1) Problem: Spalling Concrete (Spalling on a concrete foundation wall)

Root Causes: Spalling concrete is a

common issue for older buildings. It is
largely caused by carbonation, a natural
deterioration process. This causes the
steel bars embedded in the ceiling slab
to corrode, which in turn causes the
concrete cover to crack and bulge.
Under the Lease, you are responsible
for the repair of any spalling concrete in
your flat.

Remedial Measures: The best way to resolve spalling is to remove the bricks
completely and replace them one by one. This should be done carefully by drilling
small holes around the brick to isolate it and protect the other bricks.

How to prevent spalling concrete

Spalling concrete is a surface maintenance problem that occurs in reinforced
concrete structures. If attended to immediately, the building’s structural integrity
will not be affected.
Here’s how spalling concrete can be prevented:

Paint ceilings regularly

Paint protects your ceiling and helps to prevent carbonation. Ideally, you should
repaint your ceiling every 3 to 5 years using anti-carbonation or good quality paint.

Seal cracks/ holes properly

Check your ceiling regularly for any holes or cracks. These should be sealed
immediately to prevent moisture and carbon dioxide from entering the concrete.
Similarly, seal up any holes drilled into the ceiling that are no longer in use (e.g.
holes left after a ceiling fixture is removed).

Ensure sufficient ventilation

A humid environment will speed up carbonation. To reduce the humidity in
moisture-prone areas such as the kitchen, toilet, and bathroom, open the
windows, vents, or doors when the areas are not in use.
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Repairing spalling concrete
With regular maintenance, spalling concrete within HDB flats will usually be minor
and can be easy repaired. However, if the spalling concrete is left unattended over
a long period, it will spread to a bigger area and weaken the building structure

The steps below briefly show how spalling concrete is repaired

Step 1: Remove the spalled concrete

Step 2: Clean and paint the corroded steel bars
Step 3: Patch the hacked area
Step 4: Paint the area
For more clarification watch the video here
https://www.youtube.com/embed/W0_tEBfr3cU

2) Problem:- CRAZING OR CRAZE CRACKING

Crazing, sometimes referred to as “map
cracking”, is a pattern of random fine cracks
that occur at the surface of concrete at an
early age when the unhardened surface
mortar dries out faster than the concrete
below. This drying at the surface causes the
concrete at the surface to shrink at a faster
rate than the concrete below causing
stresses at the surface resulting in the fine
“map crack” pattern. Since these cracks occur at the surface only, they become an
unpleasant sight but are none-the-less harmless structurally and will not cause
durability problems. Crazing may be more evident when slabs are constructed in
hot, windy, and dry installation conditions. The best way to prevent the craze
cracks from occurring is to understand the conditions and construction practices
that encourage them to form in the first place.

Root Causes:-
▪Use of a very wet mix (>5 inches slump)
▪Finishing of surface too early, especially when bleed water is present
▪Bringing too many fines to the surface by over finishing
▪Sprinkling dry cement on the surface to dry up bleed water
▪Sprinkling water by brush to aid finishing

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▪Start curing too late or improperly (i.e. intermittent wetting and drying)

Remedial Measures:-
▪Use lower slump concretes; do not add water to the mix adjust slump with
admixtures instead ▪Use concrete with minimal bleeding characteristics
▪Do not finish the concrete until bleed water has disappeared or been removed
▪Do not overwork the surface to prevent excess fines from coming to the surface
▪Start curing immediately following the final finishing pass; cure continuously for 7
days uninterrupted (intermittent wetting and drying increases risk for crazing)
▪When appropriate, use broom finished to prevent overworking the surface
▪Take extra care when using dry-shake colors. Overworking the dry-shake
materials with a steel trowel can cause crazing
▪Keep any combustion engine exhaust from venting onto the concrete surface.
Carbonation from exhaust may cause surface shrinkage, dusting and crazing.

3) Problem:- Sulphate Attack

Sulphate attack on concrete is a

chemical breakdown mechanism where
sulphate ions attack components of the
cement paste. The compounds
responsible for sulphate attack on
concrete are water-soluble sulphate-
containing salts, such as alkali-earth
(calcium, magnesium) and alkali
(sodium, potassium) sulphates that are
capable of chemically reacting with
components of concrete.

