AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

1ST YEAR INTRODUCTORY GENERAL

CHEMISTRY LECTURE NOTE, EXERCISES AND
SOLUTIONS
(CHEM 101)

BY

SHUAIBU MUSA ABUBAKAR

(ABU TAIMULLAH)

February 2023
CONCEPT OF ATOMS, MOLECULES AND ELEMENTS
Introduction
Chemistry may loosely be defined as the study of the principles underlying the properties of matter and the
changes under gone by matter. The observations made on matter can be summarized in the form of
experimental laws (e.g. the kinetic theory of gases). A theory is considered satisfactory if it correlates all the
known facts about a particular phenomenon, and in addition predicts new facts which may be experimentally
verified.
1. Matter: The many different kinds of matter of which the universe is composed maybe classified into
a. Homogeneous matter and
b. Heterogeneous matter
2. Substances: A species of matter which is homogeneous and has a definite set of physical and chemical
properties under specified conditions is known as a pure substances, e.g. sodium chloride, mercury, lead, pure
water, etc. pure substances cannot be broken down into simpler substances by physical processes such as
distillation, crystallization, etc.
A solution of sodium chloride in water is not a pure substance, for even though it is homogeneous throughout,
its composition may vary widely. Here the term mixture is appropriate. A mixture may be either homogeneous
or heterogeneous, the only requirement being that it contains more than one pure substance.
3. Elements and compounds: Pure substances may be subdivided into two groups, elements and
compounds. An element cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods.
Compounds, on the other hand, are composed of two or more elements and can be broken down chemically
into their constituent elements. Chemical methods are those requiring energies of the order of 103 kJ or less.
Elements may be broken down into smaller particles (subatomic particles) by the use of energies far in excess
of 103 kJ.

All natural matter is ultimately composed of ninety-two elements, although in recent years about ten new
elements have been produced synthetically, using very high energies.
Elements are themselves composed of atoms, and it is instructive at this stage to review the atomic theory of
matter.

THE ATOMIC THEORY

4. Dalton’s atomic theory: The name usually associated with the atomic concept is that of Dalton, who
in 1808 published the following postulates:
a. An atom is the smallest particle of an element capable of independent existence.
NOTE: This does not necessarily imply that atoms are not themselves made up of still more fundamental
particles.

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b. Atoms of the same element have identical properties, e.g. mass, volume, chemical reactivity, etc.
c. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
d. Chemical combination occurs by atoms joining together in simple integral numbers to give molecules.

Note: For the present purpose it is sufficient to define a molecule as a group of atoms bonded to one another.
5. Deduction from the atomic theory; since all the atoms present before a chemical reaction occurred
would still be present afterwards (though arranged differently), four important experimental observations
could be explained. This leads us to the Laws of chemical combination.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF ATOM.

At the beginning of human history, people started thinking of what matter was made up of and how it behaves.
At about 400BC, the Greek philosopher: Democratus said if one divided a piece of matter to its simplest form
that could not be sub-divided further, like iron, but would preserve its properties. He named the ultimate
particle ‘atomos’ (which literally means ‘invisible in Greek).

John Dalton (1766-1844) suggested that matter was made up of different tiny particles that would remain
unchanged during chemical reactions. The story was supported by experimental evidence.

Dalton’s atomic theory

The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are as follows;

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms

2. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed
3. Atoms of the same element are identical and have the same masses and properties
4. Atoms of different elements are different, having different masses and different chemical properties.
5. Atoms of different elements combine to form compounds, the number of atoms combined bearing a
simple whole number ratio to each other.
However, the theory could not explain electrolysis and other certain phenomena. As a result of new
discoveries, thus, the theory had been modified.

The modifications of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1. Assumption 1 is still valid

2. Assumption 2 is no more valid since atoms are made up of sun- particles such as protons, neutrons and
electrons.
3. Assumption 3 is disputed due to isotopic nature of some elements.
4. Assumption 4 is limited to chemical reaction, not nuclear reactions

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5. Assumption 5 only holds for most inorganic compounds which contains fewer atoms per compounds.

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

There are four fundamental Laws of chemical combination
a. The law of conservation of mass (Lavoisier, 1774). Mass can never be created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction.
b. The law of definite proportions (Proust, 1799). A particular compound always contains the same
elements in the same proportions by mass irrespective of its methods of preparation.
Two further laws, whose proposal was prompted by the atomic theory, were:
c. The law of multiple proportions (Dalton, 1810). If two elements combine to form more than one
compound, the different masses of one element which combine with a fixed mass of the other are in the ratio
of small integers.

d. The law of reciprocal proportions (Berzelius, 1812). The ratio of the masses of two elements A and B
which combine with a third element is the same as the ratio of the masses in which A and B themselves
combine.
Laws of chemical combination
Dalton’s atomic theory was verified by four fundamental laws of chemistry called the laws of chemical
combination. They are;
1. The law of conservation of mass/ matter
2. The law of definite/ fixed proportion
3. The law of multiple proportion
4. The law of reciprocal proportion

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS

The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following five basic laws:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass (Law of indestructibility of matter): This law was proposed by Antoine
Lavoisier. It states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. We can only convert one form of matter
into another form. Or, in a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants is equal to the total mass of products.
Chemical equations are balanced according to this law. Illustration Consider the reaction 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Here 4 g of H2 combines with 32 g of O2 to form 36 g of water. Total mass of reactants = 4 + 32 = 36g Total
mass of products = 36g

2. Law of Definite Proportions (Law of definite composition): This law was proposed by Joseph Proust.
It states that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight. Or, the

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same compound always contains the same elements combined in a fixed ratio by mass. Illustration: Carbon
dioxide can be formed in the atmosphere by various methods like respiration, burning of fuels, reaction of
metal carbonates and bicarbonates with acid etc. All these samples of CO2 contain only two elements Carbon
and Oxygen combined in a mass ratio 3:8.

3. Law of Multiple Proportions: This law was proposed by John Dalton. It states that if two elements can
combine to form more than one compound, the different masses of one of the elements that combine with a
fixed mass of the other element, are in small whole number ratio.

Illustration: Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds – water and hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water 2 g 16 g 18 g Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen Peroxide

2 g 32 g 34 g Here, the masses of oxygen (i.e. 16 g and 32 g) which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen
(2 g) bear a simple ratio, i.e. 16:32 or 1: 2.

4. The law of reciprocal proportions (Berzelius, 1812). The ratio of the masses of two elements A and B which
combine with a third element is the same as the ratio of the masses in which A and B themselves combine.

H 2: 16 or 1: 8 (H2O)

4:12or 1:3 (CH4)

C O

12:32 or 4: 8 (CO2)

or 1:2

Atoms and Molecules

Atom is the smallest particle of an element. Molecules are the smallest particle of a substance. A molecule has
all the properties of that substance.

Types of molecules Based on the type of atoms, there are two types of molecules – homonuclear molecule
and heteronuclear molecule. A molecule containing only one type of atom is called homonuclear molecule.
e.g. H2, O2, N2, O3 (ozone) etc Heteronuclear molecules contain different types of atoms. e.g. CO2, H2O,
C6H12O6, NH3 etc. Based on the no. of atoms there are three types of molecules – monoatomic, diatomic and
polyatomic molecules. Monoatomic molecules contain only one atom. e.g. all metals, noble gases like He, Ne,
Ar etc. Diatomic molecules contain 2 atoms. e.g. H2, O2, N2, halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2) Polyatomic
molecules contain more than two atoms. E.g. ozone (O3), Phosphorus (P4), Sulphur (S8) etc.

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EVIDENCE FOR THE ATOMIC THEORY
These evidences were divided in to two viz;
1. Direct evidence
Evidence from the law of combining volumes (Gay-Lussac, 1808).
a. The law of combining volumes. This important piece of evidence, which at the time was rejected by
Dalton as inconsistent with his atomic theory, states that when gases combine together at constant temperature
and pressure they do so in volumes which bear a simple ratio to each other and to the volume of the gaseous
product.
Since all gaseous elements were thought to be monatomic, this law, coupled with Berzelius’ assumption that
equal volumes of gases contained equal numbers of atoms, led to apparent contradictions of the atomic theory,
e.g.
1 volumes hydrogen + 1 volume chlorine = 2 volumes hydrogène chloride
∴ atoms hydrogen + volume chlorine = 2 molecules hydrogen chloride
∴ 1 atom hydrogen + 1 atom chlorine = 2 molecules hydrogen chloride.
Since each molecule of hydrogen chloride must contain some hydrogen and some chlorine, the last step
apparently involves splitting both the hydrogen and the chlorine atoms.
b. (First put forward in 1811). The anomaly was finally resolved in 1858 by
Cannizaro’s assumption that the common gaseous elements were diatomic and the consequent restatement of
Avogadro’s hypothesis, i.e equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal
numbers of molecules.
If the correct distinction is made between atoms and molecules both Gay-Lussac’s law and Avogadro’s
hypothesis support the atomic concept.

2. INDIRECT EVIDENCE: FURTHER INDIRECT EVIDENCE WAS AVAILABLE IN THE

FORM OF:
a. Faraday’s laws of electrolysis (1833):
i. The mass of any substance liberated during electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of electricity
passed.
ii. The masses of different substances liberated by a given quantity of electricity are proportional to their
molar masses divided by a small integer.

The consequences of these laws are discussed in detail in VII.

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b. The periodic table (first Mendeleef form, 1869). If the elements are arranged according to their
atomic numbers (relative atomic masses in the earlier forms of the periodic table), systematic and regular
variations in their chemical and physical properties become apparent.
c. Phsico-chemical evidence: With the advent of more sophisticated physical techniques (about 1870
onwards) an increasing amount of more direct evidence became available from:
d. X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths of the order of 10-1nm and should therefore be
capable of diffraction in much the same way as visible light. The observation of diffraction patterns on passage
of X-rays through crystals can be explained only by assuming that the crystals are made up of regular arrays
of particles with spacing of about 10-1nm.
NOTE: The spacing performs the same function as the sits in the more familiar diffraction experiment with
visible light.
Electron beams have similar wavelengths and, owing to their negative charge, can be focused by electrostatic
and magnetic “lenses”. They are utilized in electron microscopes, which have provided excellent photographs
of some of the larger naturally occurring molecules such as viruses and fibres. Very recently electron
microscope photographs have been taken of individual thorium atoms.
b. Mass spectrometry: The principles and operation of the mass spectrograph, an instrument which
separates a beam of particles into components of different mass, are discussed in 21 below. The results
obtained can be unambiguously interpreted only if the real existence of atoms and molecules is assumed.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

Sub-atomic particles: Early this century smaller sub-atomic particles. The atom is now known to consist
essentially of a dense positively charged nucleus occupying about 10-15 of the total volume of the atom but
accounting for almost all its mass, surrounded by sufficient negatively charged electrons to maintain electrical
neutrality. The nucleus itself is composed of positively charged protons and neutral neutrons of approximately
equal mass. The atomic number Z of an element represent both the number of protons and the number of
extranuclear electrons, while the mass number A represents the total number of protons and neutrons.
In spite of the bewildering array of sub-atomic particles recently discovered (including the positron, neutrino
and several types of meson and boson), these three fundamental particles are sufficient to describe most
phenomena of chemical interest.
Isotopes: The mass of an atom of a given element need not be constant. Atoms of the same element must
necessarily have the same number of protons in the nucleus, since this characterizes the element, but the
number of neutrons and hence the mass of the atom can vary. Nuclides, i.e. nuclear species or, more loosely,
atoms – with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes. Naturally
occurring oxygen consists of three isotopes 168O (99.76%), 178O (0.04%), 188O (0.20%), where the superscript

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indicates the mass number, the subscript the atomic number and the figures in parentheses the relative
abundances. The subscript may be omitted, since the symbol uniquely determines the element.

Note: 16O may be written: Oxygen-16

MOLE CONCEPT
Atomic number (Z): is the number of protons contained in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass number (A): is the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons (the same atomic number) but with
different number of neutrons (different mass number). They have the same chemical properties although their
physical properties differ.

Z
X = symbol
A = mass number
Z = atomic number
Relative atomic mass of an element is the average weight of the isotopic masses of the natural.
Isotopes on the scale where 12C = 12.00
Molar mass of a compound is the mass of one mole of the compound. It is expressed in g/mol. Mole: is defined
as the amount of substance containing the same number of particles as the number of carbon atoms in exactly
12g of carbon-12.
The particles may be atoms, molecules, ions or electrons.
One mole of any substance = 6.02 x 1023 particles. E.g. 1mole of any C atoms = 6.02 x 1023 atoms. 2 moles of
Na+ ion = 2 x 6.02 x 1023 Na+ ions. 1mole of NaCl formula unit =6.02 x 1023 NaCl formula unit.
3moles of CO2(g) molecules = 3 x 6.02 x 1023 moles.
The number 6.02 x 1023 is called the Avogadro’s constant and it was experimentally determined by Avogadro.
Number of moles can be calculated by the following relations.

Number of moles(n) = Mass of the substance

Molar mass of the substance

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Number of particles = number of moles x 6.02 x 1023

Examples
1. What is the mass of 0.2moles of CaCO3 [C = 12, 0 = 16, Ca = 40]
Solution
Molar mass of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 x 3)
= 100g.mol-1
Mass of CaCO3 = number of moles x molar mass
= 0.2 x 00
= 20.0g
2. Calculate the number of gold atoms in a 20g of gold coin. (Au = 197.0)
Solution
Number of gold atoms = m x 6.02 x 1023
M
= 20 x 6.02 x 1023
197
= 6.11 x 1022 atoms.
3. Given that the molar mass of water is 18gmol-1
a. What is the mass of 4moles of H2O molecules?
b. How many molecules are there?
c. How many atoms are there?
[H= 1.0, O = 16.0]

Solution
a. Mass of water =nxM
= 4 x 18
=72.0g
b. Number of molecules = n x 6.02 x 1023
= 4 x 6.02 x 1023

= 2.412 x 1024 molecules.

c. I mole of H2O contains 2moles of H and Mole of oxygen atom. Thus, 4 moles of H2O have 4 x 2H and
4 x 1 oxygen atom, these give us 12moles of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, that is 8moles of H and 4moles of
O.
d. The number of atoms = 12 x 6.02 x 1023
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 = 7.224 x 1024 atoms.

Class exercise
A magnesium chloride solution contains 10g of MgCl2.
a. Calc. the number of MgCl2 in the solution.
b. Calculate the number of Mg2+ in the solution
c. Calculate the number of cl- in the solution
d. Calculate the total number of ions in the solution.

Solution
a. N(MgCl2) in the solution = m/M =10/95.3 =0.105mol.
b. MgCl2 Mg2+ + 2Cl- 1 mole 1mole: 2moles
Number of mole Mg2+ = 0.105mol Number of Mg2+ = 0.105 x 6.02 x 1023

= 6.321 x 1022 ions.

c. 1 mole of MgCl2 contains 2moles of Cl- 0.105moles of MgCl2 will contain Xmoles of HCl. d. X = 2 x
0.105
=0.21 moles of Cl- therefore, number of Cl- = 0.21 x 6.02 x 1023
= 1.896 x 1023 Cl ions.

