A

COMPREHENSIVE
GRAMMAR
OF THE
ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
Randolph Quirk
Sidney Greenbaum
Geoffrey Leech
Jan Svartvik

Index by David Crystal

!!
PI PI II
PI PI PI

Longman
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First published 1985

Fourth impression 1986
Standard edition ISBN 582 51734 6
De luxe edition ISBN 582 96502

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A comprehensive grammar of the English language.
1. English language —Grammar— 1950-
I. Quirk, Randolph II. Crystal, David
428.2 PE1112

ISBN 0-582-51734-6

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

A comprehensive grammar of the English language.
Bibliography : p.
Includes index.
1. English language —Grammar— 195- . I. Quirk,
Randolph.
PE1106.C65 1985 428.2 84-27848
ISBN 0-582-51734-6

Set in APS 4 Times and Univers.

Produced by Longman Group (FE) Ltd

Printed in Hong Kong

Designed by Arthur Lockwood

 .
: : : : : : ! :

Subject-verb concord 755

Subject-verb concord

General rule
10.34 CONCORD (also termed 'agreement') can be defined as the relationship
between two grammatical units such that one of them displays a particular
feature (eg plurality) that accords with a displayed (or semantically implicit)
feature in the other. The most important type of concord in English is

concord of 3rd person number between subject and verb. The normally
observed rule is very simple
A singular subject requires a singular verb
My daughter watches television after supper, [singular subject +
singular verb]

A plural subject requires a plural verb

My daughters watch television after supper, [plural subject +
plural verb]

When the subject is realized by a noun phrase, the phrase counts as

singular if its head is singular

The CHANGE in male attitudes is most obvious in industry.

The CHANGES in male attitude are most obvious in industry.

Finite and nonfinite clauses generally count as singular

How you got there doesn't concern me.

To treat them as hostages is criminal.
Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health.

Prepositional phrases and adverbs functioning as subject (c/10. 15) also count
as singular:

In the evenings is best for me. Slowly does it

An apparent exception for clausesis the nominal relative clause. Nominal

on the continuum from clause to noun phrase (c/15.8/).

relative clauses are
For the purpose of concord, their number depends on the interpretation of
the number of the w/i-element. With the determiners what and whatever, the
concord depends on the number of the determined noun. Contrast [3] and [4]
below

What were supposed to be new proposals were in fact

modifications of earlier ones. [1]
What was once a palace is now a pile of rubble. [2]
Whatever book a Times reviewer praises sells well. [3]
What ideas he has are his wife's. [4]

A verb counts as singular if the first verb in a finite verb phrase has a
singular form

My son has 1 • ^. r
. > no mtention of spendmg
^ " a vacation with me.
My sons havej ,

A letter has 1 ^ , . ^
— ^, , >
,

been sent io ewery applicant.

Two letters have
,
 ' : :

756 The simple sentence

The application of the general rule is restricted in several general respects

(1) Except for the verb be, the verb shows a distinction of number only in
the 3rd person present. Hence, the verb generally does not show concord in
the past:

-, } watched television after supper.

My ,

daughters]
, ^

The verb be displays concord also in the 3rd person past:

My daughter was watching television in my bedroom.

My daughters were watching television in my bedroom.
(2) Number concord is displayed only in the indicative. Nonfinite verbs,
imperatives, and subjunctives make no number distinctions.

(3) Modal auxiliaries (cf 3.39ff) make no number distinctions:

My daughter
^ , , may watch television after supper.
My daughters , ,

Note [a] It is which is not clearly semantically

possible to generalize the rule of concord to 'A subject
plural requires a singular verb'; that unmarked form, to be used in
is, to treat singular as the
neutral circumstances, where no positive indication of plurality is present. This would explain,
in addition to clausal subjects, the tendency in informal speech for is/was to follow the pseudo-
subject there in existential sentences such as There's hundreds of people on the waiting list (cf
18.44^). Similarly, interrogative who and what as subjects normally take a singular verb even
when the speaker has reason to believe that more than one person or entity is involved Who is :

