Semiconductor theory

Introduction
Atomic Structure
All the materials are composed of very small particles called atoms. An atom
consists of a central nucleus of positive charge around which small negatively
charged particles called electrons revolve in different orbits.
1. Nucleus : It is the central part of an atom. It contains protons and neutrons.
A proton is a positively charged particle. While the neutron has the same
mass of the proton, but has no charge, that is, the nucleus of an atom is
positively charged. The sum of protons ans neutrons constitutes the entire
weight of an atom and is called atomic weight, and electrons have
negligible weight as compared to protons or neutrons.
2. Extra Nucleus : It is the outer part of an atom and contains electrons only.
An eˉ is a negatively charged particle having negligible mass. The charge on
an eˉ is equal but opposite to that on a proton. Therefore, an atom is neutral
as a whole. The number of electrons or protons in an atom is called atomic
number.
The eˉ in an atom revolves around the nucleus in the different orbits. The
number of eˉ in any orbit is given by 2n², where n is the number of the orbit.
The first orbit contains = 2 × 1 ² = 2 eˉs
The third orbit contains = 2 × 3² = 18 eˉs
....... etc.
The last orbit cannot have more than 8 eˉs and the last but one orbit cannot
have more than 18 eˉs.
Atomic Structure of Copper
Copper atomic weight = 64
Atomic number = 29
Number of protons = eˉs = 39 and number of neutrons = 64 - 29 = 35
●
● ●
●
● ● ●
●
● ● ●
● ●
●
P = 29
● ● ● ●
N = 35
●
● ● ● ●
● ● ●
● ●
● Figure 1 Structure of copper atom
It has 29 eˉs that are arranged in different orbits as follows.
Cu → 29 => 1s² 2s² 2p 6 3s² 3p 6 3d10 4s¹
Therefore, the number of Valence eˉs in Cu is equal to one.
Some of the important properties of an electron are as follows.
1. Charge on an eˉ = 1.602 × 10 -19 C = q
2. Mass of an eˉm = 9 × 10 -31 kg
3. Radius of an eˉ = r = 1.9 × 10-15 m
An eˉ moving around the nucleus posses two types of energies : kinetic energy
due to its motion and potential energy due to its motion and potential energy
due to the charge on the nucleus. The total energy of the electron is the sum of
the two energies. The energy of an eˉ increases as its distance from the nucleus
increases. Thus, an eˉ increases as its distance from the nucleus increases.
Thus, an eˉ increases as its distance from the nucleus increases. Thus, an eˉ in
the second orbit has more energy than the eˉ in the first orbit. Therefore, the eˉ
in the last orbit possesses very high energy as compared to the inner orbits.
E3
▲

E1
▲

+
E2
▲

Energy = K.E + P.E

For any atom, the energy of an nth orbit is given by
-13.56
En = _____ eV
n²
If n = 1 => E1 = -13.56 eV
n = 2 => E2 = -3.5 ev, etc.,
=> E1 < E2 < E3 ....... En
Valence shell will have the highest energy.
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons.
The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons. For a stable atom,
the number of valence eˉ is equal to 8.
Materials classified based on the conductivity (number of valence eˉ) are of
three categories : insulators (>4 eˉs), semiconductors (4 eˉs), and conductors
(< 4eˉs).
1. When the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4, the
material is usually a metal and a conductor. For example, Cu, Al, sodium,
 Mg, Cl, and gold.
2. When the number of valence electrons of an atom is 4, the material has both
metal and non-metal properties and it is called a semiconductor. For
example, Si and Ge.
3. When the number of valence electrons of an atom is more than 4, the
material is usually a non-metal and an insulator. For example, N, sulphur,
neon, Br, As etc, and wood, plastic, mica, etc.
(a) The resistance of a good conductor increases with an increase in the
temperature, that is, it is a positive temperature coefficient (PTC).
(b) The resistance of a good conductor increases with an increase in the
temperature, that is it is a positive temperature coefficient (PTC).
(c) Insulators also have NTC.

Energy Band Diagrams

1. Insulators
Energy level
▲

Conduction
band
EC ▲
EG Eg > 5eV
▼
EV Valence
band

2. Semiconductors
Energy level
▲

Conduction
band
EC ▲
EG Forbidden energy
band
EV Valence ▼
Eg = 1eV
band

3. Conductors
 ▲

Conduction
band

Eg = 0V

Valence
band

Figure 2 : Energy band diagrams

In an insulator, the conduction band is practically empty and the valence band
is full, and therefore, enormous energy would be required to push electrons
from the valence band into conduction band, that is, the forbidden energy gap.
It is not possible in the normal working temperatures. Hence, an insulator
cannot conduct even if a strong electric field is applied.
Insulators => Ionic bond
Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a conductivity between
that of a good conductor and that of an insulator. The valence band is not
saturated. Since there are only four eˉ and the conduction band is practically
empty at low temperatures (insulator).
However, with the increase in temperature, more and more valence
electrons are jumped into the condition band. This increases the conductivity
of the materials, that is, at high tempertaures, a semiconductor behaves like a
good conductor.
Semiconductor => Covalent bonds
In conductors, the valence and conduction band overlap (i.e, EG = 0), and
therefore, a large number of free electrons are available even at low
temperatures.
=> Conductors => Metalic bond
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
Intrisic Semiconductor
Intrisic semiconductor is a semiconductor material in its purest form, for
example silicon and germanium. Both Si and Ge are tetravalent (IV th group),
and they are crystal line. Each atom is shared by the four surrounding atoms,
as shown in the figure.
 ●
Si Valence eˉ

