18EEE426 -

Power
Quality
DISCIPLINE ELECTIVE – VI – CLASS 6
 Introduction – Characterisation of Electric Power Quality:
Transients, short duration and long duration voltage variations,
Voltage imbalance, waveform distortion, Voltage fluctuations,
Power frequency variation, Power acceptability curves – power
quality problems: poor load power factor, Non linear and
unbalanced loads, DC offset in loads, Notching in load voltage,
Disturbance in supply voltage – Power quality standards

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION
Power Quality
Geneva based International Electrotechnical Commission (lEC) and Institute of Electrical
and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) have proposed various power quality standards.
Power Quality
 Single phase linear and non linear loads –single phase
sinusoidal, non sinusoidal source – supplying linear and
nonlinear load – three phase Balance system – three phase
unbalanced system – three phase unbalanced and distorted
source supplying non linear loads – concept of pf – three
phase three wire – three phase four wire system.

UNIT 2 - ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE SYSTEM

Linear
AC electrical loads where the voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal. The current
at any
time is proportional to voltage.

Linear Loads are: POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT CAPACITORS, INDESCENT LAMPS,

HEATERS ETC.
Non linear
Applies to those ac loads where the current is not proprotional to the voltage.

The nature of non-linear loads is to generate harmonics in the current waveform.

This distortion of the current waveform leads to distortion of the voltage
waveform.

Under these conditions, the voltage waveform is no longer proportional to the

current. Non Linear Loads are : COMPUTER, LASER PRINTERS, SMPS, REACTIFIER,
PLC, ELECTRONIC BALLAST, REFRIGERATOR, TV ETC.
Linear & Non linear
Linear & Non linear
Thank you…
18EEE426 -
Power
Quality
DISCIPLINE ELECTIVE – VI – CLASS 7
 Single phase linear and non linear loads –single phase
sinusoidal, non sinusoidal source – supplying linear and
nonlinear load – three phase Balance system – three phase
unbalanced system – three phase unbalanced and distorted
source supplying non linear loads – concept of pf – three
phase three wire – three phase four wire system.

UNIT 2 - ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE SYSTEM

Non linear
Most of the electrical loads have nonlinear behavior at the AC mains.

As they draw harmonic currents of various types such as characteristic

harmonics, non characteristic harmonics, inter harmonics, sub harmonics, reactive
power component of current, fluctuating current, unbalanced currents from the
AC mains these loads are known as nonlinear loads.
Non linear
Majority of rotating electric machines and magnetic devices such as
transformers, reactors, chokes, magnetic ballasts, and so on behave as nonlinear
loads due to saturation in their magnetic circuits, geometry such as presence of
teeth and slots, winding distribution, air gap asymmetry, and so on.

Many fluctuating loads such as furnaces, electric hammers and frequently switching
devices
exhibit highly nonlinear behavior as electrical loads.
Non linear
Even non saturating electrical loads such as power capacitors behave as
nonlinear loads at the AC mains and they create a number of power quality
problems due to switching and resonance with magnetic components in the
system.

AC loads consisting of solid-state converters draw non sinusoidal currents from

the AC mains and behave in a nonlinear manner and therefore they are also
known as nonlinear loads.

These nonlinear loads exhibit different behavior thereby causing different power quality
problems,
and they are therefore often classified according to their performance.
Effects of Non linear
Inductive loads causing burden on the AC mains of the lagging reactive power
and thereby poor power factor in the AC network that results in increased losses
and poor utilization of components of distribution system such as transformers,
feeders, and switchgear due to increased current for a given active power.

In addition, because of a number of single-phase loads in the distribution system,

especially domestic, residential, and commercial in small power ratings and
traction, transportation, rural distribution systems, and so on in medium power
ratings, there have been additional problems of load unbalancing and excessive
neutral current causing increased losses, voltage imbalance and derating of the
distribution system
Effects of Non linear
Switching in many electrical loads causes switching transients and inrush
currents resulting in various voltage-based power quality problems such as
surges, spikes, sags, voltage fluctuations, voltage imbalance, and so on.

These power quality problems affect other loads and system components such as
protection systems, telecommunication systems, and so on.

These power quality problems of voltage imbalance and fluctuations even affect
good linear loads such as AC motors, especially induction motors, with negative
sequence currents and subsequent rotor heating and increased losses and thus
resulting in derating of these motors.
Non linear
With the subsequent advancement, the modern automated controlled electrical
loads use solid- state converters because of a number of benefits, namely,
energy conservation, reduced size, reduced overall cost and so on.

However, even with sinusoidal applied voltage, they draw non-sinusoidal and
increased current from the AC mains in addition to the fundamental active power
component of current.
Example
• Fluorescent lighting and other vapor lamps with electronic ballasts

• Switched mode power supplies

• Computers, copiers, and television sets

• Printer, scanners, and fax machines

• High-frequency welding machines

• Fans with electronic regulators

• Microwave ovens and induction heating devices

Example
• Xerox machines and medical equipment

• Variable frequency-based HVAC (heating ventilation and air-conditioning) systems

• Battery chargers and fuel cells

• Electric traction

• Arc furnaces

• Cycloconverters

• Adjustable speed drives

Example
• Static slip energy recovery schemes of wound rotor induction motors

• Wind and solar power generation

• Static VAR compensators (SVCs)

• HVDC transmission systems

• Magnet power supplies

• Plasma power supplies

• Static field excitation systems

 Classification of Nonlinear
The use of non-solid-state or solid-state devices, for example, the presence or absence of
power
electronics converter in the circuits of nonlinear loads

The use of converter types such as AC–DC converter type, AC voltage

controller type, and cycloconverter type

Their nature as stiff current fed type or stiff voltage fed type or a combination of both

The number of phases such as two-wire single-phase, three-phase three-

wire, and four wire three-phase systems.
Non-Solid-State and Solid-
State Device Types of Nonlinear
The nonlinear loads may be classified based on whether they consist of solid-state devices
or any
other power converters or not.

There are a number of electrical loads that are nonlinear in nature, but they do
not involve any power converters. Similarly, there are only some nonlinear loads
that consist of solid-state converters.
Non-Solid-State Device
Type Nonlinear Loads
There are many electrical loads in nature that do not consist of any solid-state device or
power
electronics converter.

However, they behave as nonlinear loads when they are connected to

AC mains. Most of the electrical machines fall in this category of

nonlinear loads

Some practical examples of these types of nonlinear loads are various types of
transformers operating at no load or light load conditions, magnetic ballasts of
fluorescent lamps, and single- phase induction motors
Solid-State Device Type
Loads
Many types of electrical equipment consist of different circuits of solid-state devices to
process
the AC power to suit specific application.

They draw non-sinusoidal current from the AC mains and they behave as nonlinear loads.

They use various AC–DC converters, AC voltage controllers, cycloconverters or a

combination of all in their front-end converter.

In the single-phase configuration, they draw harmonic currents and reactive

power from the AC mains. Examples of single-phase nonlinear loads include both
domestic and commercial equipment among the home appliances are microwave
oven, induction heaters, television sets,
Converter-Based Nonlinear
There are various types of converters used in electrical equipment that behave as
nonlinear loads.

These nonlinear loads mainly consist of AC–DC converters, AC voltage controllers,

cycloconverters, or a combination of all.
Converter-Based Nonlinear
Nature Based
Most of the nonlinear loads behave as either stiff current fed type or as stiff voltage fed
type or a
combination of both.
Current Fed Type of
Nonlinear Loads
The stiff current fed loads normally consist of AC–DC converters with constant DC current
load
and a predetermined harmonic pattern in the AC mains with reactive power burden
Voltage Fed Type of
Nonlinear Loads
The voltage stiff loads consist of generally AC–DC converters with a large DC
capacitor at the DC bus to provide ideal DC voltage source for the remaining
process of solid state conversion and draw peaky current from the AC mains
Supply System-
Classification
This classification of nonlinear loads is based on the supply system having single phase
(two-wire)
and three-phase (three-wire or four-wire) systems.

There are many nonlinear loads such as domestic appliances that are fed from
single-phase supply systems. Some three-phase nonlinear loads are without
neutral conductor, such as ASDs (Adjustable Speed Drives), fed from a three-wire
supply system.

There are many nonlinear single-phase loads distributed on a four-wire, three-phase

supply
system, such as computers, commercial lighting and so on.
Two-Wire Nonlinear
There are a very large number of single-phase nonlinear loads supplied by the
two wire single- phase AC mains. All these loads consisting of single-phase diode
rectifiers, semi converters and thyristor converters behave as nonlinear loads.
Three-Wire Nonlinear
Three-phase, three-wire nonlinear loads inject harmonic currents and sometimes they
draw
reactive power from the AC mains and sometimes they also have unbalanced currents.

These nonlinear loads are in large numbers and consume major amount of
electric power. Typical examples are ASDs using DC and AC motors, HVDC
transmission systems, and wind power conversion.
Four-Wire Nonlinear
A large number of single-phase nonlinear loads may be supplied from the three-phase AC
mains
with the neutral conductor.

Apart from harmonic currents, reactive power, and unbalanced currents, they
also cause excessive neutral current due to harmonic currents and unbalancing
of these loads on three phases.
Thank you…
18EEE426 -
Power
Quality
DISCIPLINE ELECTIVE – VI – CLASS 7
 Single phase linear and non linear loads –single phase
sinusoidal, non sinusoidal source – supplying linear and
nonlinear load – three phase Balance system – three phase
unbalanced system – three phase unbalanced and distorted
source supplying non linear loads – concept of pf – three
phase three wire – three phase four wire system.

UNIT 2 - ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE SYSTEM

Supply System-
Based Classification
This classification of nonlinear loads is based on the supply system having single phase
(two-wire)
and three-phase (three-wire or four-wire) systems.

There are many nonlinear loads such as domestic appliances that are fed from
single-phase supply systems.

Some three-phase nonlinear loads are without neutral conductor, such as ASDs
(Adjustable Speed
Drives), fed from a three-wire supply system.

There are many nonlinear single-phase loads distributed on a four-wire, three-phase

supply
system, such as computers, commercial lighting and so on
Two-Wire Nonlinear
There are a very large number of single-phase nonlinear loads supplied by the two wire
single-
phase AC mains.

All these loads consisting of single-phase diode rectifiers, semi converters and
thyristor converters behave as nonlinear loads.

They draw harmonic currents and sometimes also the reactive power from the AC
mains. Typical examples of such loads are power supplies, electronic fan
regulators, electronic ballasts, computers, television sets, and traction.
Two-Wire Nonlinear
Three-Wire Nonlinear
Three-phase, three-wire nonlinear loads inject harmonic currents and sometimes they
draw
reactive power from the AC mains and sometimes they also have unbalanced

currents. These nonlinear loads are in large numbers and consume major

amount of electric power.

Typical examples are ASDs using DC and AC motors, HVDC transmission systems, and
wind power
conversion
Three-Wire Nonlinear
Four-Wire Nonlinear
A large number of single-phase nonlinear loads may be supplied from the three-phase AC
mains
with the neutral conductor.

Apart from harmonic currents, reactive power, and unbalanced currents, they
also cause excessive neutral current due to harmonic currents and unbalancing
of these loads on three phases.

Typical examples are computer loads and electronic ballasts-based vapor

lighting systems. Besides, they cause voltage distortion and voltage imbalance at
the PCC and some potential at the neutral terminal.
Four-Wire Nonlinear
 Balanced Three phase
In balanced system, we always have:

1. Equal voltage sources in magnitude and phase angle. For example, a three-
phase system with a voltage source at 120V and 50Hz frequency for each phase.

2. Equal load impedance. For example, a three-phase system with only resistance loads
or
inductive loads or capacitive loads with the same value for all lines.
 Unbalanced
There are two causes of this unbalanced system:

1. The voltage sources are not equal in magnitude and/or have differences in
phase angle from each other phase.

2. The load impedances are unequal from each other.

Unbalanced
An unbalanced system is due to unbalanced voltage sources or an unbalanced load.

There is also one thing to remember that an unbalanced three-phase voltage

source is a very rare phenomenon.

Analyzing unbalanced three-phase systems will take a lot of time. Hence, we will
assume
that every circuit we use has balanced voltage sources and unbalanced load impedances.
Unbalanced Load in Three-
Phase System
A three-phase system is balanced if all the line loads are equal to each other. If one of the
loads is increased, then it will be an unbalanced

system. Because that line will draw more current

than the other two.

 Effects of Unbalanced Three-
Phase System
• Increased heat by three-phase motors.

• Reduced lifetime of machine by increased heat.

• Power losses I2R increased.

• Motor drives become unreliable.

 Properties of Unbalanced
Three- Phase System
• The three-phase waveform is disturbed.

• The line currents are not equal to each other.

• Neutral wire is needed.

• Higher power losses

Thank you…
18EEE426 -
Power
Quality
DISCIPLINE ELECTIVE – VI – CLASS 9
 Single phase linear and non linear loads –single phase
sinusoidal, non sinusoidal source – supplying linear and
nonlinear load – three phase Balance system – three phase
unbalanced system – three phase unbalanced and distorted
source supplying non linear loads – concept of pf – three
phase three wire – three phase four wire system.

UNIT 2 - ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE SYSTEM

Sinusoidal and non sinusoidal
sources
A sinusoidal voltage source (dependent or independent) produces a voltage that varies as
a sine wave with time.

A sinusoidal current source (dependent or independent) produces a current

that varies with time.

The sinusoidal varying function can be expressed either with the sine function or cosine
function.
Three phase unbalanced and
distorted source supplying non linear
loads
But most of the loads in industrial or commercial applications are non-linear loads and are
sensitive enough to break continuity of power supply.

In addition to this. they are responsible for creating power quality disturbances
such as harmonic currents, excessive neutral current, load unbalancing etc.

Also, when source voltages are unbalanced and distorted, it may significantly affect the
quality of
power thus making it a matter of concern in power distribution network.
Contd…
Compensation
Various custom power devices are becoming popular solutions in order to mitigate such
power
quality disturbances.

A shunt connected DSTATCOM is more popularly used which is capable of

compensating the aforementioned disturbances effectively.

DSTATCOM comprises of Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) as the main component.

Compensation
After
After
Concept of Power
Power factor (pf) of an AC electrical power system is defined as ratio of real power to the
apparent power and is a number between 0 and 1.

Power factor of linear load equals one (=1) and power factor of non-linear load is
less than one (<1).
Thank you…
 Despite causing power quality problems, the use of nonlinear loads, especially those
employing solid-state controllers, is increasing day by day owing to benefits of the low cost
and small size, remarkable energy conservation, simplicity in control, reduced wear and tear,
and low maintenance requirements in the new and automated electric appliances leading to
high productivity. Although these electronically automated energy-efficient electrical loads
are most sensitive to power quality problems, they themselves cause additional power quality
problems to the supply system. Hence, it is very important to classify and analyze their
behavior to identify the proper power quality improvement devices for mitigating the power
quality problems or to modify their structure for reducing or eliminating the power quality
pollution at the AC mains.

7.2 State of the Art on Nonlinear Loads

Since the inception of AC power, majority of electrical equipment are developed
based on the principle of energy storage, which are used in the process of energy conversion
and especially in the magnetic energy storage system. They behave as inductive loads
causing burden on the AC mains of the lagging reactive power and thereby poor power factor
in the AC network that results in increased losses and poor utilization of components of
distribution system such as transformers, feeders, and switchgear due to increased current for
a given active power. AC power capacitors and synchronous condensers have been used to
supply the reactive power locally and to reduce the burden of reactive power on the AC
mains. In addition, because of a number of single-phase loads in the distribution system,
especially domestic, residential, and commercial in small power ratings and traction,
transportation, rural distribution systems, and so on in medium power ratings, there have
been additional problems of load unbalancing and excessive neutral current causing increased
losses, voltage imbalance and derating of the distribution system. Moreover, switching in
many electrical loads causes switching transients and inrush currents resulting in various
voltage-based power quality problems such as surges, spikes, sags, voltage fluctuations,
voltage imbalance, and so on. These power quality problems affect other loads and system
components such as protection systems, telecommunication systems, and so on. These power
quality problems of voltage imbalance and fluctuations even affect good linear loads such as
AC motors, especially induction motors, with negative sequence currents and subsequent
rotor heating and increased losses and thus resulting in derating of these motors. Some

Introduction to Power Page

additional power quality problems are created because of several physical phenomena in
electric equipment such as saturation especially in single-phase induction motors, magnetic
ballasts, transformers, voltage regulators based on ferroresonant and tap changers, and air gap
asymmetry in rotating electric motors. They result in the generation of harmonics and
increased neutral current. These harmonics and neutral current result in voltage distortion at
the neutral terminal, increased losses, and harmonic voltage at the point of common coupling
(PCC).
With the subsequent advancement, the modern automated controlled electrical loads
use solid-state converters because of a number of benefits, namely, energy conservation,
reduced size, reduced overall cost and so on. However, even with sinusoidal applied voltage,
they draw non-sinusoidal and increased current from the AC mains in addition to the
fundamental active power component of current. Some of these nonlinear loads are as
follows,
• Fluorescent lighting and other vapor lamps with electronic ballasts
• Switched mode power supplies
• Computers, copiers, and television sets
• Printer, scanners, and fax machines
• High-frequency welding machines
• Fans with electronic regulators
• Microwave ovens and induction heating devices
• Xerox machines and medical equipment
• Variable frequency-based HVAC (heating ventilation and air-
conditioning) systems
• Battery chargers and fuel cells
• Electric traction
• Arc furnaces
• Cycloconverters
• Adjustable speed drives
• Static slip energy recovery schemes of wound rotor induction motors
• Wind and solar power generation
• Static VAR compensators (SVCs)
• HVDC transmission systems
• Magnet power supplies
• Plasma power supplies

Introduction to Power Page

 • Static field excitation systems
These types of nonlinear loads draw harmonic currents and reactive power component
of the current from the single-phase AC mains. Some of them have harmonic currents,
reactive power component of the current, and unbalanced currents in the three-phase three-
wire supply system. The single-phase distributed nonlinear loads also consist of harmonic
currents, reactive power component of the current, and unbalanced currents and excessive
neutral current in three-phase four-wire system. These increased currents in addition to the
fundamental active power component of current cause increased losses, poor power factor,
disturbances to other consumers, communication systems, protection systems, and many
other electronics appliances, voltage distortion, voltage spikes, voltage notches, surges, dip,
sag, swell in voltages, and so on. Owing to the ever-increasing use of such nonlinear loads in
present-day distribution system for obvious reasons, the exhaustive study of these nonlinear
loads becomes very relevant to find the proper remedy for mitigation of power quality
problems caused by them in the supply system.

7.3 Classification of Nonlinear Loads

The nonlinear loads can be classified based on
i. The use of non-solid-state or solid-state devices, for example, the presence or absence
of power electronics converter in the circuits of nonlinear loads
ii. The use of converter types such as AC–DC converter type, AC voltage controller
type, and cycloconverter type
iii. Their nature as stiff current fed type or stiff voltage fed type or a combination of both
iv. The number of phases such as two-wire single-phase, three-phase three-wire, and four-
wire three-phase systems.

7.3.1 Non-Solid-State and Solid-State Device Types of Nonlinear Loads

The nonlinear loads may be classified based on whether they consist of solid-state
devices or any other power converters or not. There are a number of electrical loads that are
nonlinear in nature, but they do not involve any power converters. Similarly, there are only
some nonlinear loads that consist of solid-state converters.

7.3.1.1 Non-Solid-State Device Type Nonlinear Loads

There are many electrical loads in nature that do not consist of any solid-state device
or power electronics converter. However, they behave as nonlinear loads when they are
connected to AC mains. Most of the electrical machines fall in this category of nonlinear

Introduction to Power Page

loads. A number of physical phenomena in these electrical machines cause their behavior as
nonlinear loads. Typically, the saturation in magnetic material of these machines and
electromagnetic devices, skin and proximity effects in conductors, non-uniform air gap in
rotating machines, effect of teeth and slotting, and so on result in harmonic currents under
steady-state and transient conditions in the AC mains when they are connected to the AC
supply system. Some practical examples of these types of nonlinear loads are various types of
transformers operating at no load or light load conditions, magnetic ballasts of fluorescent
lamps, and single-phase induction motors as they are usually designed with high level of no
load current (due to high level of saturation) to reduce the cost and size of these motors. They
draw harmonic currents and reactive power component of the current, and also cause
excessive neutral current in the three-phase four-wire supply system due to such distributed
single-phase nonlinear loads.

7.3.1.2 Solid-State Device Type Nonlinear Loads

Many types of electrical equipment consist of different circuits of solid-state devices
to process the AC power to suit specific application. They draw non-sinusoidal current from
the AC mains and they behave as nonlinear loads. This non-sinusoidal current consists of
harmonic currents and the reactive power component of the current along with the
fundamental active power component of current. They use various AC–DC converters, AC
voltage controllers, cycloconverters or a combination of all in their front-end converter. In the
single-phase configuration, they draw harmonic currents and reactive power from the AC
mains. Examples of single-phase nonlinear loads include both domestic and commercial
equipment among the home appliances are microwave oven, induction heaters, television
sets, electronic ballasts-based lighting systems, domestic inverter, adjustable speed drive-
based air conditioners and AC voltage regulator-based fans, whereas the commercial and
industrial equipment are computers, copiers, fax machines, xerox machines, scanner, printers,
small welding sets, and so on. In the three-phase, three-wire supply system, they may also
draw unbalanced three-phase currents in addition to harmonic currents and reactive power.
Some practical loads are three-phase adjustable speed drives, consisting of converter-fed DC
motor drives, synchronous motor drives, induction motor drives, and other electric motors
used in HVAC systems, wastewater treatment plants, large industrial fans, pumps,
compressors, cranes, elevators, electrochemical process such as electroplating and electro
mining, and so on. In the three-phase four-wire supply system, there are many single-phase
nonlinear loads connected to AC mains causing excessive neutral current. Distributed single-

Introduction to Power Page

phase loads on all three phases such as electronic ballasts-based lighting systems, computer
loads in high storied buildings, and all other single-phase loads cause burden on the AC
mains of harmonic currents, reactive power component of currents, unbalanced currents, and
excessive neutral current.

7.3.2 Converter-Based Nonlinear Loads

There are various types of converters used in electrical equipments that behave as
nonlinear loads. These nonlinear loads mainly consist of AC–DC converters, AC voltage
controllers, cycloconverters, or a combination of all. These are classified on the basis of these
converters, but are not confined to them. Figure 7.1 shows some of these types of current fed
loads.

Fig. 7.1 Various types of current fed nonlinear loads

7.3.2.1 AC–DC Converter-Based Nonlinear Loads

A large number of loads use AC–DC converters as front-end converters ranging from
few watts to megawatt rating. These converters are developed in many circuit configurations
such as single-phase and three-phase, uncontrolled, semi controlled and fully controlled, and
half-wave, full-wave, and bridge converter circuits to suit the requirements of specific
application. Depending upon the types of filters used for filtering the rectified DC, their
behaviors vary in a number of ways at the AC mains. Some of the examples of such nonlinear
loads include microwave ovens, SMPS, computers, fax machines, battery chargers, HVDC
transmission systems, electric traction, adjustable speed drives and so on. In some cases they
draw current with excessive harmonic contents with high crest factor. However, in many
cases they draw current with moderate harmonic contents and reactive power with low crest
factor, even less than the sine wave. They exhibit poor power factor at the AC mains
generally due to harmonics only, but with reactive power as well.
7.3.2.2 AC Controllers-Based Nonlinear Loads
Some nonlinear loads use AC voltage controllers for the control of AC rms voltage
across the electrical loads to control the physical process. They draw the harmonic currents
along with the reactive power and cause poor power factor. In single-phase distributed loads
on three-phase supply systems, they also cause excessive harmonic currents. Some of the
examples of such nonlinear loads include AC voltage regulator in fans, lighting controllers,
heating controllers, soft starters, speed controllers, and energy saving controllers of three-
phase induction motors operating under light load conditions in a number of applications
such as hack saw, electric hammers, wood-cutting machines, and so on. They are also used in
static VAR compensators (SVCs) in TCRs (thyristor controlled reactors) and so on.

7.3.2.2.1 Cycloconverter Based Nonlinear Loads

In many applications, cycloconverters are used to convert AC voltage of a fixed
frequency to variable voltage at a variable frequency or vice versa. These cycloconverters
based nonlinear loads draw harmonic currents not only at higher order harmonics but also at
sub harmonics and reactive power and exhibit a very poor power factor at the AC mains.
Some of the examples of such nonlinear loads include cycloconverter fed large-rating
synchronous motor drives in cement mills, ore crushing plants, large-rating squirrel cage
induction motors, slip energy recovery scheme of wound rotor induction motor drives, VSCF
(variable speed constant frequency) generating systems, and so on.

7.3.3 Nature Based Classification

Fig. 7.2 A single-phase controlled converter-based current fed type of nonlinear load
 Most of the nonlinear loads behave as either stiff current fed type or as stiff voltage
fed type or a combination of both. The stiff current fed loads normally consist of AC–DC
converters with constant DC current load and a predetermined harmonic pattern in the AC
mains with reactive power burden.
The voltage stiff loads consist of generally AC–DC converters with a large DC
capacitor at the DC bus to provide ideal DC voltage source for the remaining process of solid-
state conversion and draw peaky current from the AC mains with high crest factor. Since the
analysis of the behavior and remedy for mitigation of power quality problems of these types of
loads depend reasonably on this classification, it becomes relevant and important to select a
proper compensator.

7.3.3.1 Current Fed Type of Nonlinear Loads

The stiff current fed types of nonlinear loads generally have predetermined pattern of
harmonics and sometimes they have reactive power burden on the AC mains. They have flat
current waveform drawn from the AC mains with a low value of crest factor. They typically
consist of AC–DC converters feeding DC motor drives, magnet power supplies, field
excitation system of the alternators, controlled AC–DC converters used to derive DC current
source for feeding current source inverter supplying large-rating AC motor drives, HVDC
transmission systems, and so on. Figure 7.2 shows such current fed type of nonlinear load.

7.3.3.2 Voltage Fed Type of Nonlinear Loads

Fig. 7.3 A three-phase converter-based voltage fed type of nonlinear load

The stiff voltage types of nonlinear loads behave as sink of harmonic currents.
Typical example of such load is an AC–DC converter with a large DC capacitor at its DC bus
to provide an ideal DC voltage source for the remaining process of solid-state conversion and
it draws peaky current from the AC mains with high crest factor as shown in figure 7.3. They
generally do not have reactive power requirement, but they have much greater amount of
harmonic currents drawn from the AC mains. Examples of such loads include SMPS, battery
chargers, front-end converters of voltage source inverter fed AC motor drives, electronic
ballasts and most of the electronic appliances.

7.3.3.3 Mix of Current Fed and Voltage Fed Types of Nonlinear Loads
The mixed nonlinear loads are combination of current fed and voltage fed types of
loads. A group of nonlinear loads and a combination of linear and nonlinear loads fall under
this category. Most of the electrical loads consisting of solid-state converters behave as these
types of nonlinear loads.

7.3.4 Supply System-Based Classification

This classification of nonlinear loads is based on the supply system having single-
phase (two-wire) and three-phase (three-wire or four-wire) systems. There are many
nonlinear loads such as domestic appliances that are fed from single-phase supply systems.
Some three-phase nonlinear loads are without neutral conductor, such as ASDs (Adjustable
Speed Drives), fed from a three-wire supply system. There are many nonlinear single-phase
loads distributed on a four-wire, three-phase supply system, such as computers, commercial
lighting and so on.

7.3.4.1 Two-Wire Nonlinear Loads

There are a very large number of single-phase nonlinear loads supplied by the two-
wire single-phase AC mains. All these loads consisting of single-phase diode rectifiers, semi
converters and thyristor converters behave as nonlinear loads. They draw harmonic currents
and sometimes also the reactive power from the AC mains. Typical examples of such loads
are power supplies, electronic fan regulators, electronic ballasts, computers, television sets,
and traction. Figure 7.4 shows such voltage fed type nonlinear load.

7.3.4.2 Three-Wire Nonlinear Loads

Three-phase, three-wire nonlinear loads inject harmonic currents and sometimes they
draw reactive power from the AC mains and sometimes they also have unbalanced currents.
These nonlinear loads are in large numbers and consume major amount of electric power.
Typical examples are ASDs using DC and AC motors, HVDC transmission systems, and
wind power conversion. Figure 7.5 shows such current fed type nonlinear load.

Introduction to Power Quality Page 229

 Fig. 7.4 A single-phase converter-based voltage fed type of nonlinear load

Fig. 7.5 A three-phase converter-based current fed type of nonlinear load

Fig. 7.6 Three-phase four wire converter-based current fed type of nonlinear loads
7.3.4.3 Four-Wire Nonlinear Loads
A large number of single-phase nonlinear loads may be supplied from the three-phase
AC mains with the neutral conductor. Apart from harmonic currents, reactive power, and
unbalanced currents, they also cause excessive neutral current due to harmonic currents and
unbalancing of these loads on three phases. Typical examples are computer loads and
electronic ballasts-based vapor lighting systems. Besides, they cause voltage distortion and
voltage imbalance at the PCC and some potential at the neutral terminal. Figure 7.6 shows
such current fed type nonlinear load.

7.4 Power Quality Problems Caused by Nonlinear Loads

The nonlinear loads cause a number of power quality problems in the distribution
system. They inject harmonic currents into the AC mains. These harmonic currents increase
the RMS value of supply current, increase losses, cause poor utilization and heating of
components of the distribution system, and also cause distortion and notching in voltage
waveforms at the point of common coupling due to voltage drop in the source impedance.
Some of the effects are as follows,
• Increased RMS value of the supply current
• Increased losses
• Poor power factor
• Poor utilization of distribution system
• Heating of components of distribution system
• Derating of the distribution system
• Distortion in voltage waveform at the point of common coupling, which indirectly
affects many types of equipment
• Disturbance to the nearby consumers
• Interference in communication system
• Mal-operation of protection systems such as relays
• Interference in controllers of many other types of equipment
• Capacitorbankfailureduetooverload,resonance,harmonicamplification,andnuisancefus
eoperation
• Excessive neutral current
• Harmonic voltage at the neutral point

Introduction to Power Quality Page 231