ECO SYSTEM:

• In 1935, the British ecologist A.G.Tansley coined the term “eco system”.
The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological
sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living
organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner. Hence,
• A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem. (OR)
• A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is
called as “ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.
Scope
Scope of ecosystem : Ecology plays an important role in agriculture crop rotation, weed
control ( unwanted plant ); management of grasslands, forestry etc., biological surveys,
fishery surveys, conservation of soil, wild life, surveys of water bodies like rivers, lakes;
ponds etc...
Importance of Ecosystem:
It provides habitat to wild plants and animals.
It promotes various food chains and food webs.
It controls essential ecological processes and promotes lives.
Involved in the recycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
It helps in maintaining the usual flow of energy in an ecosystem including- Carbon Cycle,
Energy Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Oxygen Cycle, and Water Cycle.
CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:
• The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
• A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
• These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.
The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
• This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem. Forest ecosystem, and Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
• This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types based on salt
content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>
2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.
STRUCTURE OF ECO-SYSTEM
The structural attributes (components) of these components are:
Biotic components
Abiotic components
1. Biotic components: These constitute all the living members of an eco-system.
Ex. Plants, animals and micro organisms. These are of three types:
Producers
Consumers
Decomposers

Producers- These are constituted mainly by green plants. Green plants trap solar energy and
converts into potential chemical energy in the process called photosynthesis. These species
are also known as Photo- autotrophs.
The plant species which live inside the ocean waters prepare their food in the absence of
sunlight by the oxidation of chemicals and they are known as chemo-autotrophs and the
process is called chemosynthesis. (Sulphur bacteria)
Consumers- Organisms which get their food by feeding on other organisms are called
consumers.
a. Herbivores- they feed on plant species (primary producers) eg- rabbit, insects
b. Carnivores- they food on herbivores and other carnivores eg- frog, snake
c. Omnivores- they feed on both plants and animals. Eg- humans
d. Detritivores- they feed on parts of dead organisms, waste of living organisms etc. Eg-
earthworms, ants.
Decomposers- they derive their food by breaking down the complex organic molecules to
simple organic compounds and finally to inorganic nutrients. Eg- bacteria, fungi
2. Abiotic components: - Abiotic components of an eco-system consist of non living
substances and factors. They are broadly divided into Physical and chemical factors.
 Physical factors include temperature, wind, soil type, water availability, humidity,
precipitation, light, etc.
 Chemical factors include nutrients like Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, potassium,
topography, pH of the soil, etc.
FUNCTIONS OF ECO-SYSTEM:
Eco-systems have some functional attributes due to which components remain and running
together. The tendency of every eco-system depends on various function performed by the
structural components of the eco-system.
The main functional attributes of eco-system are:
Food Chain
Food Web.
Energy flow
Ecological pyramids
Food chain: The transfer of food, energy from producers through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten is known as a food chain.

Types of food chains: There are 2 types of food chains:

a. Grazing food chain: This type of food chain starts from the living green plants goes to
grazing herbivores and onto carnivores, eco-systems with such type of food chains are
directly depend upon the influx of the solar radiation. Most of the eco-systems in nature
follow this type of food chain.
b. Detroiter’s food chain: This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into
micro organisms and then to organisms which feed on detritivors (decomposers) and
predators. Such eco-systems are not dependent on direct solar energy and chiefly depend
upon the influx of dead organic matter produced in other eco-systems. Ex: bacteria and fungi
feeding on dead organic matter and are eaten by small fish which act as prey to large fish or
birds.