▲
● Covalent bonds
●

▲
● Si ● ● Si ● ● Si ●
●
●
Si
●

Figure 3 Crystalline structure of Si

At low temperatures, the covelent bonds are intact and the valence electrons
are strongly bound to the parent atoms, that is, no free eˉs are available for
conduction at room temperature. As temperature increases, the valence eˉ
acquires energy and create eˉ hole pairs or some of the covalent bonds break;
further, these free eˉs contribute to conduction. When a covalent bond breaks,
a hole is created in the crystal lattice. A hole is nothing but missing electron,
and hence, it represents a positive charge.
If the temperature is further increased, it creates more and more new e-hole
pairs. This means the conductivity of the material increases with the
temperature increases, but the total conductivity is poor.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
The conductivity of a pure semiconductor material can be increased by the
addition of a small amount of suitable impurity to a semiconductor. The
process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free eˉs
or holes in the semiconductor crystal. Depending on the type of impurity
added, extrinsic semiconductor are divided into n-type semiconductors and
p-type semiconductors.
n-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavelent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor.
The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free eˉ s in
the semiconductor crystal. For example, P, As, antimony, and Bi (Vth group
elements).
 ●

Free eˉ ● Ge ● Incomplete
● covalent bond

▲
● ● ●

▲
●
● Ge ● ● -----
P ● Ge ●

▲
● ● ●

▲
Hole
●
Pentavalent
impurity ● Ge ●
●
Figure 4 : Crystalline structure of N-type semiconductor
Such impurities are known as donor impurities because they donate or provide
free eˉs to the semiconductor crystal. In N-type semiconductor, eˉs are
majority charge carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers.
P-type Semiconductor
P-type semiconductor is formed by doping pure Si or Ge with trivalent
impurities such as B, indium, gallium, or Al. In P-type semiconductor, holes
(which are present in large numbers) are majority charge carriers and eˉ s are
minority charge carriers.
The acceptor atoms can be represented as negative ions. In extrinsic
semiconductor, conduction is due to both majority and minority charge
carriers.
Fermi-Dirac Function
The probability of occupation f(E) of an energy level (E) by an electron is
given by
f(E) = ________________
1
1 + exp(E - EF)/ KT
where K is Boltzmann constant in eV/ºK.
The Fermi level represents the energy state with 50% probability of being
filled, if no forbidden band exists. Therefore, if E = EF , then f(E) = 1/2 for
any temperature.
Case (i) : At T = zero (0ºK)
1
F(E) = ________ = 0; when E > EF
(1 + e ∞ )
1
F(E) = ________ = 1; when E < EF
1+ e -∞
Intrinsic semiconductor acts like an insulator at 0ºK.
Case (ii) : For T > 0ºK
F(E) = 0 when E >> EF
F(E) = 1 when E << EF
E - Ef ▲ eV
T2 T2 > T1
1.0 ▼
0.5 ▼ T1 ▼ T = 0ºK
0

-0.5
-0.0 1
►
f(E)
Figure 5 Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E)
The concentration of free electrons n and the concentration of free holes is p.
... n = NC e -(EC - EF) / KT
p = NV e -(EF - Ev) / KT
Fermi Level In An Intrinsic Semiconductor
In the case of intrinsic material, the crystal must be electrically neutral.
n i = Pi
NC . e -(EC - EF) / KT = NV .e-(EF - Ev) / KT
=> EF = E C + EV
___
2
- ___
2( )
KT . ln N___C
NV
If the effective mass of a free electron and hole are same, then
NC = NV
EC + EV
___
EF =
2
In intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies in the middle of the forbidden
energy band.
Donor Impurities
If pentavalent substances (phosphorous, antimony, As) are added as impurities
to a pure germanium or Si, four of the five valence electrons of the impurity
atoms will occupy covalent bonds and the fifth eˉ will be available as a carrier
of current. These impurities donate excess electron carriers, and hence, these
are called donor or N-type impurities.
Acceptor Impurities
If a trivalent impurity (B, Al, Ga, In) is added to an intrinsic semiconductor,
only three covalent bonds are filled, and the vacancy in the fourth bond
constitutes a hole. These impurities are known as acceptor or P-type impurities.
Acceptor ion is indicated by a ‘-ve’ sign because after this atom accepts an
electron, it converts into a negative -ion.
Fermi level in an N-type material is given by
We know n = NC .e -(EC - EF) / KT
But n ≈ ND
ND = NC .e -(EC - EF) / KT
EFn = EC - KT . ln ___ NC eV
ND ( )
Where
ND => concentration of donor atoms
NC = effective density states
The Fermi level in a P-type material is given by
EFp = Ev + KT. ln ___ NV eV
NA
( )
Where NA => concentration of acceptor atoms
▲ C.B C.B
energy

EC - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - ED
EFn
- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - EFi
- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - EFi
EFp
EV EV - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - EA
V.B V.B
f(E) f(E)
(a) N-type (b) P-type
Figure 6 Positions of semiconductor Fermi levels in an extrinsic
semiconductor
From the above mentioned figure, it shows the Fermi level in N-type
semiconductor is just below the conduction band (Ec), and in p-type
semiconductor, the Fermi level lies just above the valence band (EV .)
Energy Band Gap (EG)
Energy required to break a covalent bond, that is, it is the difference between
the conductance band (EC) to valence band energy (EV). The energy gap
decreases with the increase in temperature and is given by
EG(T) = EG0 - βT
where β = Constant
-4
βSi = 3.6 × 10 eV/ºk and βGe = 2.23 × 10-4 eV/ºk
EGo = energy gap at 0ºK
Ego = 1.21 eV for Si
Ego = 0.785 eV for Ge at 0ºK
and
EG = 1.1 eV for Si
EG = 0.72 eV for Ge at room temperature (300K)
Drift and Diffusion Currents
The flow of charge, that is, current through a semiconductor material is of two
types, namely drift and diffusion. Since the net current flows through a PN
junction, diode has two components : drift current and diffusion current.
Drift Current
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor material, the charge
carries attain a certain drift velocity vd , which is equal to the product of the
mobility of the charge carriers and the applied applied electric field intensity
E. This means the drift current is defined as the flow of electric current due to
the motion of the charge carriers under the influence of an external electric
field.
Drift velocity Vd = µE m/s
E = applied electric field intensity in V/cm
.. . The drift current density
J = Jn + Jp = (n µn + p µp )qE A/cm²
Diffusion Current
It is possible for an electric current to flow in a semiconductor even in the
absence of the electric field, provided a concentration gradient exists in the
material. A concentration gradient exists if the number of either eˉ’s holes is
greater.
In one region of a semiconductor as compared to the rest of the region, that is,
diffusion current flows in semiconductor because of unequal distribution of
charge carriers
Diffusion current density due to holes, JP is given by
dp A/cm²
JP = -q . DP . ___
dx
Diffusion current density due to electrons is given by
dn
Jn = +q . Dn . ___ A/cm²
dx
Where
dn
___
dx => concentration gradient of eˉ’s
dp
___
=> concentration gradients of holes
dx
Note :
( ) dn
Jn(diff) = (-q) . Dn - ___
dx
= q Dn . dn/dx => i.e, Jn(diff) => +Ve sign