Note;
I mole of any gas at STP occupies 22.4dm3 or 22400cm3 and at RT occupies 24.0 dm3 or 2400cm3.
Amount in mole of gas = vol. of the gas
Molar Mass
Example
1. Find the vol. occupied by 3.55g of chlorine gas at room temperature.
Solution
Molar mass of Cl2 = 35.5 x 2
= 71.0gmol-1

n of Cl2 = 3.55/35.5
= 0.05mols

Vol of Cl2 = 0.05 x 24

= 1.2 dm3.

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2. Find the number of molecules in 4.48cm3 of CO2 gas at STP [Vm = 22.4dm3, NA = 6.02 x 1023] n of
CO2 =V/Vm = 4.48/22400
= 0.0002moles
Number of molecules = 0.0002 x 6.02 x 1023
= 1.204 x 1020

The Vm of N2 is found to be 24.0dm3 mol-1 RTP. Find the density of N2. [N= 14] Mass of N2 = 14 x
2 = 28gmol-1 density = m/Vm = 28/24 =1.167gdm-3

Exercise
1.6g of a gas occupies 1.2dm3 at RTP. What is the RMM of the gas?

N = V/Vm = 1.2/2.4
=0.05mol
M = m/n
= 1.6/0.05 = 32.

DETAILS EXPLANATION OF THE EVIDENCE FOR THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM.

In 1832, Michael faraday discovered some relationships between the amount of products formed and the
electric current passing through an electrolytic cell as well as the charges on the ions.
The relationships are called faraday’s laws of electrolysis.
1. Faraday’s first law of electrolysis states that the mass of a substance liberated at or dissolved from an
electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through the
electrolyte. m ∝ Q m =ZQ.
Q =IXT [Q= charge in coulomb, I = current in amperes and t = time in seconds]. Z is faraday’s constant called
the electrochemical equivalence.

2. Faraday’s second law of electrolysis states that the number of moles of different ions discharged by
the same quantity of electricity passing through solution of different electrolytes is inversely proportional to
their respective charges.
To discharge 1mole of Ag+, 1mole of electron is required and 1 faraday is required = 96500c

nag+ ∝ 1/charge ; nag+ = K/VAg+

nCu2+ ∝ 1/charge nCu2+ = K/ VCu2+ nAg+ = VCu2+ nCu2+ VAg+ where v= charge on the silver ion.
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To discharge I mole of Cu2+, 2 moles of electrons are required.
1 mole of Al3+, 3moles of electrons are required.
Number of moles of products formed =It/nF. Examples
1. How many faradays passes through a resistance in a circuit carrying a current of 5A for 1hour? [1F =
96500C].
Solution
Q = It
=5 x (60 x 60) = 18000C.
1F = 96500C
X = 18000C
X = 0.187F
2. What is the number of moles of silver formed when a current of 0.3A is passed through a silver nitrate
solution for 30minutes?
Solution
Ag+ + e- Ag(s) number of moles of Ag = It/nF
= 0.3 x30 x 60/ 1 x 96500 = 5.6 x 10-3moles.
3. What is the mass of Cu formed at the cathode when a current of 0.25A is passed through a
CuSO4(Aq) for 1hour?
Solution
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s) number of moles = Q/nF
= 0.25 x 60 x 60/ 2 x 96500 = 4.66 x 10-3 mols.
Mass of Cu formed = n x M
= 4.66 x 10-3 x 63.5
= 0.296g.
4. Find the masses of the products formed when a dilute sulphuric acid solution is electrolyzed with a
current of 0.6A for 90minutes?
[H = 1, S = 32, O = 16]
At the cathode
2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g) number of moles of H2 = It/nF
= 0.6 x 90 x 60/ 2 x 96500 = 0.0168moles.
Mass = 2x 0.0168
= 0.0336g.

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At the anode
4OH- + 4e- 2H2O + O2 + 4e-
nO2 = 0.6 x 90 60/ 4 x 96500
= 8.394 x 10-3 mols. Mass (O2) = 8.394 x 10-3 x 32 = 0.268g.
5. What mass of copper would be deposited by the quantity of electricity that liberate 2.4dm3 of oxygen
measured at RTP?
[Vm (RTP) = 22.4dm3mol-1, O = 16]
Solution
4OH- + 4e- 2H2O + O2 + 4e- nO2 = V/Vm = 2.4/24
0.1 mols.

1moles of O2 required 4moles of e-s, 0.1 moles of O2 will require Xmoles of E-s.
X = 0.1 x 4
0.4 moles of electrons 1 mole of Cu2+ -- 2e- X moles of Cu2+ --- 0.4 X=0.4/2
= 0.2moles
Mass of Cu2+ deposited = 0.2 x 63.5

= 12.7g
An atom was not just a uniform hard particle but composed of sub- atomic particles called the fundamental
particle of atom. They are electrons, protons and neutrons.

THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTRONS

In 1876, Eugen Goldstein passed a high voltage electrical discharge through gases and reduced pressure. He
discovered that a beam of rays came out from the negative electrode and hit the positive electrode. He called
them cathode rays. Later in 1897, J. J. Thompson confirmed the discharge tube experiment. He found that the
cathode rays were deflected both in electrical and magnetic field and this confirmed that the beam composed
of a negatively charged fast moving particles. Thompson further measured the mass/charge ratio and the
velocity of these particles produced and he found that the value is independent of the nature of the gas inside
the discharge tube. This suggested that the particles were constituent of all atoms. He named them electrons.
At the same time, positively charged particles leave the area of the positive electrode, their nature depending
on the identity of the gas used e.g. H2 yields H+.
X- rays are electron magnetics radiation with wavelength of the order 0.1nm. They have negative charge like
the electrons and are capable of diffracting in the same way as the visible light.

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RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL/LEAF EXPERIMENT
Ernest Rutherford performed the gold foil scattering experiment and proposed a new atomic model. He
bombarded a thin sheet of gold foil with a beam of fast moving ∝- particles which aare positively charged. He
found that most of the space in an atom are empty and the mass of the atom was condensed in a very tiny core.
He called the core “nucleus”. He proposed that nucleus was very small and positively charged. He named the
positively charged particles in nucleus “protons” and around this nucleus there is rather a diffused region
containing a sufficient electron to maintain electrical neutrality of the atom. It was later found that the mass
of the atom was greater than the total mass of the protons in the nucleus of the atoms. It was finally concluded
by James Chadwick in 1933 that the extra mass was due to some neutral particles in the nucleus and he named
them “neutrons”.
Sub- atomic particles are electrons, protons and neutrons. Electrons (-), protons (+) and neutrons (No charge).

RADIOACTIVITY
Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus
by a force called binding force which account for binding energy. If the binding force is strong, the atom is
said to be stable. Nucleus of the same element may contain different number of neutrons. This gives rise to
isotopes. The stability of the atom depends on its proton/neutron ratio.

A plot of protons against neutrons for the various isotopes of stable element. Nuclei of very high p:n ratio are
unstable. They may split and divide to give small nuclei: this is called nuclear fission. The unstable isotopes
are called radioactive isotopes, as they emit radiation
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiant energy and/or high energy particles from the nucleus of
an atom. This process is also called radioactive decay. Rutherford determined that the radiation emitted by
naturally occurring materials is of three distinct types;
Symbols for some common nuclides in nuclear reaction
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Nuclide: is used to denote any atomic species of which the atomic number and mass number are specified.
The atomic symbol
A
Z is used to represent the nuclide X of atomic number Z and mass number A.
Particle symbol
Proton or
Neutron n or 1n

Electron(beta particle) e or or
Helium nucleus (alpha particle) or ∝
Gamma ray/ radiation
Carbon -12 atom
Carbon -14 atom
Uranium-235 atom
Uranium -238 atom

Note; has no atomic number or mass number.

Natural radioactivity
In 1896, the spontaneous emission of particles and radiations from the nucleus of uranium was discovered by
Antoine Henry Becquerel.
In 1903, Marie Sklodowska Currie discovered radiations from uranium extracts. In 1899, Ernest Rutherford
determined that the radiation emitted by naturally occurring materials is of three distinct types. He passed a
beam of radiation from a radioactive source through electrically charged plate on to a photographic plate as
shown below

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 –particles are charged particles but – rays are short wavelength electromagnetic radiation emitted from
unstable nuclei.

-PARTICLES
–particles are helium nucleis. They have 4-a.m.u and a +2 charge. An element is said to undergo an -decay
or emission if its atomic number reduces by two and mass number by 4. They attract electrons and form helium
gas; they show weak penetration power in air. They are stopped by thin sheet of paper. They also travel in a
straight line through gases
–PARTICLES
–particles are fast moving electrons. They have no mass and carry (-).
–particles are ejected from an unstable nuclei of atoms at velocity approaching that of light.
The emission of –particle does not affects the mass number but increases the atomic number by 1 unit.
They do not have great power of penetration, particles are stopped by thin sheet of Aluminium.

–– rays
– radiation is a high energy electromagnetic radiation, it is emitted by nuclei of excess energy
(generally accompanied by –particles)

–short wavelength radiation. They have extremely penetrating power and they travel through centimeters of
lead or concrete shielding. They cause considerable biological damage.

Nuclear reactions
Involves the reaction in which rearrangement of protons and neutrons occur in a nuclei of elements.
When atom decay or combine together in a nuclear reaction, new elements are formed.

Transmutation and artificial radioactivity

Artificial nuclear reactions (non- spontaneous reactions) involves bombarding certain stable nuclei with, or
neutrons (n), protons ( ) or deuterium ( ). The resulting nuclear radiation is called transmutation. Examples
are:

Types of nuclear reaction

Fission: this occurs when heavy isotopes split by a neutron to produce light nuclei with the emission of
radiations such as neutrons or gamma rays

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Examples
+ +3 + energy

+ + +3 + energy

+ + +2 energy.

These three possible fission of is used in nuclear power station. Plutonium- 239 also undergoes similar
fission to that of as follows:

+ +

+ +2

Nuclear fusion
This occurs when light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus.
+ → +

Fusion reaction
Releases large amount of energy which is what made hydrogen bomb. Energy accompanied by nuclear fission
and fusion, In nuclear reaction, lost or gain of mass occur. Mass lost occur in fission and this mass lost is
called mass defect. While mass gain occurs during fusion and the energy associated with mass loss or gain is
known as binding energy and was given by Albert Einstein equation. E = mc2 m =mass in kg
c =speed of light ms-1 = 3.0 x 108ms-1
Positron Emission and Electron Capture In addition to and radiation, two other common types of
radioactive decay processes also occur: positron emission and electron capture. Positron emission occurs
with conversion of a proton in the nucleus into a neutron plus an ejected positron, or a particle that can be
thought of as a “positive electron.” A positron has the same mass as an electron but an opposite charge. The
result of positron emission is a decrease in the atomic number of the product nucleus but no change in the
mass number. Potassium-40, for example, undergoes positron emission to yield argon-40, a nuclear reaction
important in geology for dating rocks.

Half -Life of Radioisotopes

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Half- life is the time taken for the radioactive isotope to drop to half of its initial value or for the number of
radioactive nuclei to be reduced by half.
t1/2 =0.693/
the amount of radioactive substance left during decay is related to its initial value
ʎ
N = N0
Where,
N is the amount left
N0 is the initial amount is the decay constant
t is the time taken for the decay.
Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a device in which the amount of heat produced during fission reactions of a radioactive
isotope is controlled to generate electric current. It is made of rods of uranium-235 that serve as nuclear fuel
and source of energy. The rods of uranium acts as moderators to slow down the fast moving neutron without
absorbing them. Boron and cadmium are placed between the rods of the uranium-235 to absorb the neutron
and control temperature of the system. The reactor is made up of thick concrete that serve as protection against
radioactive radiation fall out. The large amount of heat produced in the reactor is used for boiling water in the
boiler and the steam is used for driving turbines to generate electricity. The quantity of heat must be larger
enough in order to sustain chemical decay and is called critical size, above the critical, mass explosion occurs.
Nuclear Reactors
The same fission process that leads to a nuclear explosion under some conditions can be used to generate
electric power when carried out in a controlled manner in a nuclear reactor. The principle behind a nuclear
reactor is simple: Uranium fuel is placed in a containment vessel surrounded by circulating coolant, and control
rods are added. Made of substances such as boron and cadmium, which absorb and thus regulate the flow of
neutrons, the control rods are raised and lowered as necessary to maintain the fission at a barely self-
sustainable rate so that overheating is prevented. Energy from the controlled fission heats the circulating
coolant, which in turn produces steam to drive a turbine and produce electricity. Naturally occurring uranium
is a mixture of two isotopes. The non-fissionable isotope has a natural abundance of 99.3%, while the
fissionable isotope is present only to the extent of 0.7%. The fuel used in nuclear reactors is typically made of
compressed pellets of that have been isotopically enriched to a 3% concentration of and then encased in
zirconium rods. The rods are placed in a pressure vessel filled with water, which acts as a moderator to slow
the neutrons so they can be captured more readily. No nuclear explosion can occur in a reactor because the
amount and concentration of fissionable fuel is too low and because the fuel is not confined by pressure into
a small volume. In a worst-case accident, however, uncontrolled fission could lead to enormous overheating
that could melt the reactor and surrounding containment vessel, thereby releasing large amounts of
radioactivity to the environment. Thirty countries around the world now obtain some of their electricity from

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nuclear energy. Lithuania leads with 78%, followed by a number of other European countries that have also
made a substantial commitment to the technology. The United States has been more cautious, with only 20%
of its power coming from nuclear plants. Worldwide, 439 nuclear plants were in operation in early 2002, with
an additional 32 under construction, most of them in Asia. Approximately 21% of the world’s electrical power
is generated by nuclear reactors. The primary problem holding back future development is the yet unsolved
matter of how to dispose of the radioactive wastes generated by the plants. It will take at least 600 years for
waste strontium-90 to decay to safe levels, and at least 20,000 years for plutonium-239 to decay.

