed 20 micrans and is usually given in two or more coats. Porcelain enamels may be fired at remperatutts ranging from 700 to 900°C, depending on their compositions. The lower the firing temperature, the less is the chemical resistance of the enamel and vice-versa. (iii) Ceramic coatings: Ceramic coatings are similar in character to vitreous enamels, but they have higher refractoriness. This makes them useful for metal protection against