( ) dp
JP(diff) = (+q) . DP - ___
dx
= q DP . dp/dx => i.e, JP(diff) => -Ve sign

The total current in a semiconductor is the sum of drift current and diffusion
current.
J = I/A A/cm²
That is, for a P-type semiconductor, the total current per unit area is given by
( )
dp A/cm²
JP = pµP qE - q DP . ___
dx
Similarly, the total current density for an N-type semiconductor is given by
( )
dn A/cm²
Jn = nµn qE - q Dn . ___
dx
Einstein Relationship for Semiconductors
The equation which related the mobility (µ) and the diffusion coefficient (D)
is known as the Einstein relationship. The relationship is expressed as
Do ___
___ Dp ___KT
= = = VT
µn µp q
where
T
VT = ___
11,600
VT = 26 mV ; At T = 300ºK
Diffusion Length (L)
The average distance that an excess charge carries can diffuse its life time (τ)
is called the diffusion
___ length L, which is given by
L = √Dτ
where
D = µ ___
VT
.. . Ln = √µn . ViT.τn
___
LP = √µp . VT . τp

Carrier Lifetime
In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free
electrons. However, due to thermal agitation, it continues to produce new hole-
electron pairs, while other eˉ - hole pairs disappear as a result of recombination.
On an average, an electron (a hole) will exist for τn (τp)s before recombination.
This time is called the mean life time of the electron and hole.
It ranges from few nanoseconds to hundreds of microseconds and depends
on the temperature and impurity concentration in the semiconductor material.
‘Gold’ is extensively used as recombination agent.
Consider an N-type semiconductor having thermal equilibrium concentration
pno and nno of holes and electrons. When the specimen is illuminated by light,
as a result of this radiation, the new electron -hole pairs generate. Therefore,
the hole and__electron concentration will increase by the same amount.
__
Pno - pno = nno - nno
Hall Effect
If a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current I is placed in a
transverse magnetic field B, then an electric field E is induced in the direction
perpendicular to both I and B. This phenomenon is known as the Hall effect.
This is used to determine whether a semiconductor is N-type or P-type and to
find the carrier concentration.
Y▲
2 (top plate)
▲
●
force d
▼
I ►
▲▼
● w
►x
▼

B 1◄ ℓ 1 ►
1
◄
Z ◄ (bottom plate)
 ●2 ●2
_
+
=> _ VH VH
+
● ●1
1
n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor
Under the equilibrium condition, the electric field intensity E is due to the
Hall effect must exist a force on the carrier charge q, which balances the
magnetic force.
That is,
qE = B.q.Vd
E = B. Vd (1.1)
Where
Vd => drift velocity
E => electric field due to Hall Effect
E = ___
VH
d
where d is the distance between the surfaces 1 and 2
I
The current density J = nq µn E = __
A
I
J = ρVd = ___
wd

where ρ => charge density

VH = Ed = B.d.Vd (1.2)
J
Substituting Vd = __
ρ
VH = B.d. _J__ = ___
B . d ___
I
ρ ρ Wd
B.I
VH = ___
ρ.W
Where ‘ρ’ → charge density
The Hall coefficient, RH is defined by
1 1
RH = ___ = ___
ρ n.q
=> for n-type semiconductor
_______
RH . B. I
...VH =
W
The Hall coefficient (RH) for a p-type semiconductor is positive and -Ve for
n-type semiconductor.
Note :
Hall voltage VH is positive for n-type and negative for p-type semiconductor.
σ = µρ ; µ = σRH
ℓ
( VH
µ = ___ ___
d B. Vd )
Theory of P-N Junction Diode
Introduction
In a piece of semiconductor material, if donor impurities are introduced into
one side and acceptors into the other side of a single crystal of semiconductor,
a P-N junction is formed. The plane dividing into the two halves or zones is
called P-N junction shown in below figure.
The donor ion is represented by a plus sign because, after this impurity atom
‘donates’ an electron, it becomes a positive ion. The acceptor ion is indicated
by a minus sign because, after this atom ‘accepts’ an electron, it becomes a
negative ion.
The N-type material has high concentration of free electrons, whereas P-
type material has high concentration of holes. At the junction, the free
electrons to diffuse over to the p-side and holes to the n-side, this process is
called diffusion.
The general shape of the charge density depends upon how the diode is
doped. The region of the junction is depleted of immobile charges, and it is
called the depletion region, the space-charge region or the transition region.
The space-charge density (ρ) is zero at the junction. It is positive to the right
(n-side) and negative to the left (p-side) of the junction.
The field intensity curve is proportional to the integral of the charge density
curve. this is known as Poisson’s equation.
d²V
____ = -ρlε
dx² _ +
---------

_ _
---------

_ +
Hole _ + + + _
►
_ ◄ e
◄
_ _ _ + + + +
Acceptor _ +
_
◄ Donor
ion _ _ _ + + + + ion
P-type ▲ N-type
Junction
 Space charge region
▲ ►

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
charge density ρ

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
◄ ►
d²V
___ = -ρlε +
dx²
_ Distance from junction

▼
ρ
-dv = ∫ ___
E = ___ ε dx Electric field intensity, E
dx

Electrostatic potential V
p-side ▲
Vo
V = -∫E dx, ▼
V=0 Distance from junction
E=0 Potential energy barrier for electrons
▲
Ep n-side
▼
Distance from junction