Detecting and Measuring Radioactivity

Radioactive emissions are invisible. We can’t see, hear, smell, touch, or taste them, no matter how high the
dose. We can, however, detect radiation by measuring its ionizing properties. High-energy radiation of all
kinds is usually grouped under the name ionizing radiation because interaction of the radiation with a
molecule knocks an electron from the molecule, thereby ionizing it. Ionizing radiation includes not only
particles, particles, and rays, but also X rays and cosmic rays. X rays, like rays, are high-energy photons rather
than particles; cosmic rays are energetic particles coming from interstellar space. They consist primarily of
protons, along with some and particles. The simplest device for detecting radiation is the photographic film
badge worn by people who routinely work with radioactive materials. Any radiation striking the badge causes
it to fog. Perhaps the best-known method for measuring radiation is the Geiger counter, an argon-filled tube
containing two electrodes. The inner walls of the tube are coated with an electrically conducting material and
given a negative charge, and a wire in the center of the tube is given a positive charge. As radiation enters the
tube through a thin window, it strikes and ionizes argon atoms, releasing electrons that briefly conduct a tiny
electric current between the electrodes. The passage of the current is detected, amplified, and used to produce
a clicking sound or to register on a meter. The more radiation that enters the tube, the more frequent the clicks.
This photographic film badge is a common device for monitoring radiation exposure. The most versatile
method for measuring radiation in the laboratory is the scintillation counter, in which a substance called a
phosphor, often a sodium iodide crystal containing a small amount of thallium iodide, emits a flash of light
when struck by radiation. The number of flashes is counted electronically and converted into an electrical
signal. Radiation intensity is expressed in different ways, depending on what is being measured. Some units
measure the number of nuclear decay events; others measure the amount of exposure to radiation or the
biological consequences of radiation. The table below gives the units of the number of nuclear decay and the
amount of exposure to radiation or the biological consequences of radiation

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 unit Quantity Measured description
Bacquerel (bq) Decay events Amount of sample that
undergoes 1
disintegration/second
Curie (ci) Decay events Amount of sample that
undergoes 3.7 x 101
disintegration/second
Gray (gy) Energy absorbed per kilogram 1 Gy = 1 j/Kg tissue
of tissue
Rad Energy absorbed per kilogram 1 rad = 0.01Gy
of tissue
Sievert (Sv) Tissue damage 1 Sv = J/Kg
Rem Tissue damage 1 Rem = 0.01 Sv

• The becquerel (Bq) is the SI unit for measuring the number of nuclear disintegrations occurring per second
in a sample: The curie (Ci) and millicurie (mCi) also measure disintegrations per unit time, but 1 Bq = 1
disintegration/s. One curie is the decay rate of 1 g of radium, equal to 3.7 x 1010 Bq For example, 1.5 mCi
sample of tritium is equal to 5.6 X 1010 Bq that is, it has undergoes 5.6 x 1010 disintegration/second
• The gray (Gy) is the SI unit for measuring the amount of energy absorbed per kilogram of tissue exposed to
a radiation source: The rad (radiation absorbed dose) also measures tissue exposure and is more often used in
medicine.

• The sievert (Sv) is the SI unit that measures the amount of tissue damage caused by radiation. It takes into
account not just the energy absorbed per kilogram of tissue but also the different biological effects of different
kinds of radiation. For example, 1 Gy of radiation causes 20 times more tissue damage than 1 Gy of rays, but
1 Sv of radiation and 1 Sv of rays cause the same amount of damage. The rem (roentgen equivalent for man)
is an analogous non-SI unit that is more frequently used in medicine.

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Biological Effects of Radiation
The effects of ionizing radiation on the human body vary with the kind and energy of the radiation, the length
of exposure, and whether the radiation is from an external or internal source. When coming from an external
source, X rays and radiation are more harmful than and particles because they penetrate clothing and skin.
When coming from an internal source, however, and particles are particularly dangerous because all their
radiation energy is given up to nearby tissue. Alpha emitters are especially hazardous internally and are almost
never used in medical applications.

• The gray (Gy) is the SI unit for measuring the amount of energy absorbed per kilogram of tissue exposed to
a radiation source:

The rad (radiation absorbed dose) also measures tissue exposure and is more often used in medicine.
• The sievert (Sv) is the SI unit that measures the amount of tissue damage caused by radiation. It takes into
account not just the energy absorbed per kilogram of tissue but also the different biological effects of different
kinds of radiation.
For example, 1 Gy of radiation causes 20 times more tissue damage than 1 Gy of rays, but 1 Sv of radiation
and 1 Sv of rays cause the same amount of damage. The rem (roentgen equivalent for man) is an analogous
non-SI unit that is more frequently used in medicine.
Biological Effects of Short-Term Radiation on Humans

Dose (rem) Biological Effects

0–25 No detectable effects
25–100 Temporary decrease in white blood cell count
Nausea, vomiting, longer-term decrease in white blood
100–200
cells
200–300 Vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, listlessness
Vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhaging, eventual death in
300–600
some cases
Above 600 Eventual death in nearly all cases

Applications of Nuclear Chemistry

Dating with Radioisotopes
Biblical scrolls are found in a cave near the Dead Sea. Are they authentic? A mummy is discovered in an
Egyptian tomb. How old is it? The burned bones of a man are dug up near Lubbock, Texas. How long have

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humans lived in the area? These and many other questions can be answered by archaeologists using a technique
called radiocarbon dating. (The Dead Sea Scrolls are 1900 years old and authentic, the mummy is 3100 years
old, and the human remains found in Texas are 9900 years old.) Radiocarbon dating of archaeological artifacts
depends on the slow and constant production of radioactive carbon-14 in the upper atmosphere by neutron
bombardment of nitrogen atoms. (The neutrons come from the bombardment of other atoms by cosmic rays.)
Carbon-14 atoms produced in the upper atmosphere combine with oxygen to yield which slowly diffuses into
the lower atmosphere, where it mixes with ordinary and is taken up by plants during photosynthesis. When
these plants are eaten, carbon-14 enters the food chain and is ultimately distributed evenly throughout all living
organisms. As long as a plant or animal is living, a dynamic equilibrium exists in which an organism excretes
or exhales the same amount of that it takes in. As a result, the ratio of C to C in the living organism is the
same as that in the atmosphere— about 1 part in 10 . When the plant or animal dies, however, it no longer
takes in more 14C, and the ratio 14C/12C in the organism slowly decreases as undergoes14C radioactive decay
by β emission, with t1/2 = 5730 years.
14 → 147N + e
6C

Medical Uses of Radioactivity

The origins of nuclear medicine date to 1901, when the French physician Henri Danlos first used radium in
the treatment of a tuberculous skin lesion. Since that time, uses of radioactivity have become a crucial part of
modern medical care, both diagnostic and therapeutic. Current nuclear techniques can be grouped into three
classes: (1) in vivo procedures, (2) therapeutic procedures, and (3) imaging procedures. In Vivo Procedures
In vivo studies—those that take place inside the body—are carried out to assess the functioning of a particular
organ or body system. A radiopharmaceutical agent is administered, and its path in the body whether it is
absorbed, excreted, diluted, or concentrated—is determined by analysis of blood or urine samples. An example
of the many in vivo procedures using radioactive agents is the determination of whole-blood volume by
injecting a known quantity of red blood cells labeled with radioactive chromium-51. After a suitable interval
to allow the labeled cells to be distributed evenly throughout the body, a blood sample is taken, the amount of
dilution of the 51Cr is measured, and the blood volume is calculated.

Amount of 51Cr = C0 * V0 = Cblood * Vblood

Vblood= C0 * V0/ Cblood
Where Vblood = Blood volume Cblood = Concentration of labeled cells in blood (μmCi/mL) V0 = Volume
of labeled cells injected (mL) C0 = Concentration of labeled cells injected (μmCi/mL) Vblood = ?
A person’s blood volume can be found by injecting a small amount of radioactive chromium-51 and measuring
the dilution factor.

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Therapeutic Procedures Therapeutic procedures—those in which radiation is used to kill diseased tissue—
can involve either external or internal sources of radiation. External radiation therapy for the treatment of
cancer is often carried out with rays from a cobalt-60 source. The highly radioactive source is shielded by a
thick lead container and has a small opening directed toward the site of the tumor. By focusing the radiation
beam on the tumor and rotating the patient’s body, the tumor receives the full exposure while the exposure of
surrounding parts of the body is minimized. Nevertheless, sufficient exposure occurs so that most patients
suffer some effects of radiation sickness. Cancerous tumors can betreated by irradiation with rays from this
cobalt-60 source.Internal radiation therapy is a much more selective technique than external therapy. In the
treatment of thyroid disease, for example, iodine-131, a powerful emitter known to localize in the target tissue,
is administered internally. Because particles penetrate no farther than several millimeters, the localized
produces a high radiation dose that destroys only the surrounding diseased tissue.

Imaging Procedures Imaging procedures give diagnostic information about the health of body organs by
analyzing the distribution pattern of radioisotopes introduced into the body.
A radiopharmaceutical agent that is known to concentrate in a specific tissue or organ is injected into the body,
and its distribution pattern is monitored by external radiation detectors. Depending on the disease and the
organ, a diseased organ might concentrate more of the radiopharmaceutical than a normal organ and thus show
up as a radioactive “hot” spot against a “cold” background. Alternatively, the diseased organ might concentrate
less of the radiopharmaceutical than a normal organ and thus show up as a cold spot on a hot background. The
radioisotope most widely used today is technetium-99m, whose short half-life of 6.01 hours minimizes a
patient’s exposure to harmful effects. Bone scans using Tc-99m, are an important tool in the diagnosis of
cancer and other pathological conditions. Another kind of imaging procedure makes use of a technique called
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRI uses no radioisotopes and has no known side effects. Instead, MRI
uses radio waves to stimulate certain nuclei in the presence of a powerful magnetic field. The stimulated nuclei
(normally the hydrogen nuclei in molecules) then give off a signal that can be measured, interpreted, and
correlated with their environment in the body.

Summery
Nuclear chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of atomic nuclei. Nuclear reactions differ
from chemical reactions in that they involve a change in an atom’s nucleus, often producing a different
element. The rate of a nuclear reaction is unaffected by the addition of a catalyst or by a change in temperature
or pressure, and the energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction is far greater than that accompanying any
chemical reaction. Of the more than 3600 known isotopes, most have been made by nuclear transmutation,
the change of one element into another. Such transmutation is often brought about by bombardment of an
atom with a high energy particle such as a proton, neutron, or particle. Radioactivity is the spontaneous
emission of radiation from an unstable nucleus. Alpha radiation consists of helium nuclei, small particles
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containing two protons and two neutrons Beta radiation consists of electrons and gamma radiation consists
of high-energy photons that have no mass. Positron emission is the conversion of a proton in the nucleus into
a neutron plus an ejected positron, or a particle that has the same mass as an electron but an opposite charge.
Electron capture is the capture of an inner-shell electron by a proton in the nucleus. The process is
accompanied by the emission of rays and results in the conversion of a proton in the nucleus into a neutron.
Every element in the periodic table has at least one radioactive isotope, or radioisotope. Radioactive decay is
characterized kinetically by a first-order decay constant and by a half-life, the time required for the t1/2,
number of radioactive nuclei in a sample to drop to half its initial value. The stability of a given nucleus is
related to its neutron/proton ratio. Neutrons act as a kind of nuclear glue that holds nuclei together by
overcoming proton–proton repulsions. The strength of the forces involved can be measured by calculating an
atom’s mass defect—the difference in mass between a given nucleus and the total mass of its individual
nucleons (protons and neutrons). Applying the Einstein equation then allows calculation of the nuclear
binding energy. Certain heavy nuclei such as uranium-235 undergo nuclear fission when struck by neutrons,
breaking apart into fragment nuclei and releasing enormous amounts of energy. Light nuclei such as the
isotopes of hydrogen undergo nuclear fusion when heated to sufficiently high temperatures, forming heavier
nuclei and releasing energy. High-energy radiation of all types— particles, particles, rays, X rays, and cosmic
rays—is known collectively as ionizing radiation. When ionizing radiation strikes a molecule, it dislodges
an electron and leaves an ion. Radiation intensity is expressed in different ways, according to what property
is being measured. The becquerel (Bq) and the curie (Ci) measure the number of radioactive disintegrations
per second in a sample.
The gray (Gy) and the rad measure the amount of radiation absorbed per kilogram of tissue.
The sievert (Sv) and the rem measure the amount of tissue damage caused by radiation. Radiation effects
become noticeable with a human exposure of 25 rem and become lethal at an exposure above 600 rem.
Word
Applications of radioactive isotopes.
Radioisotopes are unstable nuclei. They decay spontaneously to release energy. Radioisotopes have useful
applications in;
1. medicine
i. - radiation is used in the treatment of cancer and to sterilize surgical equipment
ii.24Na is used to follow blood circulation
iii.99Te (Technetium) is used for brain and liver scans
iv. 123T is used for thyroid imaging
2. agriculture
Radioactive emission induces mutation in plants and animals in order to have new varieties with desired
characteristics.

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3. Industries
ᵦ and γ-radiations are used to monitor and control the thickness of sheets of paper, plastics and metals during
production.
4. Chemistry
Radioactive isotopes are used to investigate the sequence of steps in reaction mechanism.

Instrument for detecting radioactive radiations

i. Geiger Muller counter
ii. Scintillation counter
iii. Diffusion cloud chamber
iv. Photographic plate

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
In 1913, Niels Bohr suggested a model for electron structure of atoms. He proposed that electrons in an atom
are moving around nucleus in a certain orbit, like the planet around the sun. The electron orbits are called the
shells, which exist around the nucleus. The maximum number of electrons which these orbits can hold is given
by 2n2, where n≥1.
n is the number of shells/orbits the arrangement of electrons in the various shells is known as the electronic
configuration. Atoms makes bonds due to their electronic configuration. The individual atoms achieve stable
structure.
The electronic configuration of N is 2,8,1 and that of K is 2,8,8,1 etc.

Electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic theory of radiation. In 1864 Maxwell concluded that visible
light is propagated through space by means of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields. The oscillations of the two fields are at right angles to one another and 7to
the direction of propagation of the light and may be represented pictorially by
sinusoidal waves as illustrated in the figure below

Bohr’s explanation was based on experimental evidence of nature of light and the emission of light by different
elements. This represents a small part of electromagnetic spectrum ranging from 1013m to 106m wavelength.
The frequency of the radiation corresponds to a spectral line that operates at the speed of light.
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V = C/λ
ATOMIC SPECTRA
11. The anomaly of the Rutherford nuclear atom. In the Rutherford nuclear atom the columbic attraction
between the orbiting electrons and the nucleus is balanced by the force due to centrifugal acceleration.
According to classical theory,
an electron rotating in an electric field such as that due to the nucleus must radiate energy continuously and
eventually spiral into the nucleus. In practice, however, this does not occur.
12. Atomic spectra. Atoms will emit radiation if they are excited in some way, i.e. given more energy
than they normally possess. One common method of producing excited atoms is to pass an electrical discharge
through a gas such as hydrogen at low pressure. Radiation is emitted from the excited atoms produced by
dissociation of the gaseous hydrogen molecules, and using a spectroscope it is possible to split up the radiation
into its component wavelengths, producing a line spectrum which can be photographed (Fig. 64)

410.1 434,0 486.1

656.3 wavelength (nm)

The atomic spectrum of hydrogen in the visible region (Balmer Series)

13. Atomic spectral series. The hydrogen atom spectrum consists of several series of lines, and the lines in any
given series can be represented by the simple formula

ʎ
=⊽= H − - - - - -(2)

Where ⊽ is the wave number and RH is the Rydberg constant can take only
for hydrogen (1.096 775 8 X 107m-1) n1 can take only integral values and is constant for a given series; n2
can take any integral value greater than ??,,. The names of the various series (after their discoverers), the
region of the spectrum where they appear and the values of n1 and n2 are shown in Table below Spectral series
similar to, but more complex than, those obtained for hydrogen have been found in the atomic spectra of other
elements.