making all that noise? However, a plural verb may be used if other words in the sentence indicate
that a plural subject is expected in the answer (ff/io have not received their passes?).
On the other hand, the principle of proximity (cf 10.35) effects a change from singular to
plural more often than the reverse, perhaps because the plural is the form that is morphologically
unmarked.
[b] Apparent exceptions to the concord rule arise with singular nouns ending with the -s of the
plural inflection (measles, billiards, mathematics, etc, c/5.75), or conversely plural nouns lacking
the inflection (cattle, people, clergy, etc, c/5.78):
Measles is sometimes serious. Our people are complaining.
[c] Plural phrases (including coordinate phrases) count as singular if they are used as names,
titles, quotations, etc (c/ further 17.90):
Crime and Punishment is perhaps the best constructed of Dostoyevsky's novels, but The
Karamazov is undoubtedly
Brothers his masterpiece.
'The Cedars' has a huge garden.
'Senior citizens' means, in common parlance, people over sixty.
Such noun phrases can be regarded as appositive structures with an implied singular head: the
book 'Crime and Punishment', the expression 'senior citizens'. The titles of some works that are
collections of stories, etc, may be counted as either singular or plural

The Canterbury Tales \ '

. hn many manuscripts.
[d] On the treatment of data, media, criteria, and phenomena as singular nouns, c/5.91, 5.98
Note.
[e] Zero plural nouns (c/'5.86) do not display number. Hence, when they are subject and the verb
is a modal or simple past, number diff"erences manifest themselves only covertly through pronoun
reference (c/ covert gender, 5. 104):
r/,9
The sheep jumped over the fence, didn't < , ^

[f] It is a peculiarity of English that -s is the regular inflection for singular in the verb but for
plural in the noun.
 ; : :

Subject-verb concord 757

Principles of grammatical concord, notional concord,

and proximity
10.35 The rule that the verb matches its subject in number may be called the
principle of grammatical concord. Difficulties over concord arise through
occasional conflict between this and two other principles: the principle of
NOTIONAL CONCORD and the principle of proximity.
Notional concord is agreement of verb with subject according to the notion
of number rather than with the actual presence of the grammatical marker
for that notion. In British English, for example, collective nouns such as
government are often treated as notionally plural

The government have broken all their promises. <BrE>

In this example, the plural notion is signalled not only by the plural verb
have, but also by the pronoun their.

The principle of proximity, also termed 'attraction', denotes agreement of

the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement
with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject

?A^o one except his own supporters agree with him.

The preceding plural noun supporters has influenced the choice of the plural
verb agree, although the subject No one except his own supporters is

grammatically singular, since the head no one is singular. On the other hand,
the proximity principle is here reinforced by notional concord ('Only his own
supporters agree with him'), somewhat more acceptable
making the sentence
than if the proximity principle alone applied. The choice of the verb may
also be influenced by preceding coordinated noun phrases, even if they are
singular:

?*A good knowledge of English, Russian, and French are required for
this position.

Conflict between grammatical concord and attraction through proximity

tends to increase with the distance between the noun phrase head of the
subjectand the verb, for example when the postmodifier is lengthy or when
an adverbial or a parenthesis intervenes between the subject and the verb.
Proximity concord occurs mainly in unplanned discourse. In writing it will
be corrected to grammatical concord if it is noticed.
The three principles and their interaction will be illustrated below in three
areas where concord causes some problems: where the subject contains (a) a
collective noun head; (b) coordination; and (c) an indefinite expression.
English speakers are often uncertain about the rules of concord.
Prescriptive teaching has insisted rather rigidly on grammatical concord,
with the result that people often experience a conflict between this rule and
the rule of notional concord, which tends to prevail over it. When the
proximity principle is followed in defiance of the other principles, the result
is likely to be condemned as an error.

Note [a] The principle of notional concord accounts for the common use of a singular with subjects
that are plural noun phrases of quantity or measure. The entity expressed by the noun phrase is

viewed as a single unit

 : : : :

758 The simple sentence

Ten dollars is all I have left. [That amount is . .

.']

Fifteen years represents a long period of his life. ['That period is . .

.']

Two miles is as far as they can walk. ['That distance is . .

.']

Two thirds of the area is under water. ['That area is . .

.']

Cf: Sixty people means a huge party. ['That number of people means . .
.']

[b] We also find a type of number concord at the phrase level in that certain determiners agree
in number with their noun heads that idea, those ideas. There are apparent exceptions with
measure noun phrases:
that five dollars (also : those five dollars) every few miles
this last two weeks (also : these last two weeks) each ten ounces
another two days another five per cent
a happy three months
A few and a good many function as units
a good many friends a few days
[c] Grammatical concord is usually obeyed for more than and many a, though it may conflict
with notional concord
More than a thousand inhabitants have signed the petition. [1]

More than one member has protested against the proposal. [2]

Many a member has protested against the proposal. [3]

Although the subject is notionally plural in [2] and [3], the singular is preferred because member
is analysed as head of the noun phrase. Contrast
More members than one , , . ,
,
have protested agamst the proposal.
Many members

Collective nouns and notional concord

10.36 Singular collective nouns may be notionally plural. In BrE the verb may be
either singular or plural

The audience were enjoying every minute of it. [1]

The public are tired of demonstrations. [2]
England have won the cup. [3]
Our Planning Committee have considered your request. [4]

The choice between singular or plural verbs depends in BrE on whether the
group is being considered as a single undivided body, or as a collection of
individuals. Thus, in BrE plural is more likely in [1] than singular, because
attention is directed at the individual reactions of members of the audience.
On the other hand, the singular is more likely in these sentences:

The audience was enormous. [la]

The public consists of you and me. [2a]
The crowd /ia5 been dispersed. [5]

In contrast to[la]. The audience were enormous might be interpreted to refer

to an audience of enormous people. On the whole, the plural is more popular

in speech, whereas in the more inhibited medium of writing the singular is
probably preferred. It is generally safer in BrE to use the singular verb where
there is doubt, in obedience to grammatical concord.
AmE generally treats singular collective nouns as singular. Terms for the
government and teams are nearly always treated as singular in
for sports
AmE, but other terms may (less commonly than in BrE) take plural verbs:

The administration has announced its plans for stimulating the economy.
America has won the cup.
The public has a right to know, [also in AmE The public have a right to :

know.]
 : : : :

Subject-verb concord 759

But, as in BrE, plural pronouns are often used in AmE to refer to singular
collective nouns

The committee has not yet decided how they should react to the
Governor's letter.

Note [a] If the collective noun subject occurs in the plural, the verb is of course plural in both BrE and
AmE : The various committees are now meeting to discuss your proposal.
[b] When a noun referring to a collection of people has plural concord, the pronouns for which
it is antecedent tend to be who/whom/ they/ them rather than which/it. Compare:
who quarrel amongst themselves
a family
back to the Norman Conquest
a family which dates
[c] Couple in the sense of two persons normally has a plural verb even in AmE The couple are :

happily married. When it denotes a unit, the singular verb is used: Each couple was asked to
complete a form.

Coordinated subject

Coordination with and

10.37 When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases (or clauses) coordinated
by and, a distinction has to be made between coordination and coordinative
apposition (c/ 10.39).
Coordination comprises cases that correspond to fuller coordinate forms.
A plural verb is used even if each conjoin is singular:
Tom and Alice are now ready. ['Tom is now ready and Alice is
now ready.']
What I say and what I think are my own affair. ['What I say is my own
affair and what I think is my own affair'; but cf: What I say and do is
my own affair, 10.38]
A plural verb is similarly required in asyndetic coordination (without a
coordinator)

His camera, his radio, his money were confiscated by the

customs officials.

Conjoins expressing a mutual relationship (cf 13.60), even though they can
only indirectly be treated as reductions of clauses in this way, also take a
plural verb:

Your problem and mine are similar. ['Your problem is similar to mine
and mine is similar to yours.']
What I say and do are two different things. ['What I say is one thing
and what I do is another thing.']