Figure 1 : A schematic diagram of a P-N junction including the charge

density, electric field intensity, and potential energy barriers at the junction
The barrier potential of P-N junction mainly depends on the following factors :
1. The type of semiconductor used.
2. The concentration of impurity
3. The temperature
Effect of Doping on Depletion Region
The width of the depletion region depends on the amount of doping on n-side
and p-side. Junction J J
▼ ▼ ▼_ _
+ _
------------- --

+ _
------------- --

------------- --

+
------------- --

------------- --

+
------------- --

+ _ + + _ + _ _
n + _ ρ ρ + _ n¹ + + _ _
ρ
+ _
+
+ + _ + _ _
n
+ _ + + _ + _ _
◄ ► ◄ ► ◄ ►
W W W
(i) Both sides (ii) n + p diode (iii) p + n diode
equally doped (Wn << Wp) (Wn >> Wp)
(p-n diode) W = W p
W = Wn
(Wn = Wp) (W = W n + Wp )
The depletion region penetrates more into the lightly doped side.
The relation between the impurity concentration and depletion width is
Wp . NA = Wn . ND
Biasing of P-N Junction Diode
Applying external dc Voltage to any electronic device is called biasing.
Forward Biasing of P-N Junction Diode
When the P-N junction is forward biased as long as the applied voltage is less
than the barrier potential, there cannot be any conduction.
When the applied voltage becomes more than the barrier potential, the
negative terminal of the battery repels electrons and positive terminal repels
holes. Thus, the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential and hence
reduces the width of depletion region.
◄
Vo p n
- - - - - - - - - -- -

- - - - - - - - - -- -

► ◄
►
► ► ◄
◄
► ◄
► ◄ ◄
◄
◄ ►
W
+ _
◄

V
Figure 2 P-N junction under forward bias
Reverse Biasing
If p-side of a P-N junction is connected to the negative terminal, and the n-
side is connected to the positive terminal of a battery, since the holes in the p-
region are attracted towards the negative terminal, and the electrons in the n-
region are attracted towards the positive terminal. There can be no diffusion
of charge carriers through the junction, and hence, there is no conduction.
p n
◄ ◄
_ _ ►
_ + + +
◄ _ ►
_ _ + + +
◄ _ _ ►
_ + + +

_
+
VR Figure 3 :P-N junction under reverse bias
The applied reverse bias voltage established an electric field in the same
direction as the field due to the barrier potential with the result the width of the
depletion region increases, and the junction offers high resistance.
A small reverse current of the order of µA or nA flows through the reverse
biased P-N junction. This is due to the applied voltage acts as forward bias for
the minority charge carriers. This current gets stabilized to a steady magnitude
and is quite independent of the bias voltage and this is also called as reverse
saturate current (Is or Io).
The reverse saturation current is temperature dependent and it is almost
doubles for every 10ºC rise of temperature.
(T2 - T1)/10
... Io2 = Io1 . 2 Amps
Electrons forming covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms in the P - and
N-type regions may absorb sufficient energy_ form heat and light to cause
breaking of some covalent bonds. hence, e - hole pairs are continually
produced in the both regions. Under the reverse bias condition, the thermally
generated electrons in the N-region attracts towards the ‘+ve’ terminal and
holes towards ‘-ve’ terminal of the battery. The magnitude of reverse
saturation current mainly depends upon junction temperature because the
major source of minority carriers is thermally broken covalent bonds.
Energy band Structure of an Open-Circuited P-N Junction
► Space charge region
p-region n-region
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - -

◄ ► ◄ ►

E∞ Conduction band
▲
▲
Een ▲
EG Eo
EF EG
▼
Evp ▼
Evn ▼
Valence band

Figure 4 : Energy band structure

The energy band structure of a P-N junction is shown above figure, where the
fermi level EF is closer to the conduction band Ecn . In N-type material, and it
is closer to the valence band Evp in the P-type material.
The total shift in the energy level Eo is given by
 Eo = Ecp - Ecn = Evp - Evn
This energyoE(in eV) is potential energy of the electrons at the P-N junction,
and it is equal to qvo (in V).
Where Vo → contact potential (in volts)
(or)
Contact difference of potential
(or)
The barrier potential
Contact Potential Vo
Energy band gap EG = KTln ___ Nc . Nv eV
ni²
Eo = KT ln [ N A ND
___
ni² ] eV

We know Eo = qVo
... Contact potential Vo = ___
[
KT .ln ___
q ]
NA . ND volts
ni²

[
... Vo = VT . ln ___
]
NA . ND v
ni²
The alternative expression for Eo is as follows : nn = ND
nn . Pn = ni² For N-type materials
ni²
Pn = ___
ND
and np . pp = ni² at pp = NA for p-type
ni²
... np = ___
NA
[ ]
... Eo = KT ln ___
pno [ ]
PPo = KT ln ___ nno
npo
Diode Current Equation
I = Io [e Vd /ηVT - 1] Amp
Where v = external voltage applied to the diode, η = constant, 1 for Ge and 2
for si
KT
VT = ___ = ___ V
T
q 11,600
Io => reverse saturation current. It is represented by Io = A.q
[ Dp
___
Lp . ND
Dn
+ ___ ni²
Ln . NA ]
Note :
When the diode is reverse biased, its current equation may be obtained by
reverse the sign of the applied voltage v, (-ive). Then, the diode current with
reverse bias is I = Io
[e
-Vd/ηVT -
]
1 Amp

V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

Forward-Biased P-N Junction
As the applied voltage is increased beyond cut in voltage, the junction readily
conducts, and the forward current. It rapidly rises with further increase in vp .
These are shown in the below figure.
If (mA)
▲

Ge
Si
0 ►
0.3 0.7 Vf (volt)
Figure 5 V-I characteristics of P-N diode
Forward resistance of the junction diode is
∆Vf
Rf = ____ Ω => Rf => is small
∆If
Reverse-Biased P-N Junction
When P-N junction is reverse biased, the depletion region widens, and as a
result, the junction offers very high resistance.
VR (V) 0
◄
---
- - - - - - - - - - - ∆I
---

