GROUP DISCUSSION

Nature, forms and classification of Groups

Everyone knows what a group is in general. When two persons or more come together and
interact at one place it may be called a group. The group may be defined in various ways.
Given below are a few important definitions of group and each of these definitions
emphasises one or the other important features of the group.
1) R.M. Williams (1951) “A social group is a given aggregate of people playing inter-related
roles and recognised by themselves or other as a unit of interaction.” Here it can be said
group is an aggregate of some people. The roles of the group members are inter-related. The
group is considered as unit.
2) R.M. MacIver (1953) “By group we mean any collection of social beings who enter into
distinctive social relationships with one another.” It is clear that there must be social
relationships between the individual members of a group.
3) David (1968) “ A social psychological group is an organised system of two or more
individuals who are interrelated so that the system performs some functions, has a standard
set of the role relationship among its members and has a set of norms that regulate the
function of the group and each of its members.”
The word “group” has many meanings. Generally we use the term ‘group’ keeping in mind
three main points:
i) where a number of persons are sitting or working together. The essential thing is the
physical proximity of a number of people being together at a given time with or
without any common purpose;
ii) where persons are classified as belonging to an association. Sometimes it is seen
that people may have no relationship with each other but they have some common
characteristics and we classify them as a group;
iii) where persons belong to an organisation. This group has definite structure, and
people in this group have a sense of belongingness to the given organisation.
To know the meaning of the group more clearly you think about all the groups to which you belong,
viz., local friends, college friends, music/ dance group and so many. Generally people join in groups
due to various needs and these include
i) Satisfaction of important psychological and social needs, viz., receiving affection and attention, for
attaining belongingness.
ii) Achievement of goal in a smooth and easy way. By working with others, the person performs the
task well than doing it alone.
iii) Getting knowledge and information on various issues which are not available at one place .
iv) Getting safety and security
The important features of group are:
i)One or more individuals come together and influence each other.
Ii) There are social interactions and relationships amongst the individual members of a
group.
iii) There exists some common motives, drives, interests, emotions etc. amongst group
members.
iv) There is communication among group members, both verbal and or non-verbal.
v) The group members have some common object of attention and group members
stimulate each other.
vi) They have common loyalty and participate in similar activities.
vii) There exits feeling of unity in the group. Group members treat each other with respect
and regard and has a sense of comradiere that develops among them.
viii) The action of the members is controlled by the group.
ix) There are some customs, norms and procedures which are acceptable to everyone but if
exception happens, then the particular member will be ostracised from the group.

Group formation is concerned with the following:

i) The manner in which the groups form
ii) The structures and processes of the group
iii) The functions of the group in different situations .
There are mainly five stages of group development, viz., forming, storming,
norming, performing and adjourning.
i) Forming is a stage which is characterised by some confusion and
uncertainty. Forming is actually an orientation period when members get to
know one another and share expectations about the group. This is the
initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to develop
their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them.
ii) Storming is the stage where one can see the highest level of disagreement
and conflict. Members mainly voice their concern, and criticism occurs at
this stage. Actually in this stage interpersonal conflicts arise and differences
of opinion about the group goals also emerge. It is important to work
through the conflicts at this time and to establish clear goals.
iii) Norming is characterised by the recognition of individual differences and
shared expectations. Responsibilities are divided among members and the
group decides how it will evaluate the progress. If the group resolves its
conflicts, it can establish patterns of how to get its work done. Expectations
of one another are clearly articulated and accepted by members of the
group.
iv) Performing occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of
cohesiveness. In this stage, members of the group make decision through a rational
process that is focused on relevant goals rather than emotional issues. Issues
related to roles, expectations and norms are no longer of major importance. The
group is focused on its tasks, working effectively to accomplish its goals.
iv) Adjourning indicates that members of the group often experience feelings
of closure and sadness as they prepare to leave. It is the final stage when
the group, after achieving the objectives for which it was created, starts to
gradually dissolve itself.
Theories of Group Formation
Theories are establishing hypothesis which explain a particular phenomenon. Many
theories may explain one phenomenon, as for instances “delinquency”. There are
psychological, biological and sociological themes which explain delinquency. On the
same lines as above there are many theories which explain how groups are formed
and how they develop and progress. There are several theories regarding group
formation and development. The theories put forward here include classic theory,
social exchange and social identity theory.
i) Classic Theory: A classic theory, developed by George Homans suggests
that groups develop on the basis of activities, interactions and sentiments
mainly. Basically, this theory indicates that when individuals share common
activities they will have more interaction and will develop attitudes (either
positive or negative) toward each other. The main element is the
interaction of the individuals involved.

ii) Social Exchange Theory: Another important theory is the social exchange
theory which offers an alternative explanation for group development.
According to this theory individuals form the relationship on the basis of
implicit expectation of mutually beneficial exchanges based on trust and
felt obligation. It can further be said that a perception that exchange
relationships will be positive if persons are to be attracted to and affiliate
with a group.

iii) Social Identity Theory: Besides this, another important theory is social
identity theory which offers explanation for group formation. This theory
suggests that individuals get a sense of identity and self-esteem based on
their membership in salient groups. The group is demographically,
culturally and organisationally based.