TABLE: ATOMIC SPECTRAL SEMES OF HYDROGEN

Name of series Region of Spectrum n1 n2
Lyman Ultra-violet 1 2, 3, 4, etc
Balmer Visible 2 3, 4, 5, etc
Paschen Near infra-red 3 4, 5, 6, etc
Bracket Infra-red 4 5, 6, 7, etc
Pfund Far infra-red 5 6, 7, 8, etc
The study of atomic spectra shows that radiation is emitted in a discrete manner from excited atoms, contrary
to the predictions of the electromagnetic theory. Since every element produces a characteristic atomic

Page 26 of 88
spectrum determined by its atomic structure, any workable theory of the atom must explain atomic spectra. In
1913 Bohr put forward a revolutionary theory based on the quantum hypothesis, which was immediately
successful in explaining the experimentally observed hydrogen atom spectrum.

A special instrument required for the analysis of light is called spectrometer. Continuous and line spectra when
light passes through a prism and allowed to fall on a screen, a rainbow is formed of different colors produced
by the prism represents different amount of radiation energy, in the spectrum, no distinct line can be seen.
This is called continuous spectrum. When light is coming from discharge tube of hydrogen and allowed to
pass through a prism and analyzed, some colors were found with some lines appearing, this shows the spectrum
of hydrogen at high voltage. The records comprise of few lines corresponding to different wavelength in the
visible region. This hydrogen spectrum is called emission/line spectrum. The spectra can be classified into
continuous and line spectrum depending on the appearance of the spectral lines.
The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen occurs when hydrogen gas was subjected to a high potential
difference. It emits reddish- pink color. When this light was analyzed by spectrometer, several series of lines
were observed that this corresponds to specific wavelength. These discrete lines are named after some
scientists that discovered them; Lyman series (near UV), Balmer series(visible), Paschen series(infra-red),
Bracket series(far infra-red) and P-fund series. The spectrum of hydrogen composed of series of lines
dispersed in the different region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Interpretation of hydrogen spectrum

In each of the lines, it has been observed from the spectrometer that the intensity of the spectra line and distance
between two successful lines decrease as the frequency increases ( decreases) until the lines converge to form
continuum.
The postulates. The Bohr model is based on the following postulates:
(a) An electron can rotate in a closed orbit in the potential field of the nucleus without radiating energy. Bohr
called such orbits stationary states, since each has its own particular energy, and we now refer to them as
energy levels.
(6) An electron can move from one orbit to another and in so doing either emit or absorb a quantum of radiation
Eq, equal to the difference in energy ∆E, between the two orbits, i.e. Eq= ∆E = hv
(c) The permitted energy levels are determined by the condition that the angular momentum of the electron is
an integral multiple of h/2 , i.e.
MeVr = nh/2
where v is the velocity of the orbiting electron, r the radius of the orbit corresponding to a given, value of n,
and n, called a quantum number, can only take integral values greater than 0.
It should be noted at this point that Bohr had no theoretical basis for his postulates, their main justification

Page 27 of 88
being that they gave the right answers (up to a point). >
15. The energy of the electron. For simplicity Bohr regarded the electrons as moving in circular orbits, and
derived the following expression for the energy of an electron in a given orbit of the hydrogen atom

En= - ( )
= …… (3)

For one electron species other than the hydrogen atom, the term Z2 appears in the numerator.
Only certain energy levels are possible (the energy is said to be quantized) and these are given by the condition
n = 1,2, 3, etc. The energies given by are negative because the energy of the electron in the atom is less than
the energy of the free electron, which is taken to be zero. Thus the smaller the value of n the more negative
(i.e. the lower) the energy and the more stable the hydrogen atom. As n increases, En becomes less negative
and in the limit when n = ∞, E∞ = 0, which corresponds to complete separation of the electron and the nucleus.
Comparison with experiment. The lines in the atomic spectrum of hydrogen arise from electronic transitions
between energy levels, and the theoretical frequencies corresponding to these transitions, say from E2 to EV
may be found by substitution into (3)

E2 – E1 = ∆£ = hv = − where, n2 > n1

Hence 1/λ = ⊽ = = −

This expression is analogous to that formulated from the experimentally observed spectra (4), and the constant
term outside the bracket may be evaluated to 1.097 373 x 107 m-1, which is in remarkably good agreement
with the Rydberg constant for the hydrogen atom. This brilliantly confirms the original Bohr postulates.
The radius of an electron orbit. The radius of an electron orbit is given by
rn= n2h2/2 meze2) . . . 1
The term inside the brackets is constant and hence the radii of possible electron orbits are proportional to n2.
By combining the two above equations, it can be seen that the energy of the electron (a negative quantity) is
inversely proportional to the radius of its orbit. The larger the orbit the less negative (i.e. the greater) the energy
of the electron. Some of the orbits are illustrated in Figure below which also shows how the different energy
level are distributed in the Bohr’s structure of an atom and their corresponding spectra line series.

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Distribution of electrons in orbits
Detailed spectroscopic studies showed that the energy level of an electron is characterized by four quantum
numbers.
1. The principal quantum number (n): has integral values 1,2,3,4 etc. the main energy level or shell are
determined by the principal quantum number.
2. The subsidiary or azimuthal quantum number (l): has also integral values ranging from 0 to (n-1). The
electrons with the subsidiary quantum number 0,1,2 and 3 are usually referred to as s, p, d and f electrons
respectively. The azimuthal quantum describes the shapes of the orbital occupied by the electron.
When l=0, the orbital is spherical and is called s-orbital, this is the first energy level. For the second energy
level n=2, possible values of l are 0 and 1. So there are s and p- orbitals For n=3, we have l= 3-1=2; we have
o,1 and 2. These possible orbitals are s, p and d. For n=4, l=4-1 =3 that is 0,1,2 and 3 corresponding to s, p, d
and f.
3. The magnetic quantum number. It takes an integral value of 0, ±1, ±2, ±3…..±1 which gives the
number of orbital types in an energy level for l=0, m=o. this means that s-orbital only in this energy level. For
l=1, m=-1, +0, +1, there are three p-orbitals.
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For l=2, m=-2, -1,0,+1,+2, there are five d-orbitals. The third energy level has one, 3p and 5d orbitals.
4. Spin quantum number: it gives the direction of electron movement in its orbital. It has two possible
values Ms = +1/2 or -1/2 for complete revolution.
The electronic configuration of an element is based on the following principles
(a) The Aufbau principle: states that electrons at their ground state are added to an atom, one at a time,
starting from the lowest energy orbital until all orbitals are filled.

WAVE MECHANIC APPROACH

The inadequacies of the Bohr theory. Closer examination of atomic spectral lines show that they consist not
of single lines, but rather of two or more closely spaced lines, i.e They possess a fine structure. The simple
Bohr theory was found to be inadequate to explain this observation, and although it was subsequently refined
by introducing quantum numbers in addition to n, some spectral observations still could not be explained even
in the relatively simple case of helium, with only two extranuclear electrons. It became clear that a new
approach to atomic theory was necessary. Two important principles laid the foundations of this new approach,
the dual nature of matter and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

1. de -Broglie and Uncertainty principle

The dual nature of matter. In 1924 De Broglie advanced the hypothesis that particles possess wave properties
and that momentum is related to wavelength by the expression

De-broglie’s approach for a moving electron, it has two characters (wave – particle duality)
AS particle, an electron moving in a circular path, is said to possessed momentum, P related to its motion in a
wave form as wave to the wave length. He states the relationship between the momentum and wave length of
the motion of the electron in the wave form as given below

P (mev) = h/ʎ
The greater the mass and velocity of a particle the shorter its wavelength. The wave properties of macroscopic
objects such as cricket balls can never be observed, but diffraction effects have been observed with electrons,
protons, neutrons and even xenon atoms. The wavelengths of electrons and protons at room temperature are
about 6 and 0-07 nm respectively. It should be noted that electrons, protons, etc., behave either as particles or
as waves, depending on the property being observed.
2. Einstein Uncertainty principle
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle (1925). This states that it is impossible to measure accurately both the
position and the momentum of a moving particle.

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Is related to theto Planck’s constant as ∆x .∆p ≥ h/4π. The importance of this equation can be illustrated by
the simple calculation given that ∆ = 10-12m and h = 6.6.10-34Js and the mass of the electron me is = 9.1 x 10-
31kg.

Then ∆x .∆p ≥ h/4π

= 6.6 x 10-22 kgms-1

Then the uncertainty in the velocity of the electron, ∆v = ∆ P/me = 6.6 x 10-22/9.9 x 10-31
=7.2 x 108 ms-1
Which is of the same order with that of light, the large uncertainty in the velocity arises due to the very small
mass of the electron and can be negligible for macroscopic objects. This means that is far reaching and
probability takes the place of exactness in the position and velocity of an electron. Thus replaced by the
statement that the electron has the probability of position and velocity. Hence, the Bohr’s theory of the atom
that the electron rotates in definite orbits around the nucleus, must be abandoned and considered the probability
of finding the electron in a particular region of space.

The schrodinger wave equation

schrodinger applied the De-broglie’s expression which was concerned with the freely moving particles and
derived the equations which describes ordinary wave motion of an electron in one direction. This equation is
as below

d2 - 82Me (ET – EP) = 0 along the X-axis only

dx2 h2

Where me and Ep are the mass of the electron and the potential energy of the electron and are known, while
ET, the total energy of the electron and (psi) the wave function, are known and are found in the solution of the
equation. For three directions/dimension, the wave equation is;
d2ᴪ + d2ᴪ + d2ᴪ + 82Me (ET – EP) = 0
dx2 dy2 dz2 h2

The importance of ᴪ and ᴪ2.

The significance of is that is known as the atomic orbital and is the probability of finding the electron in a
particular region while ᴪ2 measures the electron’s charge density.

Examples involving electron configuration of some elements

(a) Write the electronic configuration of the following atoms; i) 37A ii) 52B iii) 61C and iv) 75D.
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(b) Identify their group, blocks and periods on the periodic table.
Solution
37A
Line 1 1s2
Line 2 2s2 2p6
Line 3 3s2 3p6 3d10

Line 4 4s2 4p6 4d 4f

Line 5 5s 5p 5d 5f
Line 7 6s 6p 6d 6f
Line 8 7s 7p 7d
The electronic configuration of 37A is 1S22S22P63S23P64S23d104P65S1
The element belongs to S-block, period 5 and group 1A.
The electronic configuration of configuration of 52B is 1S22S22P63s23P64S23d104P65S24d105P4 the element
belongs to P-block, period 5 and group IVA.
The electronic configuration of 61C is 1S22S22P63s23P64S23d104P65S24d105P66S24F5. the element belongs to
F-block and it has not been classified.
The electronic configuration of 74D is 1S22S22P63s23P64S23d104P65S24d105P66S24F145d5. the element belongs
to d-block elements, period five and group VIIB.

Periodic properties of an element is any property that varies along the group from one element to the next or
across the period.
The charge of the nucleus felt by the outer electron(s) is/are called the effective nuclear charge.
Other periodic properties are;
i. Atomic radius
ii. Ionization energy
iii. Electron affinity iv. Electronegativity
v. Density vi. Melting point, boiling point and solubility.
Variation of effective nuclear charges (ZEff.) across the period and down the group. Li and Ne they all belong
to the same period, they all have two electrons shells, their outer electrons are at about the same distance from
the nucleus. As we move from Li to Be to Ne, one electron is progressively added to the same shell
corresponding to the number of protons in the nucleus, thus the outer shell electrons are pulled towards the
nucleus with a greater force. So, ZEff increases across each period of the periodic table. On the other hand, it
reduces down the group due to screening or shielding, due to extra electrons shell filled. Atomic Radius:

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atomic radius of an atom is defined as the distance of the closest approach to another identical atom. When an
atom is bonding with other elements, is the same as covalent bond radius.
Covalent bond radius is defined as half the distance between two covalently bonded atoms.
atomic radius decreases from left to right across a period, because atoms become smaller due to increase in
ZEff and increases on going down the group due to increase in number of electron shells. Ionization energy: is
the minimum energy required to remove the most loosely bounded electron from an isolated neutral gaseous
atom. As we move from element to the next within a group, the atoms become bigger and the outer electrons
are held less tightly to the nucleus. Thus, ionization energy becomes smaller due to less ZEff and it increases
on moving from left to right across the period due to increasing ZEff.
Note: half-filled electron configuration and fully filled configuration are stable and this makes it difficult to
remove electros from such a configuration.
Group VA are half filled nS2nP3 outer electron configuration while
Group IIA have completely filled outer electron configuration: nP6(n + 1)S2.
Group VIIA also nS2nP6 outer configuration exception of the variation of I.E. is in IIIA and IVA. Example:
arrange the elements Na, Mg, Al and Si in order of increasing I.E.
Na<Mg<Al<Si.
Electron affinity: this is the energy change when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous atom to form a
negatively charge ion. It increases from left to right across the period as ZEff increases.
Noble gases have no E.A halogens have the highest affinity for extra electron.
Electronegativity: the electronegativity of an element is the measure of the attraction of an atom in a molecule
for electrons. Generally, electronegativity decreases down the group and increases across a period. Metals
typically lose electrons and are thus, less electronegative while non-metals have tendency of gaining electrons,
are more electronegative. This is due to increase in nuclear charge as electrons are added to the same shell,
this accounted for the decrease in the atomic radii.

CHEMICAL BONDING AND SHAPE OF MOLECULES

Chemical bonding: is the union of two or more atoms by redistribution of electrons between the participating
atoms. This can take place by;
i. The transfer of electron(s) from donor atom to the acceptor atom
ii. By sharing electron(s) between the atoms involved. iii. By electron(s) coordination by a center atom.
iv. By multiple sharing of electrons among the participating atoms
v. Between hydrogen and a strong electronegative element (H- bonding)
vi. By delocalization of electrons (Metallic bonding)
vii. By resonating bonding from one point to another.

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Ionic/electrovalent bonding: this is the strong electrostatic force/attraction that hold two oppositely charged
ions together. It is done by complete transfer of electron(s) from the valence shell of the donor atom (usually
a metal) to the valence shell of the acceptor atom (usually nonmetal) to form the ionic compound.
Ionic compounds are compounds that contain ions. Common ionic compounds are NaCl, MgCl2, CuO, Al2O3,
FeO etc. ionic compounds form giant structure in which ions/atoms are joint together in a regular pattern called
lattice structure.