∆V

▼
IR (µA)
Breakdown in P-N Junction Diodes
The junction breakdown is due to the following two factors. They are as follows :
(i) Zener effect
(ii) Avalanche effect
Avalanche Effect
As the reverse voltage increases, the minority charge carriers acquires more
kinetic energy, so its drift velocity increases.
They acquire sufficient energy, from the applied potential to produce new
carriers by removing valance electrons from their bonds.
These new carriers will in turn collide with other atoms and will increase
the number of electrons and holes available for conduction. Thus, charge
carriers increase at a very rapid, and at breakdown voltage, the minority
carrier current rises rapidly, causing the breakdown of the junction. This
phenomenon is formed as avalanche effect.
It is a positive temperature coefficient.
Zener Effect
Practical diodes are heavily doped, the depletion layer is very thin, and hence,
the potential gradient is quite high. Increase in reverse bias increases the
potential gradient, even if the initially available carriers do not acquire
sufficient energy to disrupt bonds, it is possible to initiate breakdown by a
direct rupture of the bonds because of the existence of strong electric field.
This phenomenon is known as Zener effect.
The Zener effect is in diodes with breakdown voltages below about 6V,
and the operating voltages in avalanche breakdown are from several volts to
several 100 volts with power rates up to 50 W.
(VA > 6V)
It has a negative temperature coefficient.
P-N Junction Capacitances
In a P-N junction, there is a depletion region in between P-type and N-type
semiconductor, the depletion region is totally devoid of charge carriers, and
hence, it acts as a dielectric in between two oppositely charged surfaces. A
practical junction diode possesses two types of capacitances:
Transition or Space Charge or Depletion Capacitance (CT)
Under reverse-biased condition, the majority carriers move away from the
junction, thereby uncovering more immobile charges. Hence, the width of the
space charge layer at the junction increases with reverse voltage.
 P n
••••
••••
••••
••••
••••
••••
••••
••••
••••
••••
◄ ►
W
- +
=> Cr = ___
ϵA VR
W
Where A → Surface area of the junction
W → width of the depletion layer
1
[
2εs ___
W = ___
q
1
+ ___ Vj
N A ND ]
Diffusion Capacitance (CD)
When a P-N junction is forward biased, the capacitance of the junction is
much larger than its transition capacitance.
Diffusion capacitance may be defined as the rate of change of charge with
voltage.
dQ
CD = ___
dV
dq => dQ = τ.dI
i = ___
dt
dI
CD = τ. ___
We know
dv ( ) Vd
____

ID _~ Io . e ηVT
dI I
___ = ___ = g
dV ηVT
τI or CD = τg
... CD = ___
ηVT
If
___
Where g = 1/r =
ηvT
Application of P-N Diode
1. Rectifiers in DC power supplies.
2. Switching circuits
3. Clamping and clipping circuits, used as wave shaping circuits used in
computers, radar, radio and TV receivers.
4. Demodulation circuits.
The same P-N junction with different doping levels finds special applications
as follows.
1. Zener diodes in voltage regulators.
2. Varactor diodes in tuning sections of radio and TV receivers.
3. Detectors (APD, PIN photo diode)
4. LED and LCD’s in digital displays.
5. LASER diodes in optical communication.
Tunnel diodes used as a relaxation oscillators at microwave frequencies.
Zener Diode
When the reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage in normal P-N diodes,
the current through the junction and the power dissipation at the junction will
be high such an operation is destructive and the diode gets damaged.
As diodes can be designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities to
operate in the breakdown region, one such diode is known as zener diode. It is
a heavily doped than the ordinary diode.
In forward bias, the operation of zener diode is the same as normal P-N
diode.
While under reverse biased condition, breakdown of the junction occurs, it
depends on the concentration of doping. If the diode is heavily doped,
depletion layer will be very thin and breakdown occurs at lower reverse
voltage and further breakdown voltage is sharp.
The sharp increasing current under breakdown conditions are due to the
following mechanisms.
1. Zener breakdown
2. Avalanche breakdown
▲If (mA)
--
--

VR VA VZ --
-
◄ - - -- - - - -- - - - - - -- - ►
-- -
----

- - - - - - - -- Vt
--

IZ
------

▼ IR(µA)
Figure 7 :The V-I characteristics of an avalanche, or Zener diode
Symbol

● ●
Example 3
Consider an asymmetrical Si junction, with NA = 10 19 cmˉ³ and ND = 10 17
cmˉ³. If the cross-sectional area of the junction is 10µm², determine its
transition capacities with no applied bias. (ni =1.45 × 10 10 )
Solution :
‘ε’A
CT = ___
W

W = ___ [ 1
2εs ___
q
1
]
+ ___ Vj
N A ND

[
Vj = Vo = VT ln ___NA . ND V
ni²
]
Vj = 0.94 volts,. εs = 11.9 εo si
W= 2___
× 11.9 × 8.85 × 10ˉ¹²
1.6 × 10 -19
× [
___ 1
1 + ___
1019 10 17 ] . (0.94) × 10
-6

W = 11.17 µm
11.9 × 8.85 × 10ˉ¹² × 10 × 10ˉ¹²
CT = ___ -6
11.17 × 10
= 9.428 × 10 -17 F
Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
R
+● ▲
IZ▼ + IL
Variable ▼
voltage VZ
RL
source _▼
_●
A zener diode, under reverse bias breakdown condiction, can be used to
regulate the voltage across the load irrespective of the supply voltage or load
current. The voltage across the zener diode remains constant even if current
through it changes by large extent.
Zener breakdown occurs and current IZ flows through it. A current IL flows
into the load RL.
VZ = IL . RL
V Z = VL
The current through R is, I = IZ + IL
If the supply voltage now increases, more current is drawn from the supply.
Since the zener diode is operating in the breakdown region, its current IZ
 increases and IL remains same (VZ = constant)
If PZ denote the power rating of the zener diode
pZ = VZ . IZ(max) watts,
If the load resistance decreases, more current flows into the load; if the load
resistance increases, the load current decreases. That is, the load is parallel to
the zener diode operations with a constant breakdown voltage.
Varactor Diode
The varactor diode also called as a varicap or tunning or voltage variable
capacitor diode, it is a lightly doped diode.
The diodeis reverse-biased, a depletion region is formed, shown in below
figure. P N
_ _ _ +++
holes◄ _ _ _ +++ ►e
-s

