MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL

Rainfall is measured using:

A. Rain Gauges
 Non-recording (Symon’s rain gauge)
 Recording/Automatic
 Weighing Bucket Rain-gauge
 Tipping Bucket Rain-gauge
 Float type Rain-gauge
 Pressure Transducer Rain-gauge
 Automatic Radio Reporting Rain gauge
B. Radars
C. Satellites
A. Rain-Gauges
Non-automatic (Non-recording) Rain-gauge

These are called non-recording rain gauges because they do not

record the rain but only collect the rain.

The collected rain is then measured by means of graduated cylinders

so as to directly represent the rainfall volume in cm of water depth,
i.e.
Volume of water collected in cm3
Depth of rain water in cm =
Area of aperatureof the guage in cm2

Note: The amount of precipitation/rainfall is expressed as the

depth in cm or inches.
Symon’s Rain-gauge
Most common type of non-automatic rain-
gauge.

Consists of cylindrical vessel 127 mm (5”)

dia with a base enlarged to 210 mm (8”)
dia.

The top section is a funnel provided with

circular brass rim exactly 127 mm (5”)
internal dia.

The funnel shank is inserted in the neck of

receiving bottle which is 75 to 100 mm (3 to
4”) dia.

Capacity of bottle is 75 to 100 mm of

rainfall.

 The rain-gauge is placed in concrete block

60cm×60cm×60cm (2’×2’×2’).

The rim should be 305 mm (12”) above the

ground surface.

Water contained in the bottle is measured

by suitably graduated measuring glass, with
an accuracy up to 0.1 mm.

During a heavy rainfall, the rain should be

measured 3 or 4 times in a day.
Automatic (Recording) Rain-gauge
 Gauges which can give permanent and automatic
rainfall record without any bottle reading.

 Man has not to go to the gauge to measure the

amount of rain fallen.

 There is mechanical arrangement by which the total

amount of rain fallen, since the rainfall was started,
gets recorded automatically.

 The gauge thus produces a record of cumulative rain

vs. time in the form of graph known as Mass Curve of
rain fallen.
Measurement of rainfall by an Automatic
(Recording) Rain-gauge
In general, automatic rain-gauge consists of
rotating drum with a graph paper fixed around it.

There is pen in contact with graph paper, which

moves up with the collected rain, and thus
recording cumulative rain, with the passage of time.

Mass curve of Rainfall

These are of five types

1. Weighing Bucket Rain-gauge

2. Tipping Bucket Rain-gauge
3. Float Type Rain-gauge
4. Pressure Transducer or Diaphragm gauge
5. Automatic Radio Reporting Rain gauge
 1.Weighing Bucket Rain-gauge

 Consists of a receiver bucket supported by a

spring or lever balance or any other weighing
mechanism.

 The movement of bucket due to its increasing

weight is transmitted to a pen which traces the
record on a clock driven chart.
 2.Tipping Bucket Rain-gauge

Consists of 30 cm dia sharp edge

receiver.
At the end of receiver funnel is
provided.
Under the funnel a pair of buckets
are pivoted (the central point which
balances) in such away that when
one bucket receives 0.25 mm (0.01”)
of rainfall it tips (to fall or turn over),
discharging its contents into reservoir
bringing other bucket under funnel.
Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing the movement of pen
to mark on clock driven revolving drum which carries a record sheet.
 3.Float Type Rain-gauge

 Working is similar to weighing bucket gauge.

 Funnel receives the rain water which is collected
in rectangular container (Float Chamber).
 Float is provided at the bottom of container.
 Float is raised as the water level rises in the
container.
 Movement of float is being recorded by a pen
moving on recording drum actuated by clock
work.
 When the water level in the container rises so
that float touches the top, the siphon comes into
operation, and release the water; thus all the
water in the box is drained out.
 4. Pressure Transducer Rain-guage

It consists of a very sensitive

membrane called diaphragm.

Movement of diaphragm initiates the

signal that sent to the data logger.

Data logger provides continuous

rainfall record of a storm event.
 5. Automatic Radio Reporting Rain gauge

This type of rain gauge is used in mountainous areas,

which are not easily accessible to collect the rainfall data
manually.
As in the tipping bucket gauge, when the buckets fill and
tip, they give electric pulses equal in number to the mm of
rainfall collected which are coded into messages and
impressed on a transmitter during broadcast.
At the receiving station, these coded signals are picked up
by UHF receiver.
Advantages of Recording Gauge over the Non-
recording Gauge.

 In recording gauge rainfall is recorded automatically

& therefore, there is no necessity of any attendant.

 Recording rain-gauge gives the intensity of rainfall @

any time while the non-recording gauge gives the
total rainfall in any particular interval of time.

 As no attendant is required such rain-gauge can be

installed in far–off places also.

 Possibility of human error is obviated.

Disadvantages of Recording Gauge over the Non-
recording Gauge.

 It is costly in comparison with non-recording gauge.

 Fault may be developed in electrical or mechanical

mechanism or recording the rainfall.
Location of Rain-gauges

Rain-gauges must be so located as to avoid exposure

to wind effect or interception by trees or buildings
nearby.
The best location may be an open plane ground like an
airport.
The rainfall records are maintained by various
government departments.
 Rain-gauge Density
The following figures give a guideline as to the number of rain-
gauges to be erected in a given area or what is termed as
‘rain-gauge density’.
Area Rain-gauge density
Plains 1 in 520 km2
Elevated regions 1 in 260-390 km2
Hilly and very heavy 1 in 130 Km2 preferably with 10%
rainfall areas of the rain-gauge stations equipped
with the self recording type
In India, on an average, there is 1 rain-gauge station for every
500 km2, while in more developed countries, it is 1 station for
100 km2.
The length of record (i.e., the number of years) needed to
obtain a stable frequency distribution of rainfall may be
recommended as follows:
Catchment layout No. of years
Islands 30
Shore 40
Plain areas 40
Mountainous regions 50
The mean of yearly rainfall observed for a period of 35
consecutive years is called the average annual rainfall.
The average annual rainfall of a place depends upon:
1. Distance
2. Direction of the prevailing winds
3. The mean annual temperature
4. Altitude of the place
5. Topography
 Optimum number of rain gauges

If there are a number of rain gauges already installed in the

region, the information obtained from these rain gauges can
be used to determine the optimum number of rain gauges
required for the area.
The optimum number depends upon the coefficient of
variation (Cv) Of the mean rainfall values at the existing
stations and the allowable degree of error (e).
The optimum number of rain gauges is given by
where Cv and e are expressed as percentages.

 Example
Determine the optimum number of rain gauges m in a catchment area
if number of existing rain gauges = 8, Permissible error = 6%, and
values of Mean annual rainfall at the gauges are 1000, 950, 900, 850,
800, 700, 600, and 400 mm.
Example

There are four rain gauge stations existing in the catchment

of a river. The average annual rainfall values at these stations
are 800, 620, 400 and 540 mm respectively.
(a) Determine the optimum number of rain gauges in the
catchment, if its desired to limit the error in mean value of
rainfall to 10%.
(b) How many more gauges will then be required?
 Estimation of Missing Data

For frequency analysis of rainfall data, a sufficiently long

record is required. It may happen that a particular rain gauge
is not operative for part of a month or so (since it is broken or
for some other reason), when it becomes necessary to
supplement the missing record by one of the following
methods:

i. Comparison method
ii. Normal ratio method
iii. Isohyetal map method
 i. Comparison method

If the rainfall record of a rain gauge station (say, X ) is missing

for a relatively long period, such as a month or a year, it can
be estimated by comparing the mean annual rainfall of the
station X with that of an adjoining station A.

where Px and PA are the precipitations of the stations X and A

for the missing period, and Nx and NA are the mean annual
rainfalls of the stations X and A.
ii. Normal Ratio Method

When there is a short break in the precipitation data of a

rain gauge station, it can be estimated from the observed
data of three adjoining index stations A, B and C, which
are evenly distributed around the stations X.
The following two cases are dealt with separately.
(a) When the mean annual rainfall at each of the index
stations A. B and C is within 10% of the mean annual
rainfall of station X, a simple average of the values of the
index station is taken. Thus
(b) When the mean annual rainfall at each of the index
stations differs from the station A' by more than 10%,
the normal ratio method is used. Thus

where the symbol N is used for the mean annual rainfall

(also called average annual precipitation) and the
symbol P is used for the precipitation.
 Example
The rain gauge station X was inoperative for a part of a month
during which a storm occurred. The storm rainfall recorded at the
three surrounding stations A, B and C was 75 mm, 59mm and
86mm, respectively. If the average annual rainfalls of the stations
A, B, C and X are 750, 650, 850 and 700 mm respectively, estimate
the storm rainfall of station X.
Example
Precipitation station X was inoperative for a part of month
during which a storm occurred. The respective storm totals at
three surrounding stations A,B & C were 107, 89 and 122 mm.
The normal annual precipitation values at X, A, B and C are
respectively, 978, 1120, 935 and 1200 mm. Estimate the storm
precipitation for station X.
Solution:
Example

Precipitation station X was inoperative for a part of

month during which a storm occurred. The respective
storm totals at three surrounding stations A,B & C were
107, 89 and 122 mm. The normal annual precipitation
values at X, A, B and C are respectively, 978, 900, 935 and
1000 mm.

Estimate the storm precipitation for station X.

iii. Isohyetal map method

Isohyets are the contours of equal rainfall depth. An

isohyetal map is prepared from the record of various
rain gauge stations.
The isohyetal map method is suitable for the estimation
of the missing data of a station X due to a particular
storm.
An isohyetal map is prepared from the data of the
various rain gauge stations, and the precipitation of the
station X is estimated from the two isohyets between
which the station lies.
In Figure, the precipitation of station X is estimated as 5.3 cm.
 3. Radar Rain-gauge Density Method

The application of radars in the study of storm mechanics,

i.e. the areal extent, orientation and movement of rain
storms, is of great use.
The radar signals reflected by the rain are helpful in
determining the magnitude of storm precipitation and its
areal distribution.
This method is usually used to supplement data obtained
from a network of rain gauges.