Properties of ionic/ electrovalent compounds

1. Volatility: most ionic compounds have high melting and boiling point because the ionic bonds are very
strong and their melting and boiling point are above room temperature (>2500C, >5000C). they exist as solids
at RT. This implies that high amount of heat energy is required to overcome the strong ionic bonds to change
them from solids to liquids state.
2. Solubility: ionic compounds are usually soluble in water because the water molecule can separate their
atoms into ions in water causing them to dissolve.
3. Electric conductivity: since electrvalent compounds contain ions i.e. ionize in solution, they light up a
bulb in a circuit, indicating their ability to conduct electricity. Thus, they are good conductors of heat anad
electricity.
4. Melting and boiling points: ionic compounds generally have high melting points and boiling points.
This is due to the high electrostatic attraction holding the atoms/ions involved which requires a high amount
of energy to overcome the attractive forces between the cations and the anions

Covalent bonding
When electrons pairs are shared between two atoms, they form covalent bond. They achieve the noble gas
electronic configuration. Therefore, covalent bond is formed when two electrons; one from each atom are
shared by the two atoms. The two atoms must approach close enough for their atomic orbitals to overlap. Dot
and cross diagrams are often used to describe the electron structure of molecules or ions.
In covalent bonding, it forms what is called; Single, Double and Triple bond.
A single covalent bond is formed by sharing a pair of electrons. These are known as bond pair electrons
Examples: bond between two hydrogen atoms

Chlorine molecule:

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In the chlorine molecule, each chlorine atom achieves the stable state of argon [Ar] electronic configuration
by sharing a pair of electrons. There are three pairs of nonbonding electrons on each atom and they are called
lone pairs electrons.
Example of double covalent bond include; oxygen molecule, carbon monoxide, carbon(iv)oxide tec.
In oxygen molecule, two oxygen atom forms the stable Neon [Ne] electronic configuration by sharing 2 pairs
of electrons to form a double covalent bond O=O.

Examples of triple covalent bond includes Nitrogen molecule and ethyne.

In nitrogen molecule, two nitrogen atoms attain a stable state of Neon [Ne] electronic configuration by sharing
3 pairs of electrons to form a triple covalent bond. The structural formula of a nitrogen molecule is N≡N and
molecular formula is N2.

OCTET RULE AND ITS LIMITATION

In forming chemical bond, atoms gain or lose electron or share electrons to achieve octet structure. This is
known as the octet rule. However, there are exceptions to the rule. For example, the boron atom has electrons
in its outermost shell despite its limitation, octet rule is very vital in predicting formulae of compounds formed
by the element of second and third periods in the periodic table. The number of bonds and atoms formed
depends on the number of half-filled orbitals it has. Covalent bond is formed when the half-filled overlap with
those of the adjacent atoms. Boron has three outermost electrons (ground state). After promoting one electron
from 2S to the 2Py orbital (excited state) configuration.

B (ground state)

B* (excited state)

Boron has only six outermost electrons (octet rule not obeyed), after forming three covalent bonds.

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Dot and cross diagram of BF3.

rom the third period onward, elements can form bonds with more 8-electrons in their outermost shell. In the
case of phosphorus, electrons can be promoted from 3S orbital to the low-lying 3d orbital for bond formation.
The excited state electronic configuration of phosphorus is 1S22S22P63s23P64S23d1.

There are five half-filled orbitals and phosphorus forms five covalent bonds accordingly. The presence of the
low-lying d-orbital is necessary for accommodating 10- electrons in the outermost shell of the atom after bond
formation.

Dot and cross diagram of PCl5

Class Exercise
a. How many bond pair electrons are present in NH3 and H2O molecules respectively?
b. Nitrogen can fprm only one NCl3 while phosphorus can form two PCl3 and PCl5. Explain why.

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Dative covalent bond.
The dative covalent bond is also known as coordinate covalent bond. This is the type of covalent bond in
which only one atom supplies the shared pair of electron for the bond. The atom that supplies the shared pair
of electron is called the donor atom, while other atoms involved are called the acceptors.
The donor atom must have lone pairs of electrons in its outer shell while the acceptor must at least have one
empty orbital in its outer shell. The dative bond compound has the same characteristics as ordinary covalent
bond. Oxygen and nitrogen forms this type of bond.
Ammonia gas and borontriflouride reacts together to give dative bond. Boron fluoride is electron difficient
while NH3 is electron rich, it reacts violently to give NH3BF3

b. formation of ammonia ion

c. formation of Al2Cl6. Dimer when gaseous AlCl3 cooled, it dimerize to give Al2CL6 molecule.
The monomers AlCl3 are held by dative bond.

Or

Dot and cross diagram of Al2Cl6.

Metallic bond: some metals have or more valence electron(s) which are loosely bond to the atom. These
electrons moved around the atoms in the metal and are shared with all the atoms in the metal. Thus, the metals

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are said to be positively charged ions embedded in a sea of localized or mobile electros or cloud of electrons.
The mobile electrons exert an attraction on the positively charged ion which hold the atoms in a metal in a
crystal lattice are called the metallic bond. Hydrogen bonding: is the attraction between the lone pairs electrons
of the strong electronegative atoms such as N, F and O and Hydrogen.
The electronegative elements tend to pull the shared pair of the electrons in the bond toward themselves. This
results in the formation of dipole, where the hydrogen atom becomes partially positive and the electronegative
element becomes partially negative. Note, these atoms are linked by covalent bonding also.
Importance of hydrogen bonding water has high Melting point, boiling point, Hv, Hf, surface tension, viscosity
when compared with other hydrides such as H2S, H2Se etc. this is due to Hydrogen bonding.
H- bonding has a significant biological and environmental impact.
The high boiling point and solubility of alcohol molecules is due to hydrogen bond holding the
molecules, this makes them soluble in water.
H-bonding linked carboxylic acid molecules to form dimers.
H- bonding in proteins
H- bonding in DNA, H- bonding, hold the organic bases present in DNA that carries generic
information.

Intermolecular forces
Polar and non-polar molecules
A polar molecule is formed when polar bond is achieved by bonding two dissimilar atoms. The bonding
electron cloud is displaced towards the more electronegative atoms.
+

When this happened, a dipole is said to be created. The dipole moment ( ) of a polar molecules is given by;
=qxd
Where q is the magnitude of the charge and d is the distance between the two oppositely charges polar
molecules have a permanent dipole moment. The following are some examples of polar molecules.

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 Water trichloromethane propanone

ethoxyethane, nitrobenzene cyclohexane

Non-polar molecules are molecules without dipole moment or without polar bonds or those with symmetrical
arrangement of polar bonds so that all the dipole moments are cancel out.

Benzene tetrachloromethane cyclohexane

carbondioxide borontrichloride hydrogen molecule

Intramolecular forces: these are strong forces that exist between atoms in a molecule.
Examples: metallic and covalent
Intermolecular forces: these are weak forces holding covalent molecules e.g. hydrogen bonding, vanderwaals
forces, permanent dipole etc. the strength of the intermolecular forces is affected by the physical properties of
substances such as melting point, boiling point, viscosity, density etc.
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these weak intermolecular forces are vital in promoting biochemical reactions Permanent dipole: this is the
dipole present in polar molecules

• Induce dipole: this is a temporary dipole created due to a neighboring permanent or instantaneous
dipole.

• An instantaneous is a temporary dipole that exist as a result of movement or fluctuation in the electron
cloud

• Dipole – dipole interactions.

The vandarwaals forces between polar molecules such HCl are due to dipole- dipole interaction.
They have a magnitude between (5-25kjmol-1)

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• Dipole- induced- dipole interaction.
The vanderwaals forces between polar molecules such water and a non-polar molecules such as hydrogen
molecules is due to dipole induced dipole interaction. They have magnitude of (2-10Kjmol-1)

Permanent
Dipole in polar molecule

Shapes of covalent molecules and polyatomic ions

The shape of molecules refers to the geometric arrangement of atoms within the molecules.
Note: lone pairs of electrons are not taken account in determining the shape of a molecule. The electron pair
repulsion theory is a simple theory that can explain the shape of covalent molecules
The electron pair repulsion theory states that the electron pairs in the outermost shell of the central atom in a
molecule will stay away as far apart as possible to minimize electronic repulsion. The electron pair are oriented
at a maximum separation in space so as to reduce the columbic repulsion of electronic cloud.

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Accordingly, two electrons pairs will be arranged linearly to form linear shape molecules at angle 1800, three
pairs in trigonal planar geometry, four electron pairs in tetrahedron geometry, five pairs in a trigonal pyramidal
geometry and six pairs in an octahedral geometry.
Molecules without lone pairs of electrons on the central atom
1. Beryllium chloride (BeCl2) molecules:
The two pairs electrons are oriented linearly to minimize electron repulsion. Thus, the molecule is a linear
molecule at angle of 1800
1800

Cl Be Cl
2. Boron trifloride (BF3) molecule
Boron is the central atom and it carries three bond pairs according to electron pair repulsion theory. The three
bond pair electrons will stay away as possible at 1200 and form trigonal planar geometry.

3. Methane (CH4) molecule

Carbon is the central atom and it carry four bond pairs electrons, thus, the maximum separation in four electron
pairs in three dimension is at an angle of 109.50

4. Phosphorus penta-chloride (PCl5) molecules phosphorus is the central atom and it carries five bond
pairs of electron it is trigonal bipyramids geometry.
The angle is between 900 and 1200

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5. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) molecules

Other examples of linear molecules are ions, CO2, HCN, C2H2, and ArN2+ (1800).
Other examples of trigonal planar with 1200 are: SO3, NO3, CO3, C2H4
Other example of tetrahedral with 109.50 are SiCl4, CCl4, NH4+, ClO4-, SO42-, PO43- and Ni(CO)4
Other examples of octahedral molecules and polyatomic ions are: [PCl6]-, [SiF6]- and [Al(H2O)]3+ Molecules
and polyatomic ions with lone pairs of electrons on the central atom. The shape of molecules can be described
by the electron pair repulsion theory. However, when one or more of the electron pairs are lone pairs, the
greater repulsion effect of the lone pair electron should be taken into account. Note, the electron repulsion
decreases in the following order Lone pair- lone pair › lone pair- bond pair › bond pair – bond pair.

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The lone pair electron(s) is/are under the influence of only atom/ nucleus while the bond pairs electrons are
under influence of the two nuclei and are drawn out to form a longer, thinner distribution along the internuclear
axis. As a result, the lone pair electrons is closer to the central atom than a bond pair, it will exert a greater
repulsion on nearby electron pairs. E.g. CH4, NH3 and H2O all have four electrons pair on their central atoms.
However, their shapes and angles differ because of the differences in their differences in their lone pairs of
electrons present in their central
atom.

Multiple bonds
A covalent bond sharing two electrons is single bond, sharing four electrons is called double bond while triple
involved sharing six- electrons. The greater the number of electron shared the stronger the bond, the shorter
the bond length and the greater the bond enthalpy.
The bond order is defined as the total number of electrons involved in a bond divided by two. A single bond
has a bond order of one double bond has bond of 2 and triple bond has bond order of 3. However, C=C is not
twice as C-C; C=C is not trice as C-C bond.
Effect of multiple bonding on shape of molecules. The electron pair repulsion can be applied to predict the
shape or polyatomic ion with multiple bonds. It is assumed that electron pairs in a multiple bond occupy a
region of a similar space to that of one electron pair in a single bond.
1. Ethene molecule (CH2 CH2) molecule.

2. Ethyne [HC=CH] Linear

3. Carbondioxide (CO2) molecule. O==C==O
4. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) molecule V-shape

OXIDATION –REDUCTION REACTIONS (REDOX REACTIONS)

The term redox- reaction is the simultaneous oxidation and reduction processes.
Oxidation: is the process of electron lost which also leads to increase in oxidation state of the element.
It is also the addition of oxygen to a compound or an element.
It brings about increase in electro positivity and ionization energy and metallic character of metals. Oxidation
Number: is the charge held or carried by an element or polyatomic ions.

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Rules for calculating the oxidation number of element
1. The algebraic sum of oxidation states of all atoms in a neutral molecule such as KMnO4, H2SO4 etc.
is zero.
2. For polyatomic ions, the sum of the oxidation states of all the components elements is equal to the
charge on the ion in the complex ion. For instance, Cr2O72- = -2, NH4+ = +1 etc.
3. The same element can have different oxidation number e.g. N in NH4NO3 is = 1 and HNO3; N = +5
respectively.
Examples:
i. Calculate the oxidation state of Mn in KMnO4 and that of C in CrO72- ion.
Solution
Let the O.N. of Mn be X. in KMnO4, K = +1 and O = -2.
1 + X + (-2 x 4) = 0
1 + X -8 = 0
X = +8 – 1 + 0
= +7
X = Mn = +7.
For Cr2O2-

Let ON of Cr be + X, but we have two Cr.

Therefore, 2Cr = 2X.
2X + (-2 x 7) = -2
2X – 14 = -2
2X = -2 +14 2X =+12 X = 6.
Exercise
1. Calculate the ON of S in the following compounds; a) SO2 b) SO3 c) H2S2O3 and e)
Na2S2O4.
2. What is the oxidation number of Vanadium (V) in: a) V(NH3)Br3 b) K2VCl6 c) V2O5 and d) Na3VO4.