_ _ _ ++
_ _ _ + ++
_ _ _ ++++
◄ ►
W
▲
_
+
VR
If the reverse bias voltage varies, the width of the depletion region also varies.
If VR increases, the width of the depletion layer ‘W’ becomes wider.
VR α W
This depletion region is devoid of majority carriers and acts like an insulator
preventing conduction between the N and P region of the diode, which
separates the two plates of a capacitor.
εA
CT = ___ F
W
The capacitances is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates
(CT a l/W)
A K
▲

● ●
Circuit symbol of varactor diode
Applications
1. Varactor diode are used in FM radio and TV Receivers AFC circuits.
2. Self-adjusting bridge circuits and adjustable band pass filters.
3. Tuning circuits of LC resonant circuits in µW frequency multipliers and in
very low noise µw parametric amplifiers.
Tunnel Diode
The tunnel or Esaki diode is a thin-junction diode which exhibits negative
resistance under forward bias.
An ordinary P-N junction diode has an impurities concentration of 1 : 10 8
atoms. In this, the amount of doping is 1 in 10³ atoms.
Negative
resistance region
▲ ▲
If ►
- - - - - - - - - - - - - --

◄ - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
Ip - - - - - - - A
- - - -----
-----------
B Normal
►
Iv - - - - - - - - - -- diode
VR
◄ ►
Vp Vv VF VI

Vp , Ip = Peak voltage & Peak current

VV , Iv = Valley voltage & valley current
IR
Figure 8 : V-I characteristics of tunnel diode
Operation :When the semiconductor is very highly doped, the fermi level
goes above the conduction band for N-type and below valance band for P-type
material. These are called degenerate materials.
Under Forward Bias
Step 1 : At zero bias there is no current flow.
Step 2 : A small forward bias is applied. The potential barrier is still very high
with no noticeable injection and forward current through the junction.
However, electrons in the conduction band of the N-region will tunnel to the
empty states of the valance band in P-region. This will create forward bias
tunnel current. _
Step 3 : With a large voltage, the energy of the majority of e in the N-region
is equal to the empty states (holes) in the valence band of P-region. This will
produce maximum tunnelling current. _
Step 4 : As the forward bias continuous to increase, the number of e’s in the
n-side that are directly opposite to the empty states in the valance band (In
terms of their energy) decreases. That is, decrease in the tunnelling current
will start.
Step 5 : As more forward voltage is applied, the tunnelling current drops to
zero. However, the regular diode forward current due to electron - hole
injection increases due to lower potential barrier.
Step 6 : With further voltages increases, the tunnel diode V-I characteristics is
similar to that of a normal P-N diode.
I▲

A
IP

- --
--
---------

--
B

--
IV

--
-------------- -
--
--
------ ---------- ►
VP VV V
● ●
(a) Symbol
RS LS
●

C -Rn

●
(b) Tunnel diode circuit
Applications :
1. High-speed switch
2. High -frequency oscillator
3. The most commonly available tunnel diodes are made from Ge or GaAs.
Note :
IP with Si
It is the difficult to have a high ratio of peak to valley current __
IV
Example 6
The reverse bias breakdown of high speed Si transistors is due to
(a) Avalanche breakdown mechanism at both the junctions.
(b) XZener breakdown mechanism at base-collector junction.
(c) Zener breakdown mechanism at base-emitter junction
(d) All the above.
Solution : (c)
Schottky Diode
1. Schottky diode are high current diodes used in high frequency and fast
 switches applications.
2. A Schottky diode is formed by joining a doped N-type with a metal such
as gold silver or platinum.
3. It means that it has a metal-to-semiconductor junction rather than P-N
junction.
K A
● ● n +
metal ● ●

(a)
Figure 9 :Schottky diode structure

● ●
A C
(b) Symbol
4. The forward voltage drop is 0.3 V
5. There are only majority carriers with no reverse leakage current.
6. The metal conductor has many conduction band electrons and N-type is also
heavily doped.
7. When forward bias applied, the N-type electrons move across to the metal
region and rapidly loss energy. The process is very fast which makes
Schottky diodes ideal for fast switches applications.
8. It is also called hot carrier diode.
Pin Diode
1. The PIN diode consists of heavily doped P and N regions, which are
separated by intrinsic material.
2. In reverse bias, the PIN diode acts like a capacitance.
3. When forward bias applied, it acts like a current controlled variable
resistance.
OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
Introduction
Optoelectronics is the technology that combines optics and electronics and the
devices based on this technology are known as optoelectronic devices.
These devices are broadly classified as follows :
1. Devices that convery optical radiation into electrical energy such as
photovoltaic device or solar cell.
2. Devices that detect optical signals through electronic processes such as
photodetectors.
3. Devices that convert optical energy optical radiation such as light-emitting
diodes and the LASER diodes.
• The devices that convert electrical energy into optical radiations are known
as emitters.
• Photo detectors are the semiconductor devices that can be used to detect
the presence of photons and convert optical signals into electrical signals.
The photo conductors in which the photons-generates excess electron-hole
pairs. It changes the conductivity of a semiconductor.

