ECOSYTEMS

TERMS USED IN ECOLOGY

Community – all organisms of all species living in the same habitat

Habitat – the area where an organism lives
Population – a group of organisms of the same species
Species – a group of organisms of the same kind which mate & produce a fertile
offspring
Environment – the surroundings where an organisms lives
Ecosystem – consists of a community & its environment
Food chain – a linear feeding relationship between organisms
Food web – a set of linked food chains showing a more complex but realistic
feeding relationship
Producer – an organism which makes its own food e.g. plants. (also known as
autotrophs)
Primary consumer – an organism that feeds directly on producers; a.k.a.
herbivores
Secondary consumers – an animal that feeds on primary consumers a.k.a. meat
eaters/ carnivores
Omnivores – an animal that feeds on both meat & plants e.g. man
Tertiary consumers – organisms that normally feed secondary consumers
Decomposers – organisms that normally feed on dead animal or plant matter
Scavengers – animals that feed on the remains of dead animals e.g. vultures &
hyenas
Trophic / feeding level – stage in a food chain or food web
Pyramid of numbers – a diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic
level, the length of the bar is proportional to the number of organisms.

ADAPTATIONS
Refers to traits that enhance the survival and reproductive success of the organism. Wings are
adaptations for flight

Fish can swim in water because they have fins for swimming

Fish use their gills for gaseous exchange in water

Frogs use lungs for gaseous exchange on land and use their skin for gaseous exchange while in
water.

Ducks have streamlined body shape that reduces resistance or drag as they glide through the
water.

Ducks produce quacking sound to signal danger, communicate with mates, to maintain contact
with a flock.

Adaptations is a result of NATURAL SELECTION.

TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS

DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
1. STRUCTURAL These are physical features of Jumping legs in crickets
an organism Webbed fits in ducks
A thick layer of fats in polar
bear
Polar bears also have thick,
sharp, curved claws to hold
slippery seal.
2. BEHAVIOURAL A behaviour developed by an -hibernation by some animals
individual overtime to e.g hedgehogs,bats, snakes
increase their chances of -aestivation e.g crocodiles,
survival snails
-migration by some animals
Living in groups
Nocturnal and diurnal
behaviour
3. FUNCTIONAL These are internal processes -Cobra produces venom to
or systems in an organism that blind predators
gives it a survival advantage. -some desert animals have
kidneys that help them retain
water by concentrating urine.

POPULATION SIZES IN ECOSYSTEMS

This refers to the total numbers of individual organisms of a particular species in a specific area.
Population size of a species can significantly affect an ecosystem. Overpopulation can
overconsume resources and also make other species become extinct. Too small
population can also not fulfill its role in the ecosystem such as being a food source. This
can lead to imbalances that can disrupt the entire ecosystem.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION SIZE (N)

 IMMIGRATION
 BIRTH RATE
 DEATH RATE
 COMPETITION
 EMIGRATION

IMMIGRATION

Occurs when organisms enters a new habitat or population. These organisms may seek greener
pastures, food, mates, or change in scenery. E.g birds migrating to a different region to escape
harsh winter.

EMIGRATION

Occurs when an organism leaves its habitat or population.

 Immigration and emigration they introduce genetic diversity and new traits to the mix.
 It also reduces inbreeding and ensures population remain healthy and adaptable.
 Immigration emigration contributes to reducing population density and preventing
overcrowding.
 They also make the population to and the habitat to thrive or succeed.

BIRTH RATE

The number of birth per individual within a population per unit of time.

DEATH RATE

The number of deaths per individual per unit of time.

♦ If birthrate exceeds death rate, population grows.

♦ If deathr ate exceeds birth rate , the population declines.
♦ If birth rate and death rate are in equllibrium, population growth rate is zero and the
population remain stable.

growth rate = birth rate – death rate.