Balancing of Redox Reaction

The following rules can be applied during balancing of redox reactions
1. Verify if the reaction is a redox reaction by checking the oxidation state of the charges.
2. Write the oxidizing half equation and reduction half equation.
3. Add water molecule where there is shortage of oxygen and hydrogen ion or OH- where there is shortage
of hydrogen atom to balance the hydrogen atoms in the opposite side.
4. Combine the two half equations to obtain the overall equation.
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Methods for balancing redox equations
1) Electron transfer method
2) Acid medium method
3) Basic or alkaline medium method.
Examples of Acidic Method
Balance the following reaction in acidic medium.
S2O32- + I2 S2O62- + 2I-
Oxidation half equation
S2O32- S2O62-
+2 +5
S2O32- S2O62-
S2O32- + 3H2O S2O62- + 6H+
S2O32- + 3H2O S2O62- + 6H+ + 3e-

Reduction half equation

I2 + 2e- 2I-

overall reaction multiply reduction half equation by 3 and oxidation half by 2, so that;
[I2 + 2e- 2I-] x 3
[S2O32- + 3H2O S2O62- + 6H+ + 3e-] x 2
Overall = 2S2O32- + 6H2O + 3I- + 6e- 2S2O62- + 12H+ + 6e- + 6I- Overall balanced equation = 2S2O32-
+ 6H2O + 3I- 2S2O62- + 12H++ 6I-

Example 2
Overall equation
MnO4- + C2O42- MnO2 + CO32-

Reduction Half equation

MnO4- MnO2

+7 +4
Oxidation Half Equation

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C2O42- CO32-

+3 +4
MnO4- MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OH-
MnO4- + 4H2O MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OH-
MnO4- + 4H2O + 3e- MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OH-

C2O42- 2CO32- + H2O

C2O42- + 2H2O + 4OH- 2CO32- + 4H2O + e-

Multiply the reduction half equation by 1 and oxidizing equation by 3. This gives
MnO4- + 4H2O + 3e- MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OH-
3C2O42- + 6H2O + 12OH- 6CO32- + 12H2O + 3e-
Cancel out the common species and electrons and add up the remaining species;
The overall balanced equation will be
MnO4- 3C2O42- + 2H2O + 8OH- MnO2 + 6CO32- + 6H2O

Electrode potential
This is the amount of electricity generated in a simple galvanic cell. Examples of simple galvanic cell (primary
cell) are voltaic cell, Lechlanche cell, Daniel cell et. Standard electrode potential (Eɵ) is the amount of
electricity produced in a simple galvanic or secondary cell at standard state (298K). it is designated by;
Eɵ = Eɵreduction - Eɵoxidation
Galvanic cell/simple is an electrochemical that produced electrical energy as chemical reaction takes place.
For reversible cell reaction,
∆Gɵ = -nFEɵ

∆Gɵ = -RTInK
-nFEɵ = -RTInK Eɵ = RTInK
nF this implies that the reduction electrode potential is measured at standard state. Eɵ = 2.303 RTlogK
nF

Eɵ = 0.059logK

n
Standard electrode potential is the potential difference of a metal and the solution of its salt. Eɵ at 298K.

Page 47 of 88
Cell diagram

The salt bridge functions;

1. It prevents the direct mixing of the two solutions but allows migration of ions through it. Thus, the
spontaneous reactions between the two half cells is avoided.
2. It prevents the build- up charges unbalance in each half cell. It provides cations and anions to
complement the ions consumed and formed at the two electrodes.
In the above cells, electrons flows from the Zn- electrode (anode) where the oxidation takes place through the
wire and the voltammeter to the cathode Cu- electrode where the reduction takes place.

Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-.

Cu2+ + 2e-- Cu(s)

For this cell, the cell diagram is as follows;

Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq 1M)⁞⁞Cu2+(aq 1M)/Cu(s)

Eɵ = +1.10v or,

Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq 1M)⁞Cu2+(aq 1M)/Cu(s)

Eɵcell = Eɵcathode - Eɵanode.

= Eɵred. - Eɵox.

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Eɵ for hydrogen is arbitrarily = 0.00V. Eɵcathode is the standard reduction potential of the cathode and Eɵoxidation
is the standard electrode potential of the anode. The cathode and the anode electrode potentials of the cell can
be identified by looking at the value of their Eɵ. the one with more positive (less negative) is the cathode,
whereas the one with less positive (more negative) Eɵ value is the anode. As the redox reaction proceeds, the
potential difference between half-cell would become zero and when this happens, the cell is described as being
flat.
Example;
A. Given the reduction potentials of Zn and Cu, determine;
a) The standard e.m.f.
b) The reaction involved
c) The cell diagram of the Daniel cell given;
Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e- [Eɵ = -0.76V]

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s) [Eɵ = +0.34V]

a. Eɵcell = EɵCu2+/Cu - EɵZn/Zn2+

=+0.34 – (-0.76)
=+1.10V

b. Oxidation: Zn(s) Zn2+ +2e-

Reduction: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s)

Overall reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+ Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

c. Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq, 1M)⁞⁞Cu2+(aq, 1M)/Cu(s). [Eɵ = +1.10V]

B. Given the Eɵreduction of iron and Nickel, determine;

a. Standard Eɵ
b. the cell reduction
c. cell diagram given;
Fe2+(aq) + 2e- Fe(s) [EɵFe2+/Fe = -0.44V] Ni2+(aq) + 2e- Ni(s) [EɵNi2+/Ni = -0.25V]
Eɵcell = EɵNi2+/Ni + EɵFe2+/Fe
= -0.25 + (-0.44)
-0.69V

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The cell diagram of the cell:

d. Fe(s)/Fe2+(aq, 1M)⁞⁞Ni2+(aq, 1M)/Ni(s). [Eɵ = +0.19V]

Prediction of feasibility of redox reactions:

Theoretically, redox reactions with positive Eɵ value are said to be feasible and can take place spontaneously.
Example
1. Is the reaction;
Mg(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) feasible?

Given; Mg2+(aq) + 2e Mg(s) [Eɵ = +2.38V]

Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s) [Eɵ = + 0.80V]

Solution

Eɵcell = Eɵcathode - Eɵanode.

= +2.38 + (+0.80)
= + 3.18V
As the Eɵcell has a positive value, the reaction is feasible and spontaneous.

2. Given that,
Pb(s) Pb2+(aq) + 2e- [Eɵ = +0.13V]

Ni2+(aq) + 2e- Ni(s) [Eɵ = -0.25V]

Eɵcell = Eɵcathode - Eɵanode.

= +0.13 + (-0.25)
= - 0.12V
As the Eɵcell has a negative value, the reaction is not feasible and non-spontaneous. However, due to changes
in concentration, temperature and pressure, the Eɵ is affected and hence large temperature and concertation
changes for spontaneous reaction to occur. generally, the value of Eɵ calculated must be › 0.4V for the redox
reaction prediction to be valid.

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Primary and secondary cell
Electrochemical cells can be primary or secondary cells. Primary cell is a cell which cannot be recharged and
whose reactants cannot be regenerated e.g. Zn- C cells, alkaline Manganese cells and Silver oxide cells.
Secondary cells are cells that can be recharged and whose reactants can be regenerated e.g. lead accumulator
cells.
fuel cells e.g. H-O fuel cells. This is a device that convert chemical energy to electrical energy by continuous
supply of fuel and an oxidant supplied to the electrode and whose products are removed continuously.

Corrosion
• corrosion is a redox reaction in which a metal is attacked by materials in its environment and converted
into unwanted substance.
• Factors that favors corrosion of iron or metals are;
i. Oxygen
ii. PH

iii. Salt
iv. Contact with electronegative elements
v. Strain
The Nernst equation aA +bB cC + dD

E = E0- Rt In [C]c[D]d or nf [A]a[B]b

E = E0- Rt 2.303 log [C]c[D]d nf [A]a[B]b

where [C]c[D]d =K, the equilibrium constant at 250C, the equation becomes;
[A]a[B]b

E = E0- 0.059 logK

N
For the reaction,
Zn + Fe2+ Zn2+ + Fe, the EɵZn2+/Zn is +0.76V and that of Fe2+/Fe is -0.44V. that is;
Zn Zn2+ + 2e- [Eɵ =+0.76V]
Fe2+ + 2e- Fe [Eɵ = -0.44V]

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The cell reaction is;
Zn + Fe2+ Zn2+ + Fe, [Eɵ = 0.32V]

The Nernst equation for this cell is;

Ecell = E0cell- 0.059 log [Z2+]

2 [Fe2+]

= 0.32 - 0.059 log [Z2+] Given that [Fe2+] = 10-6M and [Zn2+] = 0.1 moldm-3, 2 [Fe2+]

Ecell = 0.32 – 0.059 x log 1__

2 10-6

E = E0- Rt In [oxidation ions] nf [reduction ions]

for the electrode Fe2+ Fe3+ + e- n = 1

E = E0- Rt In [Fe3+]
f [Fe2+]

E = E0- Rt In [MnO4-] x [H]

5f [Mn2+]

CONCEPTS OF ACID AND BASES

An Arrhenius acid is any substance which dissociates in aqueous solution to produce H+ ions. Strong acids
ionize completely while weak acids are only partially ionized with high proportion remaining in undessociated
form.

HCL H+ + Cl-

Strong acid

CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+

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Weak acid

H+ associates with polar solvents such as water, to give hydronium ion;

H+ + H 2 0 H30+

It can be represented more accurately as;

HCL + H20 H30+ + Cl-

Advantages of the above equation

1. It recognizes the role of water in the dissociation of acid

2. It explains why substances such as ethanoic acid and HCL show their usual acidic properties in the
presence of water.

An Arrhenius base is any substance which reacts with H+ ion to form water.

CuO + 2H+ Cu2+ + H20

Cu(OH)2 + 2H+ Cu2+ + 2H20

Alkalis (Soluble bases) are regarded as substances which dissociates in water to give hydroxyl ions (OH-).

NaOH(aq) Na+ + OH-(aq)

Limitations of Arrhenius concepts

1. It can be applied to only; aqueous solutions

2. It is restricted to bases that react to H+

To overcome these limitations, the concept is extended to Bronsted- Lowry concepts

Bronsted- Lowry concept of acids and bases.

The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases cannot account for satisfactory definition of acids and bases because:

A Bronsted- Lowry (B-L) acid is a proton donor A Bronsted- Lowry (B-L) base is a proton acceptor.
A proton transfer reaction is a B-L reaction.

An acid- base conjugate pair are any two substances which differ in chemical composition by a proton.

Consider the following B-L equation;

Acid- base conjugate pair

CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO- + H30+

Page 53 of 88
Acid Base Conjugate base conjugate acid

Relative strength of acids and bases

The dissociation of an acid HB in water is given by the following at equilibrium

HB + H20 B- + H30+

Acids differ in their ability to donate protons to water in aqueous solution. Strong acids donate all their protons
to water molecules so as to favor forward reaction in the above reaction. A conjugate base of a strong acid is
a weak base. If an acid is weak, its conjugate base is strong since it has strong affinity for proton e.g. ethanoic
acid is weak but its conjugate base (ethanoate) ion is a strong base.

Amphiprotic and amphoteric substances

Any substance which has the ability to accept or donate a proton is amphiprotic e.g. H20.

H2 0 + H2 0 H30+ + OH-

Acid1 Base2 Acid2 Base1

This reaction is self-ionization or auto- protolysis of water.

Any substance which has the ability to act as an acid and as well as a base is amphoteric e.g. bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-) is amphoteric.

HCO3- + H20 H30+ + CO32-

Acid Base

H2O + HCO3- H2CO3 + OH—

Acid Base

Other examples

a. Write an equation to illustrate how CH3OH acts as Bronsted- Lowry acid.

CH3OH + H2O CH3O- + H3O+

Acid Base

b. What is the conjugate acid of; (i) CN- (ii) PH3

CN- + H+ HCN
HCN is the conjugate acid of CN-

Page 54 of 88
PH3 + H+ PH4+
PH4+ is the conjugate acid of PH3
c. What is the conjugate base of HClO4 and NH3
HClO4 ClO4- + H+; ClO4- is the conjugate Base of HClO4

NH3 NH2- + H+; NH2- is the conjugate base of NH3.

d. Identify the acid- base conjugate pair in the reaction

Acid- base pair

3 2 3
-
Acid- base conjugate pair

CO32- and HCO3-, H2O and OH- are acid- base conjugate pairs.

Lewis concept of acids and bases.

According to the lewis definition, a lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor. A lewis base is an electron pair
donor.

Lewis theory is a more general concept which satisfies the requirements of Arrhenius and Bronsted – Lowry
concepts. It also involves other substances not covered by these concepts e.g. HCL is an Arrhenius acid,
bronsted- Lowry acid and Lewis acid.

AlCl3 is a Lewis acid but it is not an Arrhenius acid or a Bronsted- Lowry acid.

Example: lewis acid and base

Bonding between metal cation and electron pair

Cu2+ + 6H2O [Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq)

L.A L.B

Exercise

Classify the following into L.A and L.B

(a) CO2 (b) H2O (c) I- (d) SO2 (e) NH3 (f) OH- (g) H+ (h) BCl3

IONIC EQUILIBRIUM

Water is amphoteric, it dissociates at equilibrium.

H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH-

Page 55 of 88
RF = Rb

Kc = {H3O+} {OH-}
{H2O}2

Kc {H2OP}2 = {H3O} {OH-}

{H2O} is ≈ constant, Kc[H2O]2 = KW; where KW is called ionic product of water in aqueous solution [H3O] =
[H+]
:.. KW = [H+] [OH-], for pure water at 250C [H+] = [OH-]

= 1.0 x 10-7moldm-3

K = (1.0 x 10-7 moldm-3)2 KW = 1 x 10-14 mol2 dm-6 W

In an acidic solution, [H+] › [OH-]

In a basic solution, [OH-] › [H+]

In a neutral solution, [H+] = [OH-]

The pH is defined as the negative log10 of the H+ concentration. pH = -log10[H] pOH = -log10[OH-] the
relationship between pH and pOH is given by;
[H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

-log10[H] -log10[OH-] = -log 1.0 x 10—14 pH + pOH = 14

PH CALCULATIONS OF STRONG ACIDS AND BASES.

For strong acids (S. A)

[H+] = [S. A] x number of hydrolysable hydrogens pH = -log[H+] pOH = 14- pH or pOH = -log[OH-] or pH =
14- pOH examples;
1. Calculate the pH and pOH of a 0.06moldm-3 of H2SO4
Solution
H2SO4 is a strong acid and ionizes completely.
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-
[H+] = 2.0 x 0.06 = 0.12moldm-3 pH = -log [0.12] =0.92 pOH = 14 - pH
= 14 – 0.92
= 13.08
2. Calculate the pH and pOH of 2.22g of Ca(OH)2 in 250 cm3 solution.
Solution
Number of moles of Ca(OH)2 = Mass/ Molar Mass
Page 56 of 88
 = 2.22/74
= 0.03mols
Conc. = 0.03/250 x 1000
0.12M
Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH-
[OH] = 2 x 0.12 =0.24M pOH = -log[0.24]
= 0.62
pH =14 - pOH = 14- 0.62

= 13.38.

Exercise

Calculate the pH and pOH of the following;

a. 0.025 mole H2SO4 in 500cm3 solution

b. 5.985g Ba(OH)2 in 662cm3 solution (Ba =137, H= 1, O= 16)
c. [H=] = 4.56 x 10-8 mol.dm-3
d. [OH- = 0.0055 mol.dm-3

Weak acids and bases

A weak acid is any acid which does not ionize completely in solution. The acid is said to be monoprotic if it
produces one proton (H+).

Ionization of monobasic acid: HA HA + H2O A- + H3O+

the Kc = [A-] [H3O+]

[HA] [H2O]

Kc[water] = [A-] [H3O+] [HA]

Kc[H2O] for acid is Ka. Ka is called acid dissociation constant

Ka = [A-] [H3O+] [HA]

pH of weak monobasic acid HA + H2O A- + H3O+ if we let initial concentration of the acid to be
C and the fraction dissociation to be ∝
HA + H2O A- + H3O+

C(1-∝) C∝ C∝

At equilibrium,

Page 57 of 88
Kc = [A- 3 ] [HA]

= C∝ . C ∝
C(1- ∝)

= C2 . ∝2

C - C∝

= C2 . ∝2

C(1- ∝)

= C ∝2

(1 - ∝)
If the acid is very weak, (1 - ∝) ≅ 1
Therefore,
= C ∝2 = C ∝2.