Optoelectronic devices
▼ ▼ ▼
Emitters Sensors Isolators optocouplers
▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼
LED LASER IR Photo detectors Photo emissive

▼ ▼ ▼ ▼
Photo Photo Photo Photo electric
conductive voltaic multipliers tube

▼ ▼ ▼ ▼
Junction type Bulk type Si Se

▼ ▼ ▼
Cds Pbs Cdse

▼ ▼
Photo transistors Photo diodes
▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼
BJT, FET LASER Photo diodes PIN diodws APD
According to the Quantum theory, light consists of discrete packets of energy
called photons.
... E = hv = ___
hC = hf
λ
Where h is plank’s constant
h = 6.625 × 10 -34 Js
λ → wave length in meters
C → Light velocity
1.24eV
EG ≤ ______
λ(µm)
In a forward bias p-n junction, electrons and holes both cross the junction. In
this process, some electrons and holes recombine with the results that
electrons lose energy; the amount of energy lost is equal to the energy band
gap of semiconductor EG .
At room temperature, the value of EG is
For Si => EG = 1.1 eV
Ge => EG = 0.72 eV
GaAs => EG = 1.43 eV
and INAS => EG = 0.36 eV
Photo Conductivity
If radiation falls upon a semiconductor , its conductivity increases. This is
called photoconductive effect. Radiant energy supplied to the semiconductor
causes covalent bonds to be broken, and new electron-hole in excess of those
generated thermally are created. These increased current carriers decrease the
resistance of the material, and hence, such a device is called a photoresistor or
photoconductor.
Conduction band
●
▲ ▲
● ●
▲
ED - -●- - - - - - - - - - -●- - ► Extrinsic excitation

► Intrinsic excitation
EA - - -●- - ●
----------

●● ●
Valence band
Figure 1 : Photo excitation in a semiconductor
In the above figure, the energy band diagram of a semiconductor having both
acceptor and donor impurities is shown. If photons of sufficient energies are
illuminated on this specimen, then following transitions are possible.
1. An electron-hole pair can be created by a high-energy photon-what is called
intrinsic excitation. i.e, the excitation takes place directly from valance band
to conductor band. This is known as intrinsic excitation.
2. A photon may excite a donor electron into conduction band or a valance
electron may go into an acceptor state. These transitions are known as
impurity excitations.
The minimum energy of a photon required for intrinsic excitation is the
forbidden energy gap EG of the semiconductor material.
1.24 µm
λ = _______
EG (eV)
For Si, EG = 1.1 eV and λ = 1.13 µm
For Ge, EG = 0.72 eV => λ = 1.73 µm at room temperature.
▲
75
Relative response %

-
-- ---- --
- ---
--
50 - - - -
---
► Ge
----

►Si
----

25
---

0 ► λ(µm)
-

0.5 0.9 1 1.3 1.73

Figure 2 Relative response of Si and Ge
Solved Examples
Example 1
The longest wavelengt that can be absorbed by Si, which has the band gap of
1.12 eV, is 1.1 µm. If the longest wave length that can be absorbed by another
material is 0.87 µm, then the band gap of this material is
(a) 1.425 eV (b) 0.85 eV
(c) 0.706 V (d) 1.23 eV
Solution
1.24 eV
We know EG = _______
λ(µm)
Given λ 0.87 µm
1.24 eV
So EG = ______ = 1.425 eV
0.87
Photodiode
If a junction diode is reverse biased, then conduction occurs due to the
minority charge carriers only. The reverse, saturation current is practically of
constant magnitude, which is irrespective of the applied reverse bias. If the
temperature of the junction increases, then evidently the reverse saturation
current also increases as new electron-hole pairs are created due to incident
thermal energy ; the same effect is caused with incident light also.
V-I Characteristics
Photodiode operates in the reverse bias mode, there is an arrangement by
which light is allowed to fall on the particular surface across the junction
through a window, the diode is kept enclosed within a plastic container. Except
for the surface that receives the radiant energy, the other sides are painted
black.
◄ Plastic
enclosure
► _
Light P
►
► n + VR

Figure 3 : Structure of a photodiode

When light which consists of photons, is incident on the junction surface,
additional electron-hole pairs are created due to the fact that valence electrons
acquire energy from the photons. This has the effect of increasing the reverse
current. It depends on the incident photon energy at the junction. The V-I
characteristic of a photodiode is as shown below.
50 40 30 20 10 0
VR◄
(Io)
(2)
Incident
light (3)
increase (4)
---

▼ ▼
▼ IR
(µA)
Where I0 is teh dark current, in the absence of incident light or photon energy.
▼
▼

λ
● ●
A K

Photodiode symbol
Typical values of the parameter of a photodiode
Diode forward resistance Rf = 100 Ω
Reverse resistance Rr = 50 nΩ and CT = 10 pF
Applications
1. Optoelectronic applications. They are used in light operated switches, light
detection systems, for reading of sound track on films, and for counting
objects in a production line.
2. They are used in high-speed reading of computer punched cards and tapes.
Avalanche Photodiode
Avalanche photodiode is also a photodetector. A photodiode will produce less
amount of current, which is not sufficient to drive some circuits. An avalanche
photodiode (APD) gives more output current when compared to a photodiode.
The ‘impact ionization’ takes place in APD’s

N+
Photons
+
P
▼▼▼

V
_ I
P+

Figure 4 : Structure of an APD

Pin Photodetectors
A PIN diode is composed of three sections. A high resistivity intrinsic layer is
sandwiched between P- and N- regions. The high resistance of the intrinsic
layer provides the posibility of larger electric field between the P- and N-
regions, and therefore, electron-hole pair generation is enhanced by enebling
PIN diode to process even very weak input signals. Because of more
seperation between P- and N- regions, the capacitance Cpn is reduced because
the capacitance decreases with the increase in seperation of P- and N-regions.
It allows the diode a faster response time, thereby making it suitable for use as
a microwave switch.
º P I N º
PIN diode
PIN diode in the forward bias mode offers a variable resistance-decreasing
with the increase in forward current. For larger d.c current, it will appear like
a short. In reverse bias mode, it offers infinite resistance.
The equivalent circuit of a PIN diode at d.c or low frequency operation is
similar to a conventional P-N junction in Figure (a). Here Lp and Cp represent
the package inductance and capacitance respectively. Cj represents the
junction diode capacitance. However, the effect of junction capacitance may
be neglected for most of the applications of PIN diodes under forward bias
operation. Since the dynamic resistance is very large and CI =CT under reverse
bias operation. The effect of dynamic resistance can be neglected and
therefore, the PIN diode behaves simply as a parallel plate capacitor of
capacitance CT in its reverse bias operation.

LP
CP
RS
▲
▲

rd C1

(a)

LP
CP
RS
▲
▲

R¹ C1

(b)
High frequency model
At high frequency, C1 represents the capacitance of the I region, which is
approximately equal to CT and depends on the geometry of the I region. RI is
the effective RF resistance of the I region and represents the value at the
operating frequency of the RF signal.
When a light intensity of wavelength λ is incident on the photodiode, if
energy Eg < hv of PIN diode, then an output current ‘Ip’ in response to the
incident light is produced.
 Efficiency η = __________________________
No. of eˉ - hole pairs generated
No. of photons incidented
(Ip / q)
η = ___
(P0 / hf)
Ip ηq
Response R = ___ = ___ A/watt
P0 hf
Maximum wave light λmax (µm) = ___ 1.24
EG (eV)
Where,
Po → incident optical power
Ip → photocurrent generated in PIN diode
... The main drawback of photodiode is the low output current.
Light Emitting Diodes
The operation of light emitting diodes (LED) is based on the phenomenon of
electro luminance, which is the emission of light from a semiconductor under
the influence of an electric field. The recombination of charge carriers takes
place in a forward P-N junction as the electron crosses from the N-region and
recombines with the holes existing in P-region. Free electrons are in the
conduction band, whereas holes are in the valence band. Therefore the
electrons are at high energy levels than holes. For the electrons to recombine
with holes, they must give some of their energy. Typically, these electrons
give up energy in the form of heat and light. In silicon and germanium diodes,
most of the electrons give up their energy in the form of heat. However, with
GaAsP and GaP semiconductors, the electrons give up their energy by emitting
photons. If the semiconductor is translucent, then the light will be emitted and
the junction becomes a source of light, that is LED. i.e. the electrons are at
high energy levels than the holes. In the process of recombination of the
electrons to holes, they must give energy in the form of heat and light but these
are constructed by using direct band gap semiconductors. Hence, they are
dissipated energy in the fomr of light.
• In Si and Ge diodes (indirect band gap S.C), most of the electrons give up
their energy in the form of heat.
• In GaAsP, GaAs, GaP, and InP semiconductors, the electrons give up their
energy by emitting photons (direct band gap S.C).
• LEDs operate the forward biasing with a current of 20 mA.
These enit no light when reverse biased. In fact, operating LEDs in reverse
direction will quickly destroy them.
 ▲▲
A● ●K
(a) LED symbol

▲▲
Rs VD
Vs ● ●
A ►
I
(b) LED circuit
V S - VD
______
I = RS
• LEDs are forward biased P-N junctions, which emit ‘Spontaneous radiation’.
• The colour of the emitted light depends on the type of material used, which
is given below.
Colour Construction Typical forward voltage
Vt (volts)
Amber Al Gap 2.1
Blue GaN 5
Red GaAsP 1.8
Green GaP 2.2
Yellow AlGaP 2.1
White GaN 4.1
The visible wavelength ranges from 0.45 µm to 0.7 µm (energy 2.8 eV to 1.8
eV)
Applications
LEDs are used in remote controls, as display devices in designing
optocouplers.
The LED emits light of a particular colour because the band gap of the s
emiconductor material used in the fabrication of the diodes is equal to energy
hv of the light photon.
Liquid Crystal Displays
1. LCDs opearte on the principle of dynamic scattering of light.
2. Power dissipation is in the order of µW.
3. Response time is in m sec.
4. Its operating life time is 50,000 + hours.
5. These are used as display devices.
Example 2
Photons of energy 1.5 × 10 Joules are incident on photodiode that has a
responsibility of 0.7 A/W. If the optical power level is 10µW, then the
photocurrent generated is
(a) 70 ηA (b) 7µA
(c) 6.5 µA (d) 6.5 ηA
Solution
Ip
We know that responsibility R = ___
I0
A
.. . Ip = R . I0 = 0.7 × 10 µ ___
W
= 7µA
Photovoltaic or Solar Cells
These cells are semiconductor junction devices used for converting radiation
energy into electrical energy. These cells generate a voltage proportional to
electromagnetic radiation intensity and are called the photovoltaic cells.
Selenium and Si are the most widely used materials for solar cells.
• The working principle of solar cell is ‘Photovoltaic effect’.
• Popularly used solar cells are se cells, Ni-cd cells, and pbs cells.
• Ni-cd cells are rechargeable cells used in satellites.
• These are used in automatic traffic signal lighting.
• These are generally operated under open circuit condition. It can be operated
in forward biased condition and has cut in voltage equal to zero.
Laser
Laser is the short form of ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation’. A laser emits radiation of essentially one wavelength or a very
narrowband of wave lengths. This means that the light has a single colour,
that is, monochromatic.
In a laser, the atoms are struck by photons (or packets of energy) that are
exactly similar to the photons of energy emitted when recombination occurs.
This triggers energy emission and the result is two identical photons for each
recombination : the incident photon and the emitted photon. The photon
produce further emission of similar photons, which in turn generate more
similar photons. The result is emission of energy in the form of a beam of
coherent light.
• LASER light is referred to as coherent light as opposed to light made up of
a wide band of wavelengths, which is termed as incoherent.
• LASERs are fabricated with direct band gap materials having larger carrier
 life time.
• Emission in LASER is both spontaneous and stimulated.
• Population inversion occurs in LASER. These are highly directional.
The primary requirement is the population inversion, that is, the higher
energy level is more populated than the lower energy level.
Unique Characteristics of LASER Light
The beam of LASER light produced by the diode has the following unique
characteristics :
1. It is coherent, that is, there is no path difference between the waves
comprising the beam.
2. It is monochromatic, that is, it consists of one wavelength and hence one
colour only.
3. It is collimated, that is, light waves travel parallel to each other.
Note :
Diode Operating bias
1. Photodiode, APD Reverse bias
2. LED, LASER, and solar cells Forward bias