FOOD WEB
Food chains in ecosystems are rarely found to operate as isolated linear sequences. Rather,
they are found to be interconnected and usually form a complex network with several
linkages and are known as food webs. Thus, “food web is a network of food chains where
different types of organisms are connected at different trophic levels, so that there are a
number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level.”
Ecological Pyramids:
• Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which
the tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in
organist population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.
1. Pyramid of numbers:
• It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
• It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
• Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.
1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:
• The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.
• The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and large in numbers.
So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1 st tropic level).
• The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic level. Since the
numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses, the size of which is lower.
• The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III tropic level. Since
the numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the rats, the size of which is lower.
• The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic level. The
number and size of the last tropic level is lowest .
• Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and carnivores are
decreases from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level. Thus, these pyramids are upright.
• Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from lower tropic
level to higher tropic level as shown in figure.
2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:
• A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
• In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number. So, these
producers occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
• The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II tropic level.
Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher when compared to the trees,
the size of which is broader.
• The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy the third
tropic level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when compared to the birds, insects
the size of which is lower.
• The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV tropic level. Since
the number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the fox and snakes the size of which is
very (or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and
hence it is called partially upright of number.
3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:
The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number.
2. Pyramid of Biomass:
• It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological material (or)
organism) present in each tropic level.
• It is expressed in gram per unit area.
Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
• The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first tropic level to
consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of biomass”
• A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
• In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer levels (as
shown in figure)
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:
• The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer level are
called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.
• Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
• In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer levels as shown
in the following figure.
3. Pyramid of Energy:
• It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
• It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
• In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level. At each
successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat,
respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence,
there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and every producer to omnivores (or) top
carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright.
Energy Flow Models:
Energy flow in various trophic levels of an ecosystem can be explained with the help of
various energy flow models. They are;
A. Universal Energy Flow Model
B. Single Channel Energy Flow Model
C. Double channel or Y-shaped flow model
Universal energy flow model:
This model tells, as the energy flow takes place, there is a gradual loss of energy at every
level as indicated in the picture. This occurs mainly due to respiration, locomotion and other
metabolic activities.
Single energy flow model:
The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner through a single channel of
producers to top carnivores, and illustrated the gradual decline in energy level due to loss of
energy at each successive trophic level in a grazing food chain.
Double channel or Y-shaped flow model:
In nature, both grazing and detritus food chain operate in the same ecosystem. However, it is
the grazing food chain which predominates. The double channel or Y-shaped flow model of
energy flow shows the passage of energy through two food chains which are separated I time
and space.
Biogeochemical Cycle
Bio – Biological (living being) Geo – Geographic (rocks, soil, air & water)
Chemical exchange between living things and non-living things is Biogeochemical cycle.
Types of Biogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical cycles are basically divided into two types:
Gaseous cycles – Includes Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and the Water cycle.
Sedimentary cycles – Includes Sulphur, Phosphorus, etc.
water cycle
Water is the basic element of nature and it is the main source of life in our earth
The water cycle also called the hydro logic cycle. it's a continuous process that includes five
steps. These are Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation, Runoff and Percolation
Evaporation: Evaporation the water cycle starts with evaporation. it is a process where water
at the surface turns into water vapour. water absorbs heat energy from the Sun and turns into
vapours from the water bodies like the oceans, the seas, the lakes and the river bodies. These
are the main source of evaporation. Through the evaporation water moves from the
hydrosphere to the atmosphere, as the water evaporates it reduces the temperature of the
bodies
Condensation: Condensation, it is the process by which water vapour in the air is changed
into liquid water, it rises up in the atmosphere at the high altitudes. The water vapour changes
into very tiny particles of ice water droplets because the temperature at high altitudes is low.
this process is called condensation. These particles come close together and form clouds and
fog in the sky. This process changes the state of water from gas to liquid. This occurs because
the water droplets combine to make bigger droplets also when the air cannot hold any more
water it precipitates, at high altitudes, the temperature is low and hence the droplets lose
their heat energy. These water droplets fall down as rain. note if the temperature is very low
below zero degrees. The water droplets fall as snow. Water also precipitates in the form of
drizzle sleet and hail. Hence the water enters lithosphere.
Runoff as the water pours down in whatever form it leads to runoff as water runs over the
ground it displaces the topsoil with it and moves runoff is the process where water runs over
the surface of earth when the snow melts into water it also leads to runoff, the minerals along
with the stream this runoff combines to form channels and then rivers and ends up into lakes
seas and oceans. here the water enters hydrosphere.
Percolation sometimes this water turns into groundwater or water that are soaked up into the
ground this process is called percolation. Water flows downward under the layers of the soil
and then it starts again
Oxygen cycle
oxygen is freely available in the air and also dissolved in water. It is the second most
abundant gas present in the atmosphere and also the most common element of the human
body. It plays an essential role in most life forms on earth and also serves as an
essential element in biomolecules like proteins and nucleic acids.
The oxygen cycle is a biological process which helps in maintaining the oxygen level by
moving through three main spheres of the earth which are:

Atmosphere Lithosphere Biosphere

This biogeochemical cycle explains the movement of oxygen gas within the atmosphere, the
ecosystem, biosphere and the lithosphere. The oxygen cycle is interconnected with the carbon
cycle.
It is released through the process of photolysis.
The main steps of the cycle include the following:
Stage 1: All green plants tend to undergo the process of photosynthesis and release oxygen
into atmosphere
Stage 2: All aerobic organisms then inhale oxygen for respiration
Stage 3: This stage includes the exhalation of carbon dioxide by animals back into the
atmosphere further taken up by plants during photosynthesis. Now oxygen is balanced within
the atmospshere.
Stage 3: This stage includes the exhalation of carbon dioxide by animals back into the
atmosphere further taken up by plants during photosynthesis. Now oxygen is balanced within
the atmosphere.
Carbon cycle:
Most of the carbon dioxide enters the living world through photosynthesis. The organic
compounds synthesised are passed from the producers (green plants) to the consumers
(herbivores and carnivores). During respiration, plants and animals release carbon back to the
surrounding medium as carbon-dioxide. The dead bodies of plants and animals as well as the
body wastes, which accumulate carbon compounds, are decomposed by micro-organisms to
release carbon dioxide.
Carbon is also recycled during burning of fossil fuels.
Nitrogen Cycle
“Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert nitrogen present in
the atmosphere to a more usable form for living organisms.”
Furthermore, nitrogen is a key nutrient element for plants. However, the abundant nitrogen in
the atmosphere cannot be used directly by plants or animals.
Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many
forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the
atmosphere.
It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, decay and
putrefaction.
The entire process of the Nitrogen Cycle, one of the important biogeochemical cycle takes
place in five stages:
1) Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria – Converting inert atmospheric nitrogen (N2)into
biologically available forms such as ammonia (NH3), nitrates, or nitrites
2) Nitrification by Bacteria – Converting ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate
Nitrification :
In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in the
soil. Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help of Nitrosomonas bacteria
species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter. This
conversion is very important as ammonia gas is toxic for plants.
The reaction involved in the process of Nitrification is as follows:
2NH3 + 3O2 → 2NO2– + 2H+ + 2H2O
2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–
3) Assimilation by Plants – Absorbing nitrogen from the soil and incorporating them in
the plant and animal bodies.
Assimilation
Primary producers – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with the help of
their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions or
ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins. This way, it
enters the food web when the primary consumers eat the plants. Nitrogen assimilation is the
process by which inorganic nitrogen compounds are used to form organic nitrogen
compounds such as amino acids, amides, etc. Plants and other organisms, which cannot
utilise nitrogen molecules directly, depend on the absorption of nitrogen as nitrates or
ammonia.
4) Ammonification by Decomposers – Converting the dead organic nitrogen of plants or
animals back into ammonia
Ammonification : When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is
released back into the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil,
convert the organic matter back into ammonium. This process of decomposition produces
ammonia, which is further used for other biological processes.
5) Denitrification by Denitrifiers – Reducing nitrates or nitrites and releasing gaseous
nitrogen.
Denitrification
Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds make their way back into the
atmosphere by converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). This process of the
nitrogen cycle is the final stage and occurs in the absence of oxygen. Denitrification is carried
out by the denitrifying bacterial species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas, which will process
nitrate to gain oxygen and gives out free nitrogen gas as a byproduct.
The sulfur cycle
All living things require sulfur in order to make protein. let's take a look at how sulfur cycles
itself around the earth.
First sulfur reserves are found in the lithosphere and are released by weathering.
In addition, hydrogen sulphide and sulfur dioxide gas is released into the atmosphere by
volcanic eruptions, hot springs and the decay of biological material in swamps and bogs.
Marine algae produce dimethyl sulfide that enters the atmosphere as tiny droplets. Sulfur
dioxide gas also forms when dimethyl sulfide reacts with oxygen gas.
The burning of fossil fuels also releases sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere and creates sulfur trioxide, the sulfur
trioxide reacts with water in the atmosphere to produce sulphuric acid. Sulfur trioxide also
reacts with the ammonia in the atmosphere to produce sulfate salts. The sulfuric acid in
sulfate salts fall to the earth by precipitation like rainfall. The soil absorbs this sulfate salts,
plants then absorb the sulfur by absorbing the sulfate salts from the soil, animals in turn get
sulfur by eating the plants and the animals release sulfur when they Decay. As animals decay
they release sulfate salts and hydrogen sulphide. Anaerobic bacteria breaks down the
hydrogen sulfide into sulfur gas and the aerobic bacteria converts the sulfur into sulfate salts
which again the plants absorb and then like any other cycle it just keeps going around and
around.
Phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus mainly passes through the hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. It is essential
for both animal and plant growth. However, it gradually depletes in soil. In comparison to the
carbon cycle, the phosphorus cycle does not pass through the atmosphere. Phosphorus cycle
is said to be a very slow process.
The steps involved in Phosphorus cycle can be provided as follows:
Weathering: The phosphate salts are mostly found in rocks and are hence broken down and
washed away from the rocks into the ground. Hence it is seen that the process starts from the
earth’s crust.
Absorption by Plants: The phosphate salts once dissolved in soil will be absorbed by the
plans however the amount taken is very less. Hence some phosphate fertilizers are added by
farmers for the plants to take in. However as phosphates do not properly dissolve in water
they are not absorbed by the life in aquatic ecosystems.
Absorption by Animals: The animals absorb most of the phosphorus content by consumption
of other animals and plants. The rate of phosphorus cycle is faster in most animals compared
to as seen in rocks.
Phosphorus being returned to the ecosystem: The plants and animals then tend to die and
hence pass on the phosphorus from their body back to the ecosystem which is converted into
the inorganic form and recycled to rocks and soil. This step is further again seen by
weathering and hence the cycle goes again on.
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation is the building up of substances in the body of living organisms.
Generally, organisms uptake toxic chemicals such as pollutants, including pesticides, through
the skin or via ingestion. And, this accumulation is a gradual process. It occurs when the
absorption rate of the chemical is higher than its rate of excretion. Prior to excretion, these
chemicals undergo catabolism in order to breakdown them into excretable forms. Therefore,
in order to persist for a longer time, the chemical has to have a longer biological half-life
without undergoing catabolism. It is why bioaccumulation increases the risk of chronic
poisoning even when the concentration of the toxic compound in the environment is not very
high. At a certain level, symptoms specific to the type of chemical may be manifested.
Furthermore, bioaccumulation refers to the uptake of toxic compounds through all possible
sources, including air, water, soil, etc. Bioconcentration, on the other hand, is the uptake of
toxic substances from water alone. Besides, these toxic chemicals are mainly lipophilic and
fat-
loving. Therefore, they accumulate in the fat tissues of the organism.

Biological magnification is the concentration of toxic compounds successively through the

trophic levels of a food chain. Generally, the three factors that determine the biological
magnification of a particular chemical are persistence, food chain energetics, and rate of
excretion. Basically, these toxic chemicals cannot be broken down by environmental
processes. Therefore, they are persistent. The concentration of them also increases
progressively when they move up a food chain. Therefore, the concentration of a particular
toxic substance is low at the lower trophic levels in contrast to the concentration of that
particular chemical at higher trophic levels. Hence, the higher trophic level contains the
highest concentration of the toxic chemical.
Moreover, the rate of excretion is the third factor to determine the biological magnification of
a toxic compound. Here, the internal degradation of the chemical is slow due to less water
solubility. Consequently, this results in less catabolism, which in turn reduces the rate of
excretion.
Biomagnification is the method by which certain substances, including pesticides or heavy
metals in rivers, lakes or ocean, progressively concentrate at the higher trophic levels of a
food chain. Typically, these substances are incorporated into the diet of small organisms such
as zooplankton that represent the lower trophic levels of the aquatic food chains. After that,
they reach into the small fish, large fish, birds, animals, and even to humans that are at a
higher trophic level.

Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity of an environment the maximum number of individuals in a
species that an environment can support for the long term is the carrying capacity carrying
capacity is limited by the energy water oxygen and space which all limiting factors as a
population nears the carrying capacity resources become limited and if a population exceeds
the carrying capacity deaths began to outnumber births.
For example… the fish family that live in the fishbowl life is plentiful there's plenty of space
there's food to eat there's energy from the Sun and they're able to reproduce however as they
reproduce the resources begin become limited they're limited by space and the amount of
food however they're still able to reproduce eventually there become so many fish that some
of the fish begin to die off because there's not food to eat and the water is limited they have
reached the carrying capacity and deaths will outnumber births until it gets back in balance so
there we go the largest population that an environment can support is known as the carrying
capacity.

Ecosystem services is the benefits gained by humans from ecosystems. The numerous
benefits we obtain from the ecosystem are known by the term Ecosystem services.
Ecosystem services are classified into four types: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)
classified the ecosystem services.
Provisioning sevices: products obtained from ecosystems
This includes the products/ raw materials or energy outputs like food, water, medicines and
other resources from ecosystems.
Ecosystems are a source of food, water, medicines, wood, biofuels, etc. also they provide
conditions for these resources to grow.
Regulating services: Benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem, processes
Ecosystems provide many of the basic services that make life possible for people. Plants
clean air and filter water, bacteria decompose wastes, bees pollinate flowers, and tree roots
hold soil in place to prevent erosion. All these processes work together to make ecosystems
clean, sustainable, functional, and resilient to change. A regulating service is the benefit
provided by ecosystem processes that moderate natural phenomena. Regulating services
include pollination, decomposition, water purification, erosion and flood control, and carbon
storage and climate regulation
Cultural services: Nonmaterial benefits obtained from ecosystems.
It includes tourism, provides recreational, aesthetic, cultural and spiritual services etc.
Most natural elements such as landscapes, mountains, caves are used as a place for cultural
and artistic purposes and few of them are considered sacred.
Moreover, ecosystems provide enormous economic benefits in the name of tourism.
Supporting services: Services necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services.
They provide habitat for different life forms, retain biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and other
services for supporting life on the earth.

Ecosystem Value
The value of an ecosystem can be distinguished as:
Use value — Can be split into Direct and Indirect use values:
Direct use value: Obtained through a removable product in nature (i.e., timber, fish, water).
Indirect use value: Obtained through a non-removable product in nature (i.e.,
sunset, waterfall).
Non-use value — Values for existence of the natural resource. For example, knowing
that tigers are in the wild, even though you may never see them.
Option value: Placed on the potential future ability to use a resource even though it is not
currently used and the likelihood of future use is very low. This reflects the willingness to
preserve an option for potential future use.
Bequest value or existence value: Placed on a resource that will never be used by current
individuals, derived from the value of satisfaction from preserving a natural environment or a
historic environment (i.e., natural heritage or cultural heritage) for future generations.
Total economic value is the price of the customer's best alternative (the reference value) plus
the economic value of whatever differentiates the offering from the alternative (the
differentiation value).