COMPETITION
Organisms compete with each other for different resources. Resources such
as food, water, or territory are in limited supply.
 Competition can regulate population dynamics(changes in population
size over time). Individualas become overcrowded as population
grows. Since the same resources become limited some individuals
do not acquire enough resources and die or do not reproduce. This
reduces population size.
 Individuals less suited to compete for resources must either adapt or
die out.

ESTIMATION OF POPULATION SIZE

Measuring population size can be done using quadrant frame method and the capture recapture
methods.

1. QUADRANT FRAME METHOD

The quadrant is a square sample area of varying size marked off in the plant community. A quadrant
frame is placed directly on top of the vegetation at specific intervals.

A square frame is used to outline a sample area.

 Randomly(sample) place quadrant frame in different locations within the habitat area
under study.
 Count the number of individuals of the species you are studying within the quadrant.
 Repeat this process multiple times in different locations within the habitat to get a good
sample size.
NB more samples will give a more accurate estimate.
 Calculate the average number of individuals per quadrat.

Total population size = average number of individuals per quadrant x

total area of habitat under study.

2. CAPTURE RECAPTURE METHOD

The method is usually used to estimate animal population size.
Animals are captured, marked, released, and then recaptured after a period of time. The
proportion of the marked members in the second sample can give an estimate to the
population size.

To work out an estimate for the total population we use the formula:

N =MT/R

where:

M = Total marked

N = Total population

R = Number of marked recaptured

T = Total recaptured on second visit

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological succession is the gradual process of change in the species composition of an

ecosystem over time, often following disturbances like fires and human activities such as road
constructions.

If a national park suffered a huge wildfire outbreak the restoration of the forest will occur naturally.
In the initial years, only small plants grow on the burnt soil. After several years, the forest will show
diversity in tree species.

CAUSES

 NATURAL DISTURBANCES E.g floods, fires, volcanoes

 HUMAN ACTIVITIES E.g deforestation,

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSSION

I) PRIMARY SUCCESSION
Occurs in lifeless areas where soil has not yet formed, such as after volcanic eruption. A
barren area is transformed into thriving ecosystem. volcanic rocks may be broken down by
organisms to create soil through soil erosion. Then plants start to grow. After hundreds
thousands years a full community of plants and animals can develop. Plants then supports
different animals and the ecosystem evolves from simple to more complex.
 II) SCONDARY SUCCESSION
It occurs in areas where a disturbance has destroyed an existing ecosystem but left the soil
intact. Can be caused by forest fire, floods, landslides.

Unlike primary succession, secondary succession starts with some remaining and left
over fertile soil and organisms (seeds, spores, etc.) from the previous community

STAGES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

The process of ecological succession involves five stages, which are:

Nudation

This is the development of a vacant area with no life. It can be caused by events like
volcanic eruptions, landslides, floods, erosion, earthquakes, forest fires, or the spread of
disease.
Invasion or Intrusion

This stage involves the establishment of species in a barren area. The seeds or spores
of various species arrive in the new or exposed area through air, water, etc., a process
called migration. These species then adapt to the conditions and multiply.

Competition and coaction

As species increase in number, they compete with each other for food, space, and other
resources. This competition can be within the same species (intraspecific) or between
different species (interspecific), along with interactions with the environment. New
species of plants and animals continue to invade.

Reaction

In this phase, living organisms alter the environment through their activities

Stabilization

This final stage occurs when the ecosystem becomes stable and balanced for a longer
period, resulting in a climax community that is well adapted to the specific environment.

ENERGY FLOW
Energy flow refers to the movement of energy from one trophic level to another. The sun is the principal source of energy for
all biological systems. i.e. plants & animals.