(1 - ∝) 1

Kc = C ∝2

∝= /

In aqueous solution, [H+] = [H3O+]

[H+] = C ∝

Substitute for ∝

[H+] =C. /

[H+]2 = C2 . /
[H+]2 =C.

[H+] = √

But recall that PH = -log[H+]

pH = -log(√ )
Page 58 of 88
 = -1/2log Ka – 1/2log C

Note;

[A-] = [H+], [HA] = C- [H+]

C/Ka ≥1000, ∝ ≤ 5%, and (1-∝) ≅ 1

Examples

Calculate (a) [H+] (b) [CH3COO-] (c) [CH3COOH] (d) ∝ (e) pH of a 0.049 mol.dm-3 acetic acid solution.
(Ka = 1.8 x 10-5mol.L-1).

Solution

CH3COOH CH3COO- + H3O+

C/Ka = 0.049/1.80 x 10-5 = 2722 (since C/Ka is ›1000)

a. [H+] = √

= 9.39 x 10-4 mol.dm-3.

b. [CH3COO-] = [H+] = 9.39 x 10-4 mol.dm-3

c. [CH3COOH] = 0.049 – 9.39 x 10-4 = 0.048M

d. ∝= / = 1.8 x 10-5/9.39 x 10-4 = 0.0192 or 1.92

e. pH = -log[H+] = -log[9.39 x 10-4] = 3.02 if C/Ka ‹ 1000,

[H+] = -Ka ± √ +4
2
] pH = -log[H+] [HA] = C- [H+]
2
For weak acid HA (in a buffer solution)
HA A- + H+
Ka = [A-].[H+] where HA represents acid and A- represent salt.
[HA]

[H+] = Ka.[HA] taking th negative log of both side, we have;

[A-]
Page 59 of 88
-log[H+] = -logKa – log[HA]
[A-]

Recall –log[H+] = PH;-

-logKa = PKa – log[HA] = log[A-]

[A-] [HA]

PH = PKa + log[A-], but [A-] = [salt] and [HA] = [acid]

[HA]

PH = PKa + log[salt] this is Henderson-Heisenberg equation

[acid]

For weak base solution such as NH4OH,

NH4OH(aq) NH4+ + OH-
Kb = [NH4+].[OH-]
[NH4OH]
[OH] = Kb[NH4OH] = Kb[Base]
[NH4+] [salt]
POH = PKb + log[Salt]
[Base]
Exercise:
1. what is the pH of 500cm3 of 0.02 mol.dm-3 ethanoic acid (Ka = 1.8 x 10-5) solution
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+ at equilibrium,
(1-∝)C ∝C ∝C
Ka = [CH3COO-]. [H C
[CH3COOH] (∝-1)C (∝-1)C (∝-1)

When ∝ ‹‹‹1, (∝-1)≅1, therefore,

Ka = ∝2C

Page 60 of 88
If [H] = [CH3COO-] [H+]2

] so, Ka = [H+]2
C C

[H+] = √
C = 500 x 10—3 x 0.02
=0.01 moldm-3

[H] = 1.8 x 10-5 x 0.01

=4.24 x 10-4 mol.dm-3

PH = -log[H+]
= -log[4.24 x 10-4]
= 3.37

2. what is the pH change of the buffer solution of 2.0cm3 of 0.50 mol.dm3 KOH is added to it? Solution
CH3COOH(aq) + KOH(aq) CH3COOK + H2O n = 2 x 10-3 x 0.5
=0.001 moles. That is only adding KOH the acidity decrease by 0.00lmols and 0.001mols of CH3COOK is
formed.
[CH3COOH] = 0.01 – 0.001
= 0.009M

Ka = [CH3COOK] [H+] = 0.001 x [H+]

[CH3COO-] 0.009

1.8 x 10-5 = 0.001 x [H+]

0.009

[H+] = 1.8 x 10-5 x 9 x 10-3

1 x 10-3
= 1.62 x 10-4 mol.dm-3

Page 61 of 88
PH = -log (1.62 x 10-4
= 3.79

Buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in PH on addition of acid or alkaline. Buffer solutions are very
important in biological systems because a sudden change in pH of living organisms could results in an instant
death.
Buffer solutions can be prepared by;
a. mixing weak acid with its salt e.g. formic acid (methanoic acid) with sodium formate.
b. Mixing weak base with its salt e.g. NH4OH and NH4Cl.
Hydrolysis: the decomposition of salt by water is known as hydrolysis.
CH3COO- + H2O CH3COOH + OH-

Kh = [CH3COOH] [OH-] this is because [H2O] =1

[CH3COO-]

Multiply both sides by [H3O+]/[H3O+]

Kh = [CH3COOH] [OH-] [H3O+]

[CH3COO-] [H3O+]

But [H+] = [[H3O+], and so, [H3O+] [OH-] = KW

Kh = KW [CH3COOH]
[CH3COO-] [H3O+]

Recall also, [CH3COOH]___ = _1_

[CH3COO-] [H3O+] Ka

Kh = KW. 1_
Ka

Kh = Kw where Kh = Hydrolysis constant

Ka
Given that Ka = 6.6 x 10-5
Page 62 of 88
 Kw = 10-14

Kh = 10-14/6.6 x 10-5

= 1.5 x 10-10.

Note: the salts of weak base are themselves weak acids.

As a result, its such as NH4Cl, can hydrolyze in water.

NH4+ + H2O NH3 + H3O+

Weak acid strong base weak base strong acid

Kb = [NH4+] [OH-]

[NH4+]

Kh = [NH3] [H3O+] multiply both sides by [OH-]/[OH-]

[NH4+]

Kh = [NH3] [H3O+] x [OH-]

[NH4+] x [OH-]

Kh = Kw[NH3]
[NH4+][OH-]

Kh = Kw
Kb

Since [NH3]__ = 1_ given Kb = 1.8 x 10-5, for ammonia then, Kw = 10-14

[NH4+][OH-] Kb
Kh = 10-14_____
1.8 x 10-5 = 5 x 10-10.

Page 63 of 88
CHEM 101 SAMPLE TUTORIAL QUESTION
1. Calculate the energy of an electron with the mass of 5.486 x 10-4 a.m.u. Note: 1MeV = 1.602 x 10-13J.
Then energy (E) = mc2 or m x 931.5MeV [c = 3.0 x 108ms-1].
2. Calculate the nuclear binding energy and the average nuclear binding energy for lithium atom with 7
nucleons. Given that the mass of the proton = 1.00728 a.m.u.
And that of a neutron = 1.00867 a.m.u. if the atomic of Lithium =6.941
Mass of the bear nucleus = 3(1.00728) + 4(1.00867)
= 3.02184 + 4.0304 = 7.05488 a.m.u..
The mass defect = 7.05488 – 6.94100
= 0.11388.
The B.E = Δm x 931.5MeV
= 106.079MeV
The B.E per nucleon = B.E/NA
Ar
3. The experimentally determined weight of Chlorine is 35.45. if 35Cl and 37Cl weights are
34.96 and 36.98 respectively, find the relative abundance of 35Cl.
Hint: let the abundance of 35Cl be x% and that of 37Cl be = (100-x)%.
4. An element B, has three naturally occurring isotopes 1B, 2B and 3B. if the isotopes 1B and 2B occurs
with equal percentage abundances and the relative abundance of B = 2.10, calculate the %abundance of 3B.
5. 1dm-3 of deuterium enriched sample of hydrogen was found to weigh 0.10g at STP. What is the isotopic
composition of this gas.
[Vm = 2.24dm3mol-1, H =1 and D = 2] Let the % 0f 1H = x% and D = (100 – x)%. 1dm3 weight = 0.10g.
22.4 dm3 will be = xg which will be the Ar
X = 0.10 x 22.4
=2.24
R.a.m = Ar/2 = 2.24/2 =1.12g
R.a.m. = (1 x X) + (100-X) x 2
100
1.12 = X-2X + 200
100
X = 200-112
= 88%, while that of 2D = (100- 88) = 12%.
6. Compute the smallest radius of hydrogen atom, given h= 6.626 x 10-34Js, mass 0f electron = 9.11 x 10-
37Kg and electron charge = 4.80 x 10-10C [Z for H =1, n =1].
Page 64 of 88
7. Given the mean atomic mass of chlorine prepared in the laboratory to be 35.5 and assuming that
chlorine contains two isotopes of mass number 35 and 37 respectively. What is the percentage composition of
the isotopes of mass number 35?
8. For the reaction;
NH4NO2 N2 + 2H2O;
Calculate the volume of nitrogen that will be produced at STP. And 3.20g of the dioxonitrate (III) salt. [N =
14, O = 16, H = 1 and Vm = 22.4dm3]
9. What mass of divalent metal M (atomic mass = 40) would react with excess hydrochloric acid to
liberate 224cm3 of dry hydrogen gas at STP? [Vm = 22400cm3]
10. The number of atoms of chlorine present in 5.85g of NaCl is?
11. How amny coulombs of electricity passed through a solution in which 6.5A is allowed tor run for
1hour?
12. What will be the volume in dm3 of5.5mols of oxygen (Molar volume of gas at STP =22.4dm3).
13. A bone fragment excavated from archeological digging has a 14C ratio that is only 6.2% of that of the
atmosphere. How old is the bone fragment?
For a radioactive decay process;
N/N0 = t or InNo/N = t
In.100/6.2 = t [t1/2 of 14C = 5570years]
= 0.693/t1/2 = 0.693/5570 = 1.24 x 10-4year-1. t = 1/ x In100/6.2
= 1/1.24 x 10-4 x In100/6.2 = 2.7806 x 104/1.24 = 22424.35years.
14. Calculate the energy of an electron (MeV), with a mass of 5.486 x 10-4 a.m.u.
15. Lithium atom with 1 nucleon. Given that lithium has mass obtained by spectrometry =
6.941 [Mass of p = 1.00728 a.m.u, n=1.00867].
16. How much energy is required to break a single nucleus in protons and nutrons if the nucleus has a
mass of 18.99840 a.m.u.
17. A certain rock has a mass ration of / of 0.007:1.00. the is a beta emitted with a half life of 5.0 x
1011years. What is the age of the rock?
18. What are the ionization energies in Joules of He+ and B4+?
Recall that E= RHhc[ 1/n2 -1/n∞].
19. Calculate the debroglie wavelength for an electron accelerated through a potentialof 1.602 x 10-19J.
Recall K.E = 1,2mc2
M.E. = ½(mc)2 =1/2P2
P = (2ME)1/2

P = h/
Page 65 of 88
 = h/
20. What is the wavelength for a nutron from an atomic pile having the energy of 8.23 x 1021g?

21. What will be the value of the wavelength of an -particle of energy 6.84 x 10-13J. for an particle, there
are 4 nucleons.and m = 4 x 1.7 x 10-27kg
22. Which of the following are not permissible sets of quantum number for an electron in an atom?
n l m s
a. 2 2 1 ½
b. 3 2 1 ½
c. 3 2 3 ½
d. 3 2 -2 1
23. Given the frequency of convergence limit of the lyman’s series of hydrogen atom, find the ionization
enthalpy of hydrogen atom.

Frequency of convergence limit = 3.29 x 1015Hz.

Plank’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34Js

Avogadro’s constant = 6.02 x 1023

For one hydrogen atom, E = hv = 6.262 x 10-34 x 3.29 x 1015

E = 2.18 x 10-18 J

For 1mol of the H atom E = hvE = 2.18 x 10-18 x 6.02 x 1023

= 1312380Jmol-1

= 1312KJmol-1

24. Given that wavelength of convergence lomit of the lyman series of a sodium atom, find the first
ionization enthalpy of sodium atom. CL = 242nm, h = 6.626 x 10-34JS, L = 6.02 x 1023, c = 3.0 x 108ms-1

For 1mol of Na – atom, E = hvL

= hvL/

6.626 x 10-34 x 3 x 108 x 6.02 x 1023

2.42 x 10-9

=494486Jmol-1

Page 66 of 88
494.486Kjmol-1
25. given that the energy associated with the first (1st energy level) and the 6th energy level of hydrogen
atom are -2.18 x 10-18J and -6.05 x 10-20J respectively. Calculate the ΔE when electrons falls from n=6 to n=1.

26. Given that ΔE, when electrons fall from n = 6 to n = 1 of hydrogen atom is -2.12 x 10-18J. Find the
wavelength of the emitted radiation.

37. complete the following nuclear reaction

38. a radioactive isotope; looses α- particle, yielding a stable isotope B. what is the isotope

B?

39. the mass spectrum of lead is given below. Given that the R.a.m. of lead is 208.242, calculate the height
of the peak at mass number 208.

204 206 207 208

40. the mass spectrum of Neon is given below. Determine the r.m.a. of Neon.

20

20 21 22 mass/charge

If an element X, of atomic number Z and mass number Y, is irradiated by an intense concenteration of

neutrons, the relevant nuclear equation is;

Page 67 of 88
a. +

b. +

c. +

d. +
Given that the mean atomic masses of chlorine prepared in the laboratory to be 35.5 and assumed that Cl
contains two isotopes of mass number 35 and 37, what is the %composition of the isotopes of mass number
35?
The atomic number of two elements X and Y, are 12 and 9 respectively. The bond in the compound formed
between the atoms of these two elements is?
The bond and the formula of the compound formed between a trivalent metal and trivalent non metal is?
What are the possible oxidation numbers for an element, if its atomic number is 17.
Which of the following icons indicates the number of bonds that can be formed by an atom?
a) O.N. b) valency c) atomic number d) electronegativity. In the equation below, the O.N of Cr changed
from?
Cr2O72- + 6Fe2+ + 14H+ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 6Fe
a) +7 to +3 b) +6 to +3 c) +6 to +2 d) -7 to +3.
In the reaction IO3- +5I- + 6H+ 3I2 + 3H2O, the oxidizing agent is ;

a) H+ b) I- c) IO3- d) I2
MnO2- + 2Cl- + 14H+ Mn2+ + 2H2O + Cl2. The changes in O.N when the manganese, chlorine and
hydrogen ions react according to the above equation are respectively.

S2O32- + I2 S4O62-2I-
In the above reaction, the oxidizing agent is?
How many lone pairs of electrons are there in the central atom of H2O molecule?
The O.N of Cl in HOCl, HClO3, and HClO4 are respectively?
1.2 faradays of electricity was passed through electrolytic cells containing Na+, Cu2+ and Al3+ in series. How
many moles of each metal would be formed at the cathode of each cell?
Atoms of element X (with 2 electrons in the outermost shell\0 combine with atoms of Z (with 7
electrons in the outermost shell). Which of the following statement is false? The compound
formed;
a. Has formula XY
b. Is likely to be ionic
c. Contains X2+ ions
d. Contains Y+ ions

Page 68 of 88
The ions X- and Y+ are isoelectronic, each containing total of 10electrons.How many protons are there in the
nuclei of the neutral atoms of X and Y respectively?
a. 10 and 10
b. 9 and 9
c. 11 and 9
d. 9 and 11
The electronic configuration of an element is IS22 S22P63S23p2. How many unpaired electrons electrons are
there in the element?
a. 5
b. 4
c. 3
d. 2
Which of the following represents the type of bonding present in ammonium chloride molecule? a. Ionic only
b. covalent only
c. ionic and dative covalent only
d. dative covalent only.
Zn + Ag+ Zn2+ + Ag NO2 + CLO4- NO3- + Cl-
Zn + BrO3 Zn2+ + Br- Fe + CLO4- Fe3+ + Cl-
Al + Cu2 Al3+ + Cu
Al + ClO → Al3+ + Cl-
MnO4- + Fe → Fe3+ + Mn2+

Fe + ClO- → Fe(OH)2 + Cl-

I- + ClO3- → I3- + Cl-

SO32- + Ni(OH)3 → Ni + SO42-

CrO32- + Mg → Mg(OH)2 + Cr(OH)2

Atoms Number of electrons Number of neutrons Number of protons

V 5 5 5
W 5 6 5
X 6 6 6
Y 7 7 7
Z 6 8 6

Page 69 of 88
Which two pairs of atoms are isotopes?
a. V and w, x and y
b. V and w, x and z
c. W and x, y and z
d. W and y, x and z.
The avogadro’s number of manganese is the same as that of;
a. 1g of hydrogen molecule
b. 16g of oxygen molecule
c. 32g of oxygen molecule
d. 35.5g of chlorine molecule.
What volume of CO2 at STP would be obtained by reacting 10cm3 of 0.1M solution of anhydrous sodium
trioxocarbonate (IV) with excess acid [Mv t STP = 22.43dm3]
a. 2.230cm3
b. 22.4cm3
c. 224.cm3
d. 2230cm3.
If a current of 1.5A is passed for 4hours through a solution, a molten tin salt and 13.3g of tin is deposited,
what is the oxidation state of the metal in the salt? [Sn = 118.7, 1F = 96500C]. a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
How many of (H+) are there in 1dm3 of 0.5M solution of H2SO4?
a. 2.0 moles
b. 1.0 moles
c. 0.5 moles
d. 0.05 moles
How many lone pairs of electron are there in the central atom of H2O molecule a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
+X +
In the above reaction, X is a;
a. Neutron
b. Helium atom

Page 70 of 88
c. Lithium atom
d. Deuterium atom
The nucleus of the isotope tritium contains;
a. Two electrons with no proton
b. One neutron and one proton
c. Two neutrons and one proton
d. Two neutrons, one proton and one electron
The number of hydrogen ions in 4.9g of hydrogentetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is; a. 3.01 x 1022
b. 6.02 x 1022
c. 3.01 x 1023
d. 6.02 x 10-23
[ S = 32, O = 16, H = 1, NA = 6.02 x 1023]
A particle that contains 8 protons, 9 nutrons and 7 electrons could be written as;
a.
b. +

c. +

d. -

How many moles of copper would be deposited by passing 3F of electricity through solution of copper(II)
tetraoxosulphate (VI)?
a. 0.5
b. 1.0
c. 1.5
d. 3.0
[1F = 96500C]
2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-
The above half cell reaction taking place at the anode during electrolysis of dilute ZnCl2 solution is;
a. Ionization
b. Oxidation
c. Reduction
d. Recombination.
An element X, forms a volatile hydride XH3 with a vapour density of 17.0. the r.a.m of X is; a. 34.0
b. 31.0
c. 20.0
d. 14.0
Page 71 of 88
[H = 1]
Oxygen is a mixture of two isotopes and with relative abundance of 90% and 10% respectively. The r.a.m.
of oxygen is;
a. 16.0
b. 16.2
c. 17.0
d. 18.0

Chem 101 sample tutorial question

25. Calculate the energy of an electron with the mass of 5.486 x 10-4 a.m.u. Note: 1MeV = 1.602 x 10-13J.
Then energy (E) = mc2 or m x 931.5MeV [c = 3.0 x 108ms-1].
26. Calculate the nuclear binding energy and the average nuclear binding energy for lithium atom with 7
nucleons. Given that the mass of the proton = 1.00728 a.m.u.
And that of a neutron = 1.00867 a.m.u. if the atomic of Lithium =6.941
Mass of the bear nucleus = 3(1.00728) + 4(1.00867)
= 3.02184 + 4.0304 = 7.05488 a.m.u..
The mass defect = 7.05488 – 6.94100
= 0.11388.
The B.E = Δm x 931.5MeV
= 106.079MeV
The B.E per nucleon = B.E/NA
Ar
27. The experimentally determined weight of Chlorine is 35.45. if 35Cl and 37Cl weights are
34.96 and 36.98 respectively, find the relative abundance of 35Cl.
Hint: let the abundance of 35Cl be x% and that of 37Cl be = (100-x)%.
28. An element B, has three naturally occurring isotopes 1B, 2B and 3B. if the isotopes 1B and 2B occurs
with equal percentage abundances and the relative abundance of B = 2.10, calculate the %abundance of 3B.
29. 1dm-3 of deuterium enriched sample of hydrogen was found to weigh 0.10g at STP. What is the isotopic
composition of this gas.
[Vm = 2.24dm3mol-1, H =1 and D = 2] Let the % 0f 1H = x% and D = (100 – x)%. 1dm3 weight = 0.10g.
22.4 dm3 will be = xg which will be the Ar
X = 0.10 x 22.4
=2.24
R.a.m = Ar/2 = 2.24/2 =1.12g
Page 72 of 88
R.a.m. = (1 x X) + (100-X) x 2
100
1.12 = X-2X + 200
100
X = 200-112
= 88%, while that of 2D = (100- 88) = 12%.
30. Compute the smallest radius of hydrogen atom, given h= 6.626 x 10-34Js, mass 0f electron = 9.11 x 10-
37Kg and electron charge = 4.80 x 10-10C [Z for H =1, n =1].
31. Given the mean atomic mass of chlorine prepared in the laboratory to be 35.5 and assuming that
chlorine contains two isotopes of mass number 35 and 37 respectively. What is the percentage composition of
the isotopes of mass number 35?
32. For the reaction;
NH4NO2 N2 + 2H2O;
Calculate the volume of nitrogen that will be produced at STP. And 3.20g of the dioxonitrate (III) salt. [N =
14, O = 16, H = 1 and Vm = 22.4dm3]
33. What mass of divalent metal M (atomic mass = 40) would react with excess hydrochloric acid to
liberate 224cm3 of dry hydrogen gas at STP? [Vm = 22400cm3]
34. The number of atoms of chlorine present in 5.85g of NaCl is?
35. How amny coulombs of electricity passed through a solution in which 6.5A is allowed tor run for
1hour?
36. What will be the volume in dm3 of5.5mols of oxygen (Molar volume of gas at STP =22.4dm3).
37. A bone fragment excavated from archeological digging has a 14C ratio that is only 6.2% of that of the
atmosphere. How old is the bone fragment?
For a radioactive decay process;
N/N0 = t or InNo/N = t
In.100/6.2 = t [t1/2 of 14C = 5570years]
= 0.693/t1/2 = 0.693/5570 = 1.24 x 10-4year-1.

T = 1/ x In100/6.2
= 1/1.24 x 10-4 x In100/6.2 = 2.7806 x 104/1.24 = 22424.35years.
38. Calculate the energy of an electron (MeV), with a mass of 5.686 x 10-4 a.m.u.
39. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of Lithium atom with 7 nucleons. Given that lithium has a
mass obtained by spectrometry as 6.941 [Mass of p = 1.00478 a.m.u, n =
1.00887]
40. How much energy is required to break a single

Page 73 of 88
41. Given the frequency of convergence limit of the lyman’s series of hydrogen atom, find the ionization
enthalpy of hydrogen atom.

Frequency of convergence limit = 3.29 x 1015Hz.

Plank’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34Js

Avogadro’s constant = 6.02 x 1023

For one hydrogen atom, E = hv = 6.262 x 10-34 x 3.29 x 1015

E = 2.18 x 10-18 J

For 1mol of the H atom E = hvE = 2.18 x 10-18 x 6.02 x 1023

= 1312380Jmol-1

= 1312KJmol-1

42. Given that wavelength of convergence lomit of the lyman series of a sodium atom, find the first
ionization enthalpy of sodium atom. CL = 242nm, h = 6.626 x 10-34JS, L = 6.02 x 1023, c = 3.0 x 108ms-1

For 1mol of Na – atom, E = hvL

= hvL/

6.626 x 10-34 x 3 x 108 x 6.02 x 1023

2.42 x 10-9

=494486Jmol-1

494.486Kjmol-1

43. given that the energy associated with the first (1st energy level) and the 6th energy level of hydrogen
atom are -2.18 x 10-18J and -6.05 x 10-20J respectively. Calculate the ΔE when electrons falls from n=6 to n=1.

44. Given that ΔE, when electrons fall from n = 6 to n = 1 of hydrogen atom is -2.12 x 10-18J. Find the
wavelength of the emitted radiation.

45. complete the following nuclear reaction

46. a radioactive isotope; A looses α- particle, yielding a stable isotope B. what is the isotope B?

Page 74 of 88
47. the mass spectrum of lead is given below. Given that the R.a.m. of lead is 208.242, calculate the height
of the peak at mass number 208.

204 206 207 208

48. the mass spectrum of Neon is given below. Determine the r.m.a. of Neon.

If an element X, of atomic number Z and mass number Y, is irradiated by an intense concenteration of

neutrons, the relevant nuclear equation is;

e. +

f. +

g. +

h. +
Given that the mean atomic masses of chlorine prepared in the laboratory to be 35.5 and assumed that Cl
contains two isotopes of mass number 35 and 37, what is the %composition of the isotopes of mass number
35?
The atomic number of two elements X and Y, are 12 and 9 respectively. The bond in the compound formed
between the atoms of these two elements is?

Page 75 of 88
The bond and the formula of the compound formed between a trivalent metal and trivalent non metal is?
What are the possible oxidation numbers for an element, if its atomic number is 17.
Which of the following icons indicates the number of bonds that can be formed by an atom?
b) O.N. b) valency c) atomic number d) electronegativity. In the equation below, the O.N of Cr changed
from?
Cr2O72- + 6Fe2+ + 14H+ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 6Fe
b) +7 to +3 b) +6 to +3 c) +6 to +2 d) -7 to +3.
In the reaction IO3- +5I- + 6H+ 3I2 + 3H2O, the oxidizing agent is ;

b) H+ b) I- c) IO3- d) I2
MnO2- + 2Cl- + 14H+ Mn2+ + 2H2O + Cl2. The changes in O.N when the manganese, chlorine and
hydrogen ions react according to the above equation are respectively.

S2O32- + I2 S4O62-2I-
In the above reaction, the oxidizing agent is?
How many lone pairs of electrons are there in the central atom of H2O molecule?
The O.N of Cl in HOCl, HClO3, and HClO4 are respectively?
1.2 faradays of electricity was passed through electrolytic cells containing Na+, Cu2+ and Al3+ in series. How
many moles of each metal would be formed at the cathode of each cell?
Atoms of element X (with 2 electrons in the outermost shell\0 combine with atoms of Z (with 7
electrons in the outermost shell). Which of the following statement is false? The compound
formed;
e. Has formula XY
f. Is likely to be ionic
g. Contains X2+ ions
h. Contains Y+ ions
The ions X- and Y+ are isoelectronic, each containing total of 10electrons.How many protons are there in the
nuclei of the neutral atoms of X and Y respectively?
e. 10 and 10
f. 9 and 9
g. 11 and 9
h. 9 and 11
The electronic configuration of an element is IS22 S22P63S23p2. How many unpaired electrons electrons are
there in the element?
e. 5
f. 4

Page 76 of 88
g. 3
h. 2
Which of the following represents the type of bonding present in ammonium chloride molecule? e. Ionic only
f. covalent only
g. ionic and dative covalent only
h. dative covalent only.
Zn + Ag+ Zn2+ + Ag NO2 + CLO4- NO3- + Cl-
Zn + BrO3 Zn2+ + Br- Fe + CLO4- Fe3+ + Cl-
Al + Cu2 Al3+ + Cu
Al + ClO- Al3+ + Cl-
MnO4- + Fe Fe3+ + Mn2+

Fe + ClO- Fe(OH)2 + Cl-

I- + ClO3- I3- + Cl-

SO32- + Ni(OH)3 Ni + SO42-

CrO32- + Mg Mg(OH)2 + Cr(OH)2
The formula of fluorine molecule is F2. One molecule of fluorine contains 18protons. If the mass number of a
fluorine atom is 19, how many neutrons are there in one atom of fluorine?? f. 1
g. 9
h. 10
i. 18
j. 20
The table below gives the structures of five atoms V,W,X,Y and Z.

Atoms Number of electrons Number of neutrons Number of protons

V 5 5 5
W 5 6 5
X 6 6 6
Y 7 7 7
Z 6 8 6
Which two pairs of atoms are isotopes?
e. V and w, x and y
f. V and w, x and z
g. W and x, y and z
h. W and y, x and z.

Page 77 of 88
The avogadro’s number of manganese is the same as that of;
e. 1g of hydrogen molecule
f. 16g of oxygen molecule
g. 32g of oxygen molecule
h. 35.5g of chlorine molecule.
What volume of CO2 at STP would be obtained by reacting 10cm3 of 0.1M solution of anhydrous sodium
trioxocarbonate (IV) with excess acid [Mv t STP = 22.43dm3]
e. 2.230cm3
f. 22.4cm3
g. 224.cm3
h. 2230cm3.
If a current of 1.5A is passed for 4hours through a solution, a molten tin salt and 13.3g of tin is deposited,
what is the oxidation state of the metal in the salt? [Sn = 118.7, 1F = 96500C]. e. 1
f. 2
g. 3
h. 4
How many of (H+) are there in 1dm3 of 0.5M solution of H2SO4?
e. 2.0 moles
f. 1.0 moles
g. 0.5 moles
h. 0.05 moles
How many lone pairs of electron are there in the central atom of H2O molecule e. 1
f. 2
g. 3
h. 4
+X +
In the above reaction, X is a;
e. Neutron
f. Helium atom
g. Lithium atom
h. Deuterium atom
The nucleus of the isotope tritium contains;
e. Two electrons with no proton
f. One neutron and one proton

Page 78 of 88
g. Two neutrons and one proton
h. Two neutrons, one proton and one electron
The number of hydrogen ions in 4.9g of hydrogentetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is; e. 3.01 x 1022
f. 6.02 x 1022
g. 3.01 x 1023
h. 6.02 x 10-23
[ S = 32, O = 16, H = 1, