TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Observations have shown that cells, tissues and organs

must be regulated and integrated with each other in such a

way that any change in the internal environment initiates a

reaction to minimize the change.

Homeostasis stands for the stable conditions of the

internal environment which result from these compensating

regulatory responses which are known as homeostatic

mechanisms.

Changes in the composition of the internal

environment do occur, but the magnitudes of these changes

are small and are kept within narrow limits through multiple

coordinated homeostatic processes.

Animals and the Regulation of their Body

Temperature

Animals capable of maintaining their body

temperatures within very narrow limits are called

homeothermic animal; that is, they maintain a constant body

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temperature which is independent of the environmental

temperature.

They thus differ from the cold-blooded (poikilothermal)

animals, such as the frog whose body temperature depends

upon the external temperature.

The temperature of man is maintained between 97-

99.5% (36-370C).

The adaptive significance of this ability stems from the

effects of temperature upon the rates of chemical reactions,

in general and enzyme activity, in particular.

Homeothermic animals are spared the variations of

body temperature and bodily functions, which occur when

temperature falls.

The advantages obtained by a relatively high

temperature imposes requirement for a precise regulatory

mechanism, since large elevations of temperature cause

nerve malfunction and protein denaturation.

Some people suffer convulsions at a body temperature

of 410C (1060F) and 430C is the absolute limit for survival of

human cells.

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 In contrast most body tissue can withstand marked

cooling (to less than 70C), which has found an important

place in surgery when the heart must be stopped, since the

dormant tissues require little nourishment.

Temperature implies that overall heat production

equals heat loss.

Both these variables subject to precise physiological

control.

Temperature regulation offers a classic example of a

biological control system whose generalized components are

shown in the diagram below (see diagram overleaf) diagram

(1).

The balance between heat production and heat loss is

continuously being disturbed, either by changes in metabolic

rate ( exercise being the most powerful influence) or by

changes in the external environment which alter heat loss.

The resulting small changes in body temperature

reflexly alter the output of the effectors so that heat

production is altered and body restored towards normal.

Summary of temperature regulation.

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 Heat loss from the body depends upon both the

external environment and changes controlled by

temperature regulating reflexes.

In certain environments, heat gain rather heat loss

may actually occur (Key to Diagram 2).

The standard method of measuring body temperature

is to use a clinical thermometer and they are of two types.

Fahrenheit and Centigrade.

Clinical thermometers are frequently marked “1/2

minute” indicating that the thermometer will reach its final

reading in half a minute if placed in a water-bath.

When used clinically, the thermometer is placed under

the tongue, in the axilla, in the groin or inserted into the

rectum.

104 40
RECTAL

39 Hard Exercise
102
Emotion or Moderate Exercise Emotion or Moderate Exercise
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A few Normal Adults 100 A few Normal Adults
Many Active Children Many Active Children

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Usual Range of Normal 98
Usual Range of Normal

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Early Morning 96 4 Early Morning
Cold Weather Cold Weather
 External
Environment
Diagram 2 Summary of Heat Regulation

Heat Loss
Afferent Efferen
Body Thermo- CNS Control
Temperature receptors Centre
Pathway Pathway

Heat
Production

Exercise,
Pregnancy, etc

(1) Oral temperature averages about 0.5 0C less than

rectal (because of hot or cold drinks in the last half-

hour or mouth breathing) thus, not all parts of the

body have the same temperature.

(2) Internal temperature is not absolutely constant but

various several degrees in perfectly normal persons

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in response to activity pattern and external

temperature.

In addition, there is a characteristic diurnal

fluctuation so that temperature is lowest during sleep

and higher during the awake state if the person

remain relaxed in bed.

And added variation in women is a higher

temperature during the last half of the menstrual

cycle.

If temperature is viewed as a measure of heat

“concentration”, temperature regulation can be

studied by our usual method.

In this case, the total heat content of the body

is determined by the net difference between heat

produced and heat lost from the body.

Maintaining a constant body temperature

involves maintaining a body heat balance.

Heat Balance

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 The body temperature is maintained to an

approximately constant level because of the balance which

exists between the heat gained and heat lost.

Heat is continually being produced in the body as a

by-product of metabolism, and body heat is also continually

being lost to the surroundings.

When the rate of heat production is exactly equal to

the rate of heat loss, the person is said to be in heat

balance.

But when the two are out of equilibrium, the body

heat and body temperature as well, will either be increasing

or decreasing.