Forms of Sulphate Attack on Concrete

Sulphate attack on concrete might show itself in different forms depending on:

 The chemical form of the sulphate

 The atmospheric environment which the concrete is exposed to.

What happens when sulphates get into concrete?

When sulphates enters into concrete:

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  It combines with the C-S-H, or concrete paste, and begins destroying the
paste that holds the concrete together. As sulphate dries, new compounds
are formed, often called ettringite.
 These new crystals occupy empty space, and as they continue to form, they
cause the paste to crack, further damaging the concrete.

Root Causes:-
Sources of Sulphates in Concrete
Following are the sources of sulphates which are responsible for sulphate attack:

1. Internal Sources
This is more rare but, originates from such concrete-making materials as hydraulic
cements, fly ash, aggregate, and admixtures.

 Portland cement might be over-sulphated.

 presence of natural gypsum in the aggregate.
 Admixtures also can contain small amounts of sulphates.

2. External Sources
External sources of sulphate are more common and usually are a result of high-
sulphate soils and ground waters, or can be the result of atmospheric or industrial
water pollution.

 Soil may contain excessive amounts of gypsum or other sulphate.

 Ground water be transported to the concrete foundations, retaining walls,
and other underground structures.
 Industrial waste waters.

Reactions of Sulphate Attack on Concrete

Nature of reaction: Chemical and physical reactions

Sulphate attack process decrease the durability of concrete by changing the
chemical nature of the cement paste, and of the mechanical properties of the
concrete.

1. Chemical Process of Sulphate Attack

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The sulphate ion + hydrated calcium aluminate and/or the calcium hydroxide
components of hardened cement paste + water = ettringite (calcium
sulphoaluminate hydrate)
C3A.Cs.H18 + 2CH +2s+12H = C3A.3Cs.H32
C3A.CH.H18 + 2CH +3s + 11H = C3A.3Cs.H32
The sulphate ion + hydrated calcium aluminate and/or the calcium hydroxide
components of hardened cement paste + water = gypsum (calcium sulphate
hydrate)
Na2SO4+Ca(OH)2 +2H2O = CaSO4.2H2O +2NaOH
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 + 2H2O = CaSO4.2H2O + Mg(OH)2
Two forms of chemical reaction occurs depending on:

 Concentration and source of sulphate ions .Diagnosis

 Composition of cement paste in concrete.

2. Physical Process of Sulphate Attack

 The complex physicochemical process of “sulphate attack” are

interdependent as is the resulting damage.
 physical sulphate attack, often evidenced by bloom (the presence of sodium
sulphates Na2SO4 and/or Na2SO4.10H2O) at exposed concrete surfaces.
 It is not only a cosmetic problem, but it is the visible displaying of possible
chemical and microstructural problems within the concrete matrix.

Both chemical and physical phenomena observed as sulphate attack, and their
separation is inappropriate.

Remedial Measures:-
Prevention of Sulphate Attack on Concrete
To prevent the sulphate attack on concrete, we must understand the factors which
affect the sulphate attack.

Main factors affecting sulphate attack are:

1. Type of Cement and its Content

The most important mineralogical phases of cement that affect the intensity of
sulphate attack are: C3A, C3S/C2S ratio and C4AF.

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2. Fly ash addition
The addition of a pozzolanic admixture such as fly ash reduces the C3A content of
cement

3. Types of Sulphate and its Concentration

The sulphate attack tends to increase with an increase in the concentration of the
sulphate solution up to a certain level.

4. Chloride ions

Other factors:

 The level of the water table and its seasonal variation

 The flow of groundwater and soil porosity
 The form of construction
 The quality of concrete

Control of Sulphate Attack on Concrete

Following measures help to control sulphate attack””:
1. The quality of concrete, specifically a low permeability, is the best protection
against sulphate attack.