Note [a] If a singular noun phrase is followed by etc and similar abbreviatory expressions {and so on,
and so forth), a plural verb is normal:
The size etc are less important for our purposes,
[b] Preposed each or every has a distributive effect and requires a singular verb
Every adult and every child was holding a flag.
Each senator and congressman was allocated two seats.
Contrast
Each of them has signed the petition. They have each signed the petition.
 : ; : : :

760 The simple sentence

[c] The coordination markers respective and respectively (c/ 13.62/) occur in coordination, but
not in coordinative apposition.
[d]The principle of notional concord explains
The hammer and sickle was flying from the flagpole.
Danish bacon and eggs makes a good solid English breakfast.
The Bat and Ball sells good beer.
Despite the coordination, the subject names a single flag, a single meal, and a single pub
respectively. Contrast:
Danish bacon and eggs sell very well in London.
[e] Arithmetical sums may be used with a singular or plural verb

Two and two I } four.

'

[arej
So also Ten times five is (or are) fifty ; Two fives make (or makes) ten. But Two fives are ten; Ten
minus two is eight; Ten into fifty is five.

Coordination within a singular subject

10.38 A singular noncount noun head may be premodified by phrases coordinated
by and. As subject, the resulting noun phrase may imply two (or more)
separate sentences, and may then be legitimately followed by a plural verb

American and Dutch beer are (both) much lighter than British beer.
['American beer is and Dutch beer is .'] . . . . .

White and brown sugar are (equally) acceptable for this recipe.

But a singular verb is often used in this context, and is required when the
phrases are postmodifying

Beer from America and Holland is much lighter than British beer.

When the subject is a nominal relative clause, coordination reduction

allows some variation in number interpretation

What I say and do are my own affair. ['What I say is . . . and what I

do...';c/10.37]
What I say and do is my own affair. ['That which I say and do . .
.']

A generic noun phrase with a singular count head requires a plural verb
when the head is premodified and the premodification contains coordination

by and:

The short-term and (the) long-term loan are handled very differently by
the bank.
A first-language and (a) second-language learner share some strategies
in their acquisition of the language.

These noun phrases are notionally plural ('short-term and long-term loans';
'first-language and second-language learners')-

Coordinative apposition
10.39 With the less common coordinative apposition, no reduction is implied,
since each of the coordinated units has the same reference. Hence, a singular
verb is required if each noun phrase is singular:

This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was

erected in the main street of the city.
 : : : : : 1

Subject-verb concord 76

The two opening noun phrases here both refer to one entity (a statue). The
following example, however, could have either a singular or plural verb,
depending on the meaning

His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected papers

> with him at his deathbed.

werel

Singular was is used if the servant and the editor are the same person, and
plural were if they are two different people.
Some latitude is allowed in the interpretation of abstract nouns:

Your fairness and impartiality j /

,
been much appreciated.
f

Her calmness and confidence \ } astonishing.

\arej

Law and order < , > been established.

l^havej

Invoking the principle of notional concord, we may use either singular or

plural, depending on whether qualities are seen as separate or as a complex
unity.

Note [a] The correlatives both . . . and . . . (c/13.35) mark coordination in subject noun phrases: Both
her calmness and her confidence are astonishing. With subject complements they mark coordinative
apposition She : is both secretary and treasurer. Contrast
Both my wife and my secretary were there, [two persons]
She was both my wife and my secretary, [one person]
[b] Noun phrases are usually apposed without a coordinator. If they are subject, a singular verb
is of course required if the noun phrases themselves are singular
This temple of ugliness, a memorial to Victorian bad taste, was erected in the main street of
the city.
[c] A repeated determiner biases the choice to plural
Your fairness and your impartiality have been much appreciated.

Quasi-coordination
10.40 Subject noun phrases may be linked by quasi-coordinators (c/ 13.103), ie

prepositions (such as along with, rather than, and as well as) that are
semantically similar to coordinators. Grammatical concord requires a
singular verb if the first noun phrase is singular:

The captain, as well as the other players, was tired.

One speaker after another was complaining about the lack of
adequate sanitation.

Occasionally the principle of notional concord (sometimes combined with

the proximity principle) prompts the plural, especially in loosely expressed
speech

?One man with his wife, both looking very anxious, were pleading with a
guard to let them through.
?The President, together with his advisors, are preparing a statement on
the crisis.
 : :

762 The simple sentence

If an adverbial is attached to a second noun phrase linked to the first noun

phrase by and, the construction is considered parenthetic, and grammatical
concord similarly requires the verb to agree in number with the first noun
phrase

A writer, and sometimes an artist, is invited to address the society.

The ambassador - and perhaps his wife too - is likely to be present.

The same grammatical rule applies when the second phrase is negative,
whether or not linked by and, though here the principle of notional concord
reinforces the use of the singular

The Prime Minister, (and) not the monarch, decides government policy.

Coordination with or and nor

10.41 The rules are different for subject phrases or clauses which are coordinated
Wxih. {either . . .)or\

Either the Mayor or her deputy] ^^^^ bound to come. [ 1 ]

'{cj [

What I say or what I think \^ \no business of yours. [2]

{*has 1
Either the strikers or the bosses < , > misunderstood the claim. [3]

Either your brakes or your eyesight < ^ > at fault. [4]

Either your eyesight or your brakes ^ . > at fault. [5]

j

All these involve nonappositional coordination. Grammatical concord is

clear when each member of the coordination has the same number: when
they are both singular (as in [1] and [2]), the verb is singular; when they are
both plural (as in [3]), the verb is plural. A
dilemma arises when one member
is singular and the other plural (as in [4] and [5]). Notionally, or is disjunctive,

so that each member is separately related to the verb rather than the two
members being considered one unit, as when the coordinator is additive and.
Since the dilemma is not clearly resolvable by the principles of grammatical
concord or notional concord, recourse is generally had to the principle of
proximity whichever phrase comes last determines the number of the verb,
:

as in [4] and [5].

Where the disjunctive force is weak and or approaches the meaning of
and, the plural verb is sometimes found with singular subject phrases,
especially in informal usage:

Jogging or swimming \ supposed to be good for the heart.

| ^^^^

When or is used for coordinative apposition (c/ 10.39), grammatical

concord requires the number of the verb to agree with the first appositive if
the two appositives differ in number:
 : : : :

Subject-verb concord 763

The hero, or main protagonist, is Major Coleman.

The hawks, or beUicose officials, are in the ascendancy.
Gobbledygook, or the circumlocutions of bureaucratic language, is

intentionally difficult to understand.

The circumlocutions of bureaucratic language, or gobbledygook, are
intentionally difficult to understand.

The rules for the negative correlatives neither . . . nor are the same as for
either ... or in formal usage. In less formal usage, they are treated more like
and for concord. Thus, [6] is more natural in speech than [7]

Neither he nor his wife have arrived. [6]

Neither he nor his wife has arrived. [7]

This preference is probably connected with the use of the plural verb with
neither as a determiner or pronoun (c/ 10.42), but it may also reflect notional
concord in that logically 'neither X nor Y' can be interpreted as a union of
negatives: 'both (not-X) and (not-Y)'.
If the number alternatives for the verb are both felt to be awkward,
speakers may avoid making a choice by postposing the second noun phrase
or sometimes by substituting a modal auxiliary (c/ 10.44):

Either your brakes are at fault or your eyesight is.

He hasn't arrived, nor has his wife.

Either your brakes or your eyesight may be at fault.

Note [a] The coordinating correlatives not . . . but and not onlyIjustj merely . . . but (also/even) behave
like or with respect to number concord
Not only he but his wife has arrived.
Not (only) one but all of us were invited.
Not just the students but even their teacher is enjoying the film.
Where the noun phrases differ in number, the principle of proximity determines the concord,
[b] The mixed expressions one or two and between one and two follow the principle of proximity

in having plural concord

One or two reasons were suggested.
Similarly one and plus a fraction or percentage has plural concord, since the notion of plural
applies not to at least two but to more than one
One and a half years have passed since we last met.
The selection of the plural is reinforced also by the principle of proximity. But note:
A year and a half /la^ passed.
The conjoint phrase is treated like 'a period of a year and a half, though the singular verb may
be reinforced by the immediately preceding a half.

Indefinite expressions as subject

10.42 Another area of ambivalence for subject-verb number concord is that of
indefinite expressions of amount or quantity, especially with the determiners
and with the pronouns no, none, all, some, any, and fractions such as half.
They have both count and noncount uses.
With noncount nouns (present or implied), the verb is of course singular:

So no money has been spent on repairs.

far
None (of the money) has been spent on repairs.
Some cement has arrived.
Some (of the cement) has arrived.
 : : : : :

764 The simple sentence

With plural count nouns (present or implied) the verb is plural

No people of that name live here.

Some books have been placed on the shelves.

Some
Hardly any
> (of the books) have been placed on the shelves.
All
Half

None with plural count nouns is in divided usage

None (of the books) ] , \ been placed on the shelves.

Prescriptive grammars have tended to insist on the singular verb, but notional
concord invites a plural verb, which tends to be more frequently used and is
generally accepted even in formal usage. With either and neither the singular
is generally used

The two guests have arrived, \, . , > is welcome.

But a plural verb sometimes occurs in informal usage when either or

is followed by a prepositional phrase with a plural
(particularly) neither
complement, both because of notional concord and because of the proximity
rule:

Either 1
„ . , > of them are welcome. ['Both are (not) welcome.'] (informal)

The plural is even more favoured in such constructions with none :

None of them have been placed on the shelves.

10.43 The proximity principle may lead to plural concord even with indefinites
such as each, every, everybody, anybody, and nobody (or indefinite phrases
such as every one, any one), which are otherwise unambi valently singular

Nobody, not even the teachers, \ ^ > listening.

{was I

pleased
>
^

to see mm.
Although these sentences might well be uttered in casual speech, or
inadvertently written down, most people would probably regard them as
ungrammatical, because they flatly contradict grammatical concord.
Other, more acceptable, instances arise with expressions involving kind
and number. The number choice in the verb is usually influenced by notional
concord

''''*
These! f 1
^'^^ °f P^*^'^^ ^'^ dangerous, (informal)
Th se n
^ [type J
I
[1]
 : :

Subject-verb concord 765

A (large) number of people have applied for the job. [2]

The majority are Moslems. [3]

Lots of the stuff is going to waste, (informal) [4]

[1]illustrates an idiomatic anomaly: there is a discrepancy in number

between the noun and the determiner those, as well as with the verb.
Rephrasing can avoid the anomaly

Those kinds of parties are')

That kind of party is > dangerous.

Parties of that kind are J

[2] and show seemingly singular phrases being treated as plural notionally
[3] ;

they are equivalent to many and most. Use of the singular in these sentences
would be considered pedantic in [2], and unacceptable in [3] because of the
plural complement (cf the pedantic but acceptable The majority agrees with
me). The opposite phenomenon, attraction to the singular, is observed in [4]
where lots of is treated as if equivalent to singular /7/e«/>^ of and much of, but
the singular is also influenced by the proximity of singular stuff. Contrast:

Lots of people are coming to our party.

Notional concord ('many people') is reinforced by the proximity of plural

people.

Note [a] For the analysis of quantifiers like a /jMm/)ero/, c/5. 25.
[b] Determiners other than those or these are found in plural concord with the nouns in [1], eg:
some, any. Like a {large) number o/in [2] are locutions such as a lot of. a {whole) set of, a spate of,

plenty of, analogous to the (or a) majority in [3] is the (or a) minority, and to lots in [4] are many
other informal quantifiers, such as loads of, heaps of.

[c] The proximity principle may be extended to mean that concord is determined by whatever
immediately precedes the verb, the position of the subject (which normally determines concord).
The principle can then explain a singular verb in cases of inversion or of an adverbial quasi-
subject: 1 Where's the scissors?; 1 Here's John and Mary; '^There's several bags missing. As what
precedes the subject here is not marked for plural (c/ 10.34 Note [a]), the singular verb follows
by attraction. The occasional use of the singular verb in instances such as l*Is the .scissors on the
table ?and l*Has my glasses ['spectacles'] been found ' may be explained by a combination of two
factors: these summation plurals {cf5.1b) are notionally singular, though morphologically and
syntactically plural; since the verb precedes the subject, the influence of the subject on number
is somewhat reduced. Compare the greater unacceptability of "My glasses has been found. All

these are colloquial examples in formal English plural forms of the verb would be substituted.
;

[d] If a relative clause follows a noun phrase containing one o/plus a plural noun phrase, there is

often a choice as to whether the verb in the relative clause should agree in number with one or
with the plural noun phrase;
He's one of those students who never get{s) a piece of work done on time.
The choice of singular or plural can depend on whether attention is directed to the generality or
to the uniqueness. Compare
Charlatanry one of the many words in English that are of French origin.
is

[ = Of the many
words in English that are of French origin, charlatanry is one.]
Charlatanry is one of the common vices that is particularly contemptible.
[ = Of the common vices, charlatanry is one that is particularly contemptible.]

Concord of person
10.44 In addition to 3rd person number concord with the subject, the verb in the
present tense may have person concord (c/3.2, 3.52) with the subject- 1st
 : : : :

766 The simple sentence

and 3rd person concord with be and only 3rd person concord with other
verbs

I am your friend . [1 st person singular concord]

Hewyour friend. 1 r- , ,

„ M 3rd person SINGULAR concord]

He knows you.
,

Are is the unmarked form for the present of be with persons other than 1st
and 3rd singular; in all other verbs the base form is used in the present for
persons other than the 3rd singular. Only the past of be has further
distinctions

your
I wfl5 ' friend. 1 n . j -. j i
,, J Mist and 3rd PERSON SINGULAR concord]
He was your friend. J
X-

The unmarked past form of be - were - is used with the 2nd person singular
and all the plural persons. Like number concord, person concord applies only
to the indicative; the subjunctive has one form for all persons.
A coordinate subject with and as coordinator requires a plural verb. Person
concord does not apply, since there are no person distinctions in the plural
( You and I know the answer; She and I are in charge). If the coordinator is or,

either . . . or, or neither . . . nor, in accordance with the principle of proximity

the last noun phrase determines the person of the verb

Neither you, nor I, nor anyone else knows the answer.

Either my wife or I am going.
Because of the awkwardness of this choice, a speaker may avoid it by using
a modal auxiliary which is invariable for person (eg Either my wife or I will :

be going) or by postposing the last noun phrase {eg Either my wife is going or :

I am) {cf 10 .41).

Note [a] In archaic English, there is also concord of 2nd person singular pronouns and verbs in the

present and past (c/6. 14 Note [c]) Thou, Lord, hast redeemed us; Thou didst hear my prayer. {Cf
3.4 Note [b] for archaic 2nd and 3rd person forms of verbs.)
[b] In relative clauses and cleft sentences, a relative pronoun subject is usually followed by a
verb in agreement with its antecedent : It is I who am
is in command. It is to blame. It is Kay who
they who are complaining. But 3rd person concord prevails in informal English where the
objective case pronoun me is used: It's me who's to blame. Similarly, 3rd person singular may be
used in informal English in these constructions when the pronoun you has singular reference
It's you who's to blame.

In the archaic Our Father, which art in Heaven, agreement is with the 2nd person status of the
vocative Our Father, ie: Our Father, thou which art in heaven. Contrast a modem version Our
Father, who is in Heaven [*he who is in Heaven'].

Summary
10.45 We suggest that the following generalizations apply to the system of subject-
verb concord in English.

(a) The
principle of grammatical concord tends to be followed in formal
usage and has the sanction of teaching and editorial tradition.
(b) The principle of notional concord is most natural to colloquial English.
(c) The principle of proximity, despite its minor decisive role in cases where
the other two provide no guidance, is generally felt to lack validity on its