In heat balance, Heat Gained = Heat Lost and each

quantity in calories is calculated from:

Heat gained or Lost = Mass x Specific Heat x Temp. change

(in Calories) (in kg) (in 0C)

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 Heat Gained Heat Gained

1. Metabolism 1. Conduction

2. Environment 2. Convection

3. Shivering 3. Radiation

4. Hot foot 4. Evaporation

Heat Production

Heat is produced by virtually all chemical reaction

occurring in the body, and the cost-of-living metabolism by

all organs sets the basal level of heat production, which can

be increased as a result of skeletal muscular contraction or

the action of several hormones.

The important factors that play major roles in

determining the rate of heat production may be listed as

follows: (BMR)

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 1. Basal rate of metabolism (BMR) of all the cells of the

body.

2. Increase in rate of metabolism caused by muscle

activity, including that caused by shivering.

3. Increase in metabolism caused by the effect of

thyroxine on cells.

4. Increased in metabolism caused by the effect of

Adrenaline and sympathetic stimulation on cells; and

5. Increase in metabolism caused by increased

temperature of the body cells.

In general, heat is gained by the body by internal

metabolism and from the external environment if this is at a

higher temperature than the body.

A small heat is also gained from any hot food or liquid

that is ingested.

If the heat production is insufficient to maintain the

body temperature, further metabolism is brought about by

the involuntary contracting of the skeletal muscles known

as shivering (in a process called Shivering Thermogenesis)

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 – it is the characteristic muscle response to cold, which

consists of oscillating rhythmical muscle tremors occurring

at the rate of about 10 to 20 per second and this can

increase body heat production.

Several hundred fold within seconds to minutes.

Non-shivering (chemical) Thermogenesis which results

from chromic cold exposure causes an increase in metabolic

rate in most experimental animals and this is not due to

increased muscles activity.

This process is however of secondary importance to

heat production in man.

Heat Loss Mechanisms

The surface of the body (meaning the skin) exchanges

heat with the external environment by conduction,

convection, radiation and evaporation of water.

A small heat loss occurs in the expired air which is at

body temperature and also contains evaporated water, it is

saturated with vapour.

The heat lost by the skin depends on the temperature

gradient between skin and the environment. The skin

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temperature is low that the main body temperature and is

regulated by the blood flow to the skin.

Conduction:- Heat is lost by conduction by

physical contact with the environment.

Usually, only minute quantities of heat are lost from

the body by direct conduction from the surface of the body

to other objects, such as a bed.

On the other hand, loss of heat by conduction to air

represents a sizeable proportion of the body’s heat loss even

under normal conditions.

Convection:- Is the process whereby air (or water)

next to the body is heated, moves away, and is replaced by

cool air (or water).

Convection is similar to conduction in that the heat is

transmitted from one molecule to another by physical

contact, but this time the heat is transferred to the air which

becomes less dense and rises taking the heat with it.

Cold air comes in to take its place.

It can be greatly facilitated by external forces such

as wind or fans or air conditioners.

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 Radiation:- Is the process by which the surface of

the body constantly emits heat in the form of

electromagnetic waves.

Simultaneously, all other surfaces are radiating

heat.

The emission is determined by the temperature of

radiating surface.

Thus, if the surface of the body is warmer than the

average of the various surfaces in the environment, net heat

is lost, the rate being directly depend upon the temperature

difference.

The sun, of course is a powerful radiator and direct

exposure to it may cause heat gain.

Heat Lost by the Evaporation of Water

Evaporation of water from the skin and living

members of the respiratory tract is the other major process

for loss of body heat.

The latent heat of vaporization taken from the body

to evaporate the sweat on the skin brings about a cooling

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effect on the body and therefore helps to avert any

abnormal rise in body temperature.

Even in the absence of sweating, there is still loss

of water by diffusion through the skin, which is not

completely water-proof.

A like amount is lost during expiration from the

respiratory living.

This insensible water loss (about 600ml/day in

man) accounts for a significant fraction of total heat loss.

Sweating

Sweating on the other, requires the active secretion

of fluid by sweat glands and its extrusion into ducts, which

carry it to the skin surface for evaporation.

Production of eccrine sweat (a dilute solution of NaCl

and other substances) is stimulated by the sympathetic

“cholinergic” nerves.

Stimulation of the preoptic area immediately anterior

to the hypothalamus, excites sweating.

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 Many factors control sweating such as relative

humidity and ambient environment temperature, etc and

prolonged sweating leads to dehydration.

Muscular cramp (Stoker’s cramp), hypotension,

weakness, and fainting may result from excessive loss of

Nacl and water through sweat.

Most other animals and mammals differ from human

beings in lacking sweat glands.

They increase their evaporative losses primarily by

panting, thereby increasing pulmonary air flow and

increasing water losses from the lining of respiratory tract,

and they deposit water for evaporation on their fur or skin by

licking.

For example Dogs have no effective sweat glands

and therefore loss heat through panting.

Water evaporates from the lining of the respiratory

tract and tongue and the blood flowing through the tongue is

cooled. Cats use their paws as agents of heat loss.

Generally, heat loss by evaporation of sweat

gradually dominates as environmental temperature rises,

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since radiation and conduction decrease as the body-

environment temperature gradient diminishes.

At environmental temperature above that of the

body, heat is actually gained by radiation and conduction

and evaporation is the sole mechanism for heat loss.

A person’s ability to survival such temperature is

determined by the humidity and by the maximal sweating

rate.

For example when the air is completely dry, a

person can survive a temperature of 1300C (2550F) for 20

minutes or longer whereas very moist air at 46 0C (1150f) is

not bearable for even a few minutes.

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 Temperature Regulation as a Classical Example of a

Homeostatic System

Room Temperature

Heat Loss from Body

Body Temperature

Construction of Curling Up Shivering

Blood Vessels
to skin

Heat Production
Heat loss from Body relative
to state prior to response

Return of Body Temperature

toward Original Value

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Summary of Effector Mechanisms in Temperature
Regulation
Desired Effect Mechanism
Decreases Heat Loss (A) Stimulated by Cold
Vasoconstriction of skin vessels
reduction of surface area (curling
up, etc); behavioral response (put
on warmer clothes, raise
thermostat setting, etc.)

Increase Heat Production Increased muscle tones; shivering

and increased voluntary activity;
increased secretion of thyroid
hormone and Adrenaline;
increased appetite.

Increase Heat Loss (B) Stimulated by Heat

Vasodilatation of skin vessels;
sweating behavioral response
(put on cooler clothes, turn on
fan, etc.
Decrease Heat
Production Decreased muscle tone and
voluntary activity; decreased
secretion of thyroid hormone and

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 Adrenaline; Decreased appetite.

Summary of Effector Mechanisms in Temp. Regulation

The table above summarizes the mechanisms

regulating temperature, none of which is an all-or-none

response but calls for a graded, progressive increase or

decrease in activity.

As previously seen, heat production via skeletal

muscle activity becomes extremely important at the cold

end of the spectrum, whereas increased heat loss via sweat

is critical at the hot end:

Brain Centres Involved in Temperature

Regulation

Neurons in the hypothalamus and other brain areas via

descending pathways, control the output of motor neurons

to skeletal muscle (muscle tone and shivering) and of

sympathetic neutrons to skin arterioles (vasoconstriction and

dilatation), sweat glands, and the adrenal medulla.

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 When thyroid hormone is a component of the

response to cold these centres also control the output of

hypothalamic TSH releasing hormone (TRH).

For the afferent input to the integrating centres,

there are two groups of receptors, one in the skin (peripheral

thermoreceptors) and the other in deeper body structures

(central thermoreceptors).

Peripheral Thermo-receptors are found in the skin (and

certain mucous membrane) and are nerve endings usually

categorized as cold and warm receptors which are

respectively stimulated by a lower and higher range of

temperatures. Information from these

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 “Voluntary responses”

Cerebral
cortex
Core Temperature

Core
Thermoreceptors

Hypothalamus
“unconscious
response”
Skin TSH Releasing
Thermoreceptors Hormone

Skin Anterior
Temperature Pituitary

TSH

Thyroid

Thyroid
Hormone

Andrenal 20 Sweat Skin Skeletal

Medulla Glands Arterioles Muscles
 Receptors is transmitted via the afferent neurons and

ascending pathways to the hypothalamus and other

integrating areas, which respond with appropriate efferent

output; in this manner, the firing of cold receptors stimulates

heat-producing and heat conserving mechanisms.

The Central Thermoneceptors

These are responsible for the maintenance of the

“Core Temperature” which is the actual body temperature

being regulated and this involves the internal temperatures

of the interior of the skull, thorax and abdomen.

In the cold environment, the temperature in the

extremites of the limbs may be well below the central core

temperature”.

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 Theoretically, these central thermoreceptors are

localized at the hypothalamus, spinal cord, abdominal

organs and other internal locations.

Temperature regulating reflexes are summarized

below.

Summary of temperature-regulating mechanisms. The

dasher lines are hormonal pathways, which are probably of

minor importance in human beings.

Not shown are other nonhypothalamic integrating areas.

Acclimatization to Heat

Changes in sweating determine people’s chronic

adaptation to high temperature.

A person newly arrived in a hot environment has poor

ability to do work initially; body temperature rises and

severe weakness and illness may occur.

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 After several days, there is a great improvement in

work tolerance with little increase in body temperature and

the person is said to be acclimatized.

Body temperature is kept low because there was an

earlier onset of and increased rates of sweating.

There is also reduced NaCl in sweat due to aldostrone

that stimulates Na re-absorption from sweat as sweat moves

from sweat glands to the skin.

FEVER

The elevation of body temperature so commonly

induced by infection is due not to a breakdown of

temperature regulating mechanisms but to a “resetting

thermostat” in the hypothalamus or other brain area.

Thus a person with a fever regulates body

temperature in response to heat or cold but at a higher set

point.

The temperature will continue to be regulated at this

new set point value until the fever breaks and the

thermostat is once more reset to normal.

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 Heat and profound vasodilatation and sweating now

replace the cold, chill and shivering sensations of fever.

A chemical known as endogenous pyrogen (EP)

released from monocytes/and macrophages in the presence

of infection or inflammation is responsible for the resetting of

the body thermostat.

It acts upon the thermoreceptors in the

hypothalamus (and perhaps other brain areas), altering the

rate of firing and their input to the integrating centres.

This effect of EP may be mediated vial local release

of prostaglandins which then directly alter thermoreceptor

function (Aspirin inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandins).

However, EP, in addition, have many other effects

outside eliciting fever and these have the common

denominator of enhancing resistance to infection and

preventing the healing of damaged tissues.

High fevers which can be harmful to the nervous

system must be stopped with drugs like aspirin, in spite of

the other beneficial effects of prostaglandins.

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 Other Causes of Hyperthermia

Physiologists prefer to refer to Hyperthermia as any

elevation of a person’s body temperature above the

normally accepted range.

“Fever” is a form of Hyperthermia in which the

specific elevation in body temperature (produced by

endogenous pyrogens) was due to an altered set point.

Imbalance between heat production and heat loss

constitutes major cause of Hyperthermia.

EXERCISE

Exercise is one of the most common causes of

Hyperthermia, during which body temperature rises and is

maintained as long as the exercise continues.

The Hyperthermia is mainly due to a physical

consequence of the internal heat load generated by the

exercising muscles.

During the initial part of exercise, heat production

rises immediately and exceeds heat loss, causing heat

storage in the body and a rise in Core Temperature (see

diagram below).

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 The rise in turn triggers reflexes, via the core

thermoreceptors for increased heat loss (increased skin

blood flow and sweating) and the discrepancy between heat

production and heat loss starts to diminish but does not

disappear.

Therefore core temperature continues to rise.

Ultimately, however, core temperature will be high

enough to drive, via the core thermoreceptors, the reflexes

for heat loss at a rate such that heat loss does become equal

to heat production and core temperature stabilizes despite

continued exercise.

Rate of Head Loss (reflexly

Rate of Heat increased)
Production

Core
Temperature (OT)

Set point Temperature (0T)

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 Exercise

Key: Thermal changes during exercise. Heat loss is reflexly

increased, and when it once again equals heat production,

core temperature stabilizes. The set point temperature is

shown remaining constant during the exercise, actually, a

small increase may occur. T0 = temperature.

Heat Exhaustion and Heat Stroke

Heat Exhaustion

This is a state of collapse (often taking the form of

fainting) due to hypotension brought on, both by depletion of

plasma volume (secondary) to sweating and by extreme

dilation of skin blood vessels;

That is, by decrease in both cardiac output and

peripheral resistance.

It is a safety value which, by forcing cessation of

work in a hot environment when heat-loss mechanism are

overtaxed, prevents the larger rise in body temperature

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which would precipitate the far more serious condition of

heat stroke.

Heat Stroke

As a contrast to heat exhaustion, heat stroke

stands for a complete breakdown in heat-regulating systems.

It is an extremely dangerous situation,

characterized by collapse, delirium, seizures or prolong

unconsciousness – all due to marked elevation of body

temperature.

It mostly occurs in land humid environments.

In some persons, especially in the elderly, heat

stroke may appear with no apparent prior period of severe

sweating but in most cases, it comes as the end stage of

prolonged untreated heat exhaustion.

Exactly what triggers the transition to heat stroke

is not clear but the striking finding is that even in the face of

a rapidly rising body temperature, the person fails to sweat.

This sets off a positive-feedback situation in

which the rising body temperature directly stimulates

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metabolism, that is, heat production which further raises

body temperature.

It was recently found that some of the commonly

used tranquilizer drugs interfere with neurotransmission

hypotholamic thermoregulatory centres and some people

using these drugs are very prone to developing heat stroke.

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