The sun Producers herbivores carnivores decompo

(principal source plants (photosynthesis) (primary consumers) (meat eaters)
Of energy)
Non – Cyclical flow of Energy
Energy does not flow backwards & return to the sun therefore we say that the energy flow through the ecosystem is non-cyclical

FOOD CHAINS
Food chains – a linear feeding relationship between organisms
 Should always begin with a producer. Without producer no food chain
 Should have arrows to indicate the direction of energy flow
 Energy decreases along the chain hence food chain is short
 Chemical concentrations increases along food chain (bioaccumulation)

producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer

e.g.
1. grass zebra lion vulture

NB; the sun is not included in the food chain since is not consumed or its not food but a source of energy.
FOOD WEB

Food web – It is made of many food chains linked together.

e.g.

Owl Flea Tick

Shrew Fox Weasel Badger

Caterpillars Rabbit Grasshopper

Oak tree Grass

Schematic flow diagram of food web

ENERGY LOSES IN FOOD CHAINS

The plants in field use a lot of sunlight & convert it into chemical energy in food. Every time energy passes from one organism to
the next in a food chain, quiet a lot of energy is wasted. On average only about one tenth of the energy from trophic level is
passed onto to the next trophic level.

Energy from
the sun Produc Primary Secondar 0.1%
100% er 10% 1% y
consum
consum

90% lost 9% lost 0.9% lost

When herbivores eat the plants they do not get all the energy from them. Only a part of the energy is passed onto the herbivores.
There are several reasons to this;
1. the plants will have used some of the energy for themselves
2. the herbivores may not eat all of the plants e.g. may only eat leaves
3. the herbivores may not be able to digest all parts of the plants

Pyramid of Numbers

Algae tadpole water scorpion perch

Perch
Water
Tad poles
Algae

The bar for producers is always at the bottom of the diagram. Pyramids of numbers are usually a typical shape with a broad
base, but in certain circumstances they are in wrong shape, e.g.

2 eagles
This happens when the producer is
10birds a large with lots of smaller
consumers feeding on it
100 Caterpillars
1 Large plant

15 ticks
This happens when one of the
1 hyena consumer bars is made of parasites
2 goats e.g. ticks / fleas. Lots of these tiny
animals can live on a host
20 trees

Pyramids of Biomass
These are diagrams that show the mass of organisms at each trophic level. The length of the bar is proportional to the mass of
organisms. Usually the dry mass of organism are used.

The pyramid of biomass can take different shapes.

BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL

Is a method of using natural predators (enemy) and other organisms to control pests.

EXAMPLES

 Lady bird beetles are used to control aphids

 Using dragonflies to feed on mosquitoes
 Ground beetles preys on cutworms and caterpillars
 Damsel bugs preys on caterpillars, mites, aphids
 Oxpecker bird feeding on ticks from cattle

ADVANTAGES OF BIOLOGICAL PEST DISADVANTAGES OF BIOLOGICAL

CONTROL PEST CONTROL

 Reduces chemical use  The control organisms may

 Minimizes soil and water pollution become invasive
 Provides heathier food with lower  The results are slower than
pesticides chemical
 Cost effective
  May be affected by weather
conditions.
 Pests cannot be eradicated
completely
 The used organism can be killed by
pesticides
 Pests can develop resistance to
natural enemy.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY
represents the flow of energy at each trophic level within an ecosystem. It shows
how much energy, initially from the sun, is retained or stored in the form of new
biomass at each level. Typically, only about 10% of the energy is transferred
from one trophic level to the next.
ENERGY always decreases up the pyramid and NEVER increase up the pyramid. This
is because the energy is converted to other forms of energy and gets lost.
Energy from food(chemical potential energy) can be converted to heat,
electrical, sound and then lost.

Energy is lost

Up the pyramid
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON ECOSYSTEMS
Climate change is the long-term change or shift in the earth's average temperatures and
weather patterns. Fossil fuel burning which is a human activity increases the heat
trapping greenhouse gas levels in earths atmosphere. These will increase Earths surface
temperature. Some of the effects of climate change in ecosytems are as follows;

 More Heatwaves.
Animals will migrate to higher elevations, marine species find colder water at
greater depth, land degredation biodiversity loss, habiatat modification.

 longer wildfire season

Wildfires causes air pollution by relesing harmful gases and smoke that can kill
animals
May cause habitat loss
Produces green
House gases
 More droughts
Results in; species loss, reduced plant growth, lower water levels in reservoirs in
the ecosystems, leads to soil erosion since soil remain uncovered. Death of plants
 Rising sea levels
Can impact ecosystems by causing habitat loss, flooding wetlands, increasing
salinity in freshwater systems such as rivers
Habitat loss
 More floods
Can create new wetlands, support plants growth, ground water recharge, spread
diseases, can cause soil erosion, habitat distruction.

 Changes in rainfall patterns

Alters plant growth
Alters animal behaviour
Alters species distribution
Shifting vegetations
Migration pattern
Wetlands alterations
 EFFECTS OF VELDFIRES ON ECOSYSTEMS
 Direct destruction of vegetation
 Damage to soil structure leading to increased soil erosion
 Burning releases nutrients into soil
 Wildlife displacement and some animals may be killed directly
 Habitat loss
 Carbon emisions contributing to climate changes
 Fires can promote germination of certain plant species
 Fires can remove accumulated dead vegetation reducing risk of larger and
more destructive fires in the future.
 The ash left behind provide a short –term boost of nutrients to the soil.
 Colonization by non-native plants which can outcompete native species.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ECOSYSTEMS

 Deforestation. Cutting down trees for agriculture and logging destroys habitats
 Pollution.
Humans releases hazardous chemicals that pollutes the environment. E.g used
oils can kill plants and water animals
 Invasive species introduction by humans
It can affect the existing species.

 Climate change
Burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases that contributes to global
warming.
 Soil erosion
Farm machines like tractors can break soils and promotes soil erosion.
 Overharvesting
Overharvesting of resources like food, timber, and medicine can cause species
diversity loss.
 Habitat destruction
Natural habitats are destroyed to make way for urban developments such as road
infrastructure, schools,
Consequences of biodiversity loss
 human wildlife conflicts
 loss of food
 collapse of food web
 loss of keystone species
 loss of medicinal supplies
 loss of tourism and recreation
 more severe weather
 spread of diseases since animals move close to human settlements.
 Species become extinct
 Biodiversity loss limits species adaptations
 May cause soil erosion
 Poor air quality and climate change
HARZARDS ASSORCIATED WITH IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF CLINICAL
WASTE

Clinical waste is the waste generated by the health care services

Hazards
 Air pollution due to incineration and particulate matter released in emissions
 Radiation burns from radioactive substances
 Radiation burns from radioactive substances

PERSISTANT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPs)ON ECOSYSTEM

Organic pollutants are substances, both natural and synthetic, found in soil that include
carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and fats. Organic pollutants are toxic molecular
compounds and can cause various diseases in humans, when exceed the permissible
limits. Industrial products such as detergents, petroleum hydrocarbons, plastics,
organic solvents, pesticides, and dyes, oil, phenols, surfactants, herbicides, are the vital
sources of these organic compounds. They can be found in diverse environments. In
addition, these organic pollutants are a threat to wildlife and human, due to long-term
deleterious effect and chemical complexity.

POPs have been considered more dangerous, categorized as hazardous due to their
potential toxicological properties. POPs are not easily degraded in the environment due
to their stability and low decomposition rates. Due to this capacity for long-range
transport, POP environmental contamination is extensive, even in areas where POPs
have never been used, and will remain in these environments years after restrictions
implemented due to their resistance to degradation.

POPs accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms including humans, and are found
at higher concentrations at higher levels in the food chain;

They are toxic to both humans and wildlife and last longer in their tissues.

USEFUL PRODUCTS FROM WASTE

 Door mats made from used clothes and plastic
 Flower pots made from used paper
 Manure made from kitchen waste from fruits and vegetables
 Toys from used bottles, wires
 Sculptures made from used paper, wires and metals
 Picture frame made from used wood and plastic
 Beads from plastic