 Adequate concrete thickness

 High cement content
 Low w/c ratio
 Proper compaction and curing

4) Problem:- Alkali-silica reaction in concrete

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) can cause serious
expansion and cracking in concrete,
resulting in major structural problems and
sometimes necessitating demolition. This is
a short introduction to ASR -
Pic explanation:- Polished section of
concrete, scanning electron microscope
image: chert aggregate particle with internal cracks due to ASR extending from the
aggregate into the nearby concrete (arrowed).

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Root Causes:-
ASR is the most common form of alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) in concrete; the
other, much less common, form is alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR and ACR
are therefore both subsets of AAR.
ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the alkaline cement pore
solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (eg: chert,
quartzite, opal, strained quartz crystals).

A gel is produced, which increases in volume by taking up water and so exerts an

expansive pressure, resulting in failure of the concrete. In unrestrained concrete
(that is, without any reinforcement), ASR causes characteristic 'map cracking' or
'Isle of Man cracking'.

The conditions required for ASR to occur are:

 A sufficiently high alkali content of the cement (or alkali fromother sources)
 A reactive aggregate, such as chert
 Water - ASR will not occur if there is no available water in the concrete,
since alkali-silica gel formation requires water

Remedial Measures:-
The use of pozzolans in the concrete mix as a partial cement replacement can
reduce the likelihood of ASR occurring as they reduce the alkalinity of the pore
fluid.
In the pozzolanic reaction where a pozzolan is used as a partial cement
replacement, the particles are small. As there is much calcium available in young
concrete, the alkali-silicate gel forms in a thin layer around the pozzolanic particle
and quickly converts to C-S-H. No expansion results.
Eliminate water’s access to the concrete. The reaction and subsequent expansion
can be stopped by maintaining the concrete’s internal relative humidity below
80%. Otherwise, there is little that can be done because the gel will continue to
expand as long as moisture is available to it. Gel expansion is the destructive
element of the process.

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5) Problem:- Carbonation of concrete
Root Causes:- Carbonation of
concrete is associated with the
corrosion of steel reinforcement and
with shrinkage. However, it also
increases both the compressive and
tensile strength of concrete, so not all
of its effects on concrete are bad.

Root Causes:- Carbonation is the

result of the dissolution of CO2 in the concrete pore fluid and this reacts with
calcium from calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate to form calcite
(CaCO3). Aragonite may form in hot conditions.
Within a few hours, or a day or two at most, the surface of fresh concrete will have
reacted with CO2 from the air. Gradually, the process penetrates deeper into the
concrete at a rate proportional to the square root of time. After a year or so it may
typically have reached a depth of perhaps 1 mm for dense concrete of low
permeability made with a low water/cement ratio, or up to 5 mm or more for
more porous and permeable concrete made using a high water/cement ratio.
Carbonation can be tested using phenolphthalein indicator solution.

Remedial Measures:-

1. At design stage:
(i) Adequate cover to concrete should be planned.
(ii) Adequate thickness of structural members particularly non-structural members
e.g. chajjas, parapets, pergolas and fins etc. should be provided.
(iii) Proper detailing of reinforcement specially at junctions should be designed to
avoid congestion and to ensure smooth placement of concrete.

2. At the construction stage:

(i) Concrete should be workable with minimum water cement ratio (< 0.45). It
should be well compacted by vibrator. Thus we should try to achieve highest
density with minimum void.
(ii) Ensure proper grading and quality of aggregate free from deleterious material.
(iii) Use potable water only.

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(iv) Leak proof and properly designed from work should be used. Ensure proper
mixing, placement, compaction and curing of concrete. No segregation,
honeycombing is allowed.
(v) Use of plasticizers and super-plasticizers to achieve workability for controlled
water-cement ratio in placement of concrete in congested conditions.
(vi) Binding wires to be turned inside (should not touch formwork). G.I. wires to be
used in aggressive environment.
(vii) Proper cover with dense concrete / mortar is must.
(viii) Provision of drip course for projections should be made.
(ix) Proper cement to be used to prevent sulphate and chloride attack.
(x) Cement not more than 3 months old should be used.

3. Protection of reinforcement bars:

Protection to reinforcement bars against corrosion can also be provided by:
(i) Using corrosion resistant steel:
Constituents of steel alloy are adjusted to resist corrosion.
(ii) Fusion bonded epoxy coating:
This process has good results in protecting reinforcement bars from corrosion.
Powder epoxy is fusion bonded to bar at about 2500C temperature. This is being
used in coastal areas particularly in Mumbai in prestigious projects like Bridges,
Flyovers, Shipyards and Jetties. Loss of bond is about 20%. IS:13620 – 1993
provides the specification for “Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coated Reinforcement Bars”.
(iii) Passive coating with polymer based cement slurry:
In this process, reinforcement bars are cleaned for rust and freshly prepared
polymer cement slurry is applied by brushes.
(iv) Protective epoxy coating:
Certain epoxy coating are also available in the market. Firstly rust is removed by
wire brush or sand blasting. Thereafter, epoxy as per manufacturer’s specifications
are applied by spray / brush. Loss of bond may be upto 30%.

6) Problem:- Honey Combing

Honeycombing is the term used to describe
areas of the surface that ar e coarse and
stony
Honeycombs are hollow spaces and cavities
left in concrete mass on surface or inside the
concrete mass where concrete could not
reach. These look like honey bees nest.
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Honeycombs which are on sides are visible to naked eyes and can be detected
easily as soon shuttering is removed. Honey combs which are inside mass of
concrete can only be detected by advanced techniques like ultrasonic testing etc

Root Causes:-
It may be caused by insufficient fine material in the mix, perhaps due to incorrect
aggregate grading or poor mixing
Alternatively, honeycombing may be caused by leakage of grout or mortar fraction
from the concrete at construction or formwork joints The obvious solution here is
to ensure that joints are well sealed and leak-free.
Small, shallow areas of honeycombing are probably mainly cosmetic. However,
deeper areas will lead to a local reduction in the protection to the reinforcement
from the concrete covre and hence possibly durability problems in the future.
It occurs in concrete due to several reasons such as excess water in the
concrete,segregation due to excess vibration etc.The demerits of this
honeycombing is it reduces the strength of the concrete, affects the aesthetic
appearance etc.
Honeycomb is due to non-reaching of concrete to all places due to which cavities
and hallow pockets are created, main reasons are:
1) Improper vibration during concrete.

2) Less cover to reinforcement bars

3) Use of very stiff concrete (this can be avoided by controlling water as per slump
test).

4) Places like junction of beam to beam to column and to one or more beams are
the typical spots where honey combs are observed. This is due to jumbling of
reinforcement of beams and column rods at one place; special attention is
required at such place during concreting and vibrating.

5) Presence of more percentage of bigger size of aggregate in concrete also

prevents concrete to fill narrow spaces between the reinforcement rods.

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Remedial Measures:-
This can be corrected by increasing the sand and cement content of the mix and by
proper mixing, placing and compaction

Strictly speaking wherever honeycombs are observer concrete should be broken

and the portion should be re concreted after applying grouting chemical to the old
surface. Honeycombs as a defect not only reduces the load bearing capacity but
water finds an easy way to reinforcement rods and rusting and corrosion starts.
Corrosion is a process which continues through reinforcement rods even in good
concrete, this result in loosing grip between rods and concrete, which is very
dangerous to safety and life of concrete structures. R.C.C. structures have failed
with in 20 or 30 years of their construction which is less than half their projected
life. Especially no risk should be taken in case of columns, Machine foundations,
Rafts, Beams etc., where breaking and recasting is the only best way.
In case of honey combs on surface pressure grouting with cement based chemicals
which are non-shrinkable can be adopted after taking opinion of the designer and
acting as per his advice.
It will not be out of context to point out that contractors and their supervisors are
in the habit of hiding honey combs by applying super facially cement plaster on the
honey combs, hence site engineer must be very cautious.
At places of junction of columns and beams concrete with strictly 20mm and down
aggregates should be used with slightly more water and cement to avoid
honeycombs. Taping with wooden hammer the sides of shuttering from outs side
during concreting and vibrating will help minimizing honeycombs to a great extent
in case of columns and beams. Use of thinner needle say 25mm or less with
vibrator at intricate places of concreting will also help in reducing honey combs.

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