One of the most important activities that groups perform is decision-

making. This is the process through which individuals or groups combine
and integrate information from several possible actions. Most people
believe that the group by utilising the expertise and knowledge of their
members and also by avoiding extreme course of action usually reaches
better decisions than what individuals can accomplish simply.

During the decision period, members convey a wide range of views.

Generally, social decision take place in two phases as given below:
i) The first phase is discussion, which mainly helps to confirm or strengthen the
most popular view, which rarely gets reversed; and
ii) The second phase is the correct situation or decision which ultimately emerges
in the forefront.
Besides the above two, there are several aspects of the group’s procedure, which
includes:
(i) following of procedures
(ii) addressing its managing interactions among members and so on. Some persons,
knowing about the opinions, especially the influential members, incline to join the
majority and thereby tilt the decision in the required direction.
TYPES OF GROUP We can classify groups in different ways. First, it can be divided
into two main parts considering the degree of intimacy as the basis of classification.
l Primary group: There is an intimate face-to-face relationship among the members
and the members are having ‘we feeling’ to the maximum. Family, play groups and
village community come under this category.
l Secondary group: Here the relationships are more or less casual and marked by
common interest. Clubs, trade unions etc. are under this category.
l In-group/ we group: Here we identify ourselves with that group which has a
common object and common interest. They have a sense of ‘we’ feeling. The
members of the in groups treat others as outsiders. These groups can be formed on
the basis of relationship, same country, similar political interests and economic
interests etc.
l Out-group: It is the group in which the members are considered as outsiders by
us. Groups other than the in-group are generally called out-groups.
On the basis of norms and rules, groups can be categorised into the following types:
l Formal group: It is generally formed on the basis of specific norms, rules and
values. The group of students in a classroom comes under the category of formal
group. So, school is one of the formal group settings.
l Informal group: The nature of the group is not formed at all. The rules are usually
flexible. Play groups, peer group and social clubs etc. are examples of informal
groups. Besides the above two, group can also classified into various categories as
given below:
l Organised groups: The groups which are formed for specific purpose and are
carefully planned is called organised groups. The family, the school etc. are also
called organised groups. L
Spontaneous groups: The groups are formed without any careful planning.
Audience may be considered as spontaneous group after listening to the speech by
a renouned speaker.
l Command groups: Command groups are specified by the organisational chart. It
consists of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to the supervisor.
l Task groups: A group of people work together to achieve a common task. In many
situations there is a specified time period. This can be referred to as task forces.
l Functional groups: Functional group is generally created by the organisation to
accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional group
generally exists after achievement of current goals and objects.
l Interest groups: It usually continues over time and may last longer than general
informal groups. It is seen that the interest of the member may not be part of the
same organisational department but they are bound by some common interest.
l Friendship groups: It may be of different types. These groups are formed by the
members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious values and
other common bonds.
l Reference groups: This is the group where the people evaluate themselves.
Reference groups have a strong influence on members’ behaviour.
Role of Managers in Group Discussions
Group discussion (GD) is a comprehensive technique to judge the suitability of an individual
and his appropriateness for admission, scholarship, job, etc. GD assesses the overall
personality – thoughts, feelings and behaviour - of an individual in a group. A topic is
presented to the group members for discussion.
Manager or Facilitator: Manages the group by helping to ensure that the group stays on task,
is focused, and that there is room for everyone in the conversation. Recorder: Keeps a
record of those who were in the group, and the roles that they play in the group.
As a manager or leader, you're expected to perform several tasks and meet multiple
deadlines. To ensure that you achieve your objectives on time, you delegate.
At the most fundamental level, management is a discipline that consists of a set of five
general functions: planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. These five functions
are part of a body of practices and theories on how to be a successful manager.

Effective group decision making

When you have a tough business problem to solve, you likely bring it to a group. After all,
more minds are better than one, right? Not necessarily. Larger pools of knowledge are by no
means a guarantee of better outcomes. Because of an over-reliance on hierarchy, an instinct
to prevent dissent, and a desire to preserve harmony, many groups fall into groupthink.

Misconceived expert opinions can quickly distort a group decision. Individual biases can
easily spread across the group and lead to outcomes far outside individual preferences. And
most of these processes occur subconsciously.

This doesn’t mean that groups shouldn’t make decisions together, but you do need to create
the right process for doing so. Based on behavioral and decision science research and years of
application experience, we have identified seven simple strategies for more effective group
decision making:

Keep the group small when you need to make an important decision. Large groups are
much more likely to make biased decisions. For example, research shows that groups with
seven or more members are more susceptible to confirmation bias. The larger the group, the
greater the tendency for its members to research and evaluate information in a way that is
consistent with pre-existing information and beliefs. By keeping the group to between three
and five people, a size that people naturally gravitate toward when interacting, you can
reduce these negative effects while still benefitting from multiple perspectives.

Choose a heterogenous group over a homogenous one (most of the time). Various
studies have found that groups consisting of individuals with homogeneous opinions and
beliefs have a greater tendency toward biased decision making. Teams that have potentially
opposing points of view can more effectively counter biases. However, context matters.
When trying to complete complex tasks that require diverse skills and perspectives, such as
conducting research and designing processes, heterogeneous groups may substantially
outperform homogeneous ones. But in repetitive tasks, requiring convergent thinking in
structured environments, such as adhering to safety procedures in flying or healthcare,
homogenous groups often do better. As a leader, you need first to understand the nature of the
decision you’re asking the group to make before you assemble a suitable team.

Appoint a strategic dissenter (or even two). One way to counter undesirable groupthink
tendencies in teams is to appoint a “devil’s advocate.” This person is tasked with acting as a
counterforce to the group’s consensus. Research shows that empowering at least one person
with the right to challenge the team’s decision making process can lead to significant
improvements in decision quality and outcomes. For larger groups with seven or more
members, appoint at least two devil’s advocates to be sure that a sole strategic dissenter isn’t
isolated by the rest of the group as a disruptive troublemaker.

Collect opinions independently. The collective knowledge of a group is only an advantage

if it’s used properly. To get the most out of your team’s diverse capabilities, we recommend
gathering opinions individually before people share their thoughts within the wider group.
You can ask team members to record their ideas independently and anonymously in a shared
document, for example. Then ask the group to assess the proposed ideas, again independently
and anonymously, without assigning any of the suggestions to particular team members. By
following such an iterative process teams can counter biases and resist groupthink. This
process also makes sure that perceived seniority, alleged expertise, or hidden agendas don’t
play a role in what the group decides to do.

Provide a safe space to speak up. If you want people to share opinions and engage in
constructive dissent, they need to feel they can speak up without fear of retribution. Actively
encourage reflection on and discussion of divergent opinions, doubts, and experiences in a
respectful manner. There are three basic elements required to create a safe space and harness
a group’s diversity most effectively. First, focus feedback on the decision or discussed
strategy, not on the individual. Second, express comments as a suggestion, not as a mandate.
Third, express feedback in a way that shows you empathize with and appreciate the
individuals working toward your joint goal.

Don’t over-rely on experts. Experts can help groups make more informed decisions.
However, blind trust in expert opinions can make a group susceptible to biases and distort the
outcome. Research demonstrates that making them part of the decision-making can sway the
team to adapt their opinions to those of the expert or make overconfident judgments.
Therefore, invite experts to provide their opinion on a clearly defined topic, and position
them as informed outsiders in relation to the group.

Share collective responsibility. Finally, the outcome of a decision may be influenced by

elements as simple as the choice of the group’s messenger. We often observe one single
individual being responsible for selecting suitable group members, organizing the agenda,
and communicating the results. When this is the case, individual biases can easily influence
the decision of an entire team. Research shows that such negative tendencies can be
effectively counteracted if different roles are assigned to different group members, based on
their expertise. Moreover, all members should feel accountable for the group’s decision
making process and its final outcome. One way to do that is to ask the team to sign a joint
responsibility statement at the outset, leading to a more balanced distribution of power and a
more open exchange of ideas.
Of course, following these steps doesn’t guarantee a great decision. However, the better the
quality of the decision-making process and the interaction between the group members, the
greater your chances of reaching a successful outcome.

How to make better and more effective group decisions

 Create a safe space.
 Keep it anonymous.
 Encourage creative ideas.
 Gather everyone's opinion.
 Keep everyone informed.
 Brainstorm better and run better workshops.
 Structure your meeting.
 Avoid groupthink.

Group Conflict
Group conflict, or hostilities between different groups, is a feature common to all forms of
human social organization (e.g., sports teams, ethnic groups, nations, religions, gangs), and
also occurs in social animals.
A student might have an opposing view from another, or mislike how another person
conducts themselves. Another example is one teammate might like to study in complete
silence, but another might need loud music to concentrate, or both might want to lead the
group, but aren't prepared to support each other.
conflict has many causes, including organizational structures, limitations on resources, task
interdependence, goal incompatibility, personality differences, and communication
challenges. Outcomes of well-managed conflict include increased participation and creativity,
while negatives of poorly managed conflict include increased stress and anxiety. Jobs that
deal with people are at higher risk for conflict.

4 types of team conflicts

 Task-based conflicts. Task-based conflicts occur in situations when team members
rely on each other to complete a task or project. ...
 Leadership conflicts. Some conflicts occur because of differences in leadership styles.
...
 Work style conflicts. ...
 Personality clashes.

Outcomes of Conflict
One of the most common outcomes of conflict is that it upsets parties in the short run
(Bergman & Volkema, 1989). However, conflict can have both positive and negative
outcomes. On the positive side, conflict can result in greater creativity or better decisions. For
example, as a result of a disagreement over a policy, a manager may learn from an employee
that newer technologies help solve problems in an unanticipated new way.

Positive outcomes include the following:

 Consideration of a broader range of ideas, resulting in a better, stronger idea

 Surfacing of assumptions that may be inaccurate
 Increased participation and creativity
 Clarification of individual views that build learning

On the other hand, conflict can be dysfunctional if it is excessive or involves personal attacks
or underhanded tactics.

Examples of negative outcomes include the following:

 Increased stress and anxiety among individuals, which decreases productivity and
satisfaction
 Feelings of being defeated and demeaned, which lowers individuals’ morale and may
increase turnover
 A climate of mistrust, which hinders the teamwork and cooperation necessary to get
work done.

GROUP CONFLICT RESOLUTION

To understand conflict resolution among groups it is helpful first to consider the role of
conflict in and among groups. Conflict analysis of groups is divided between the study
of intragroup conflict, that which happens within a group among its members, and intergroup
conflict, that which happens between one or more groups where the conflict is viewed as
involving the group as a whole. The study of these phenomena is closely related to the study
of both group dynamics and cross-cultural relations. A further distinction is made according
to the group level being studied. Here the separation is generally between group conflicts and
international conflicts. Group conflicts include both communal group conflicts and workplace
conflicts. Communal group conflicts can involve just about any group that provides people
with social identity. Social identity is itself a group-level concept, since it is defined as the
identity we gain from being part of a collectivity, a group. Since most of the hours of our
days are organized around group membership, the study of groups and their interactions is
central to the work of sociologists.

When groups are in conflict, the very presence of the group intensifies andchanges the way
conflict between individuals is perceived. Membership in the group affords the individual
two perceptions that impact on the conflict: (1) that the individual is right and justified to
engage in and attempt to win the conflict and (2) that the individual will be evaluated and
either further embraced or rejected based on his or her performance in a conflict situation.
Within groups, conflict often results in patterns of splintering or perhaps a coup d'état and
expulsion. Between groups, conflict can encourage deindividuation, ethnocentrism, and
diabolical imaging of the enemy. Groups often provide individuals with a way to rationalize
their involvement in a conflict and perhaps to take actions they might otherwise avoid.
Conflict resolution is likewise changed in a group situation.

Defining exactly what a conflict is has also been an important part of the analysis of conflict
and its resolution. There are generally two accepted ways of defining "conflict": (1) realistic
and (2) perceived. The former involves tangible, verifiable competing interests. The latter
refers to situations where it is believed by one or both parties that the other stands in the way
of achieving what is desired. Conflicts occur over resources, power distribution, and values.
They are classified as latent (yet to be noticed) or manifest. A final method of defining
"conflict" is as destructive or constructive. Although viewed by most people as risky and
something to be avoided, conflict is often seen differently by conflict analysts. Most who
study conflict and its resolution argue that conflict holds the potential to be constructive, to
create positive social change. These theorists and practitioners argue that how one copes with
conflict is the important distinction. If the proper structures exist (such as skilled trainers or
participants), conflict can actually have creative and constructive outcomes.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION

The area of conflict resolution is itself an interdisciplinary field of research. Despite the great
diversity of scholars involved in this work, they are brought together by a common interest in
understanding how and when conflicts are resolved. What to call the work varies, including
such terms as "conflict management," "conflict resolution," and "conflict transformation." A
variable here is to what extent and in what way one might get involved to eliminate a conflict.
Scholars in this area favor searching for nonviolent and noncontentious methods for ending
conflicts, perhaps because these methods are felt to be more permanent than the cycle of
escalation likely to emerge with aggressive measures for "ending" conflicts. Avoidance and
repression are also considered to be negative responses to conflict.

Here we focus not generally on the field of conflict resolution but specifically on it in relation
to groups. While there is much application of theory and research across the levels of study,
there is not much agreement on the transferability of ideas from the interpersonal level to the
group or international level. Conflict resolution among groups remains an important but
understudied social process. Great strides have been taken in developing various models of
conflict resolution at the interpersonal level, but among groups the process remains less easily
identifiable. At the international level, only small inroads have been made in developing and
testing possible methods. War or military threats remain the most common responses to
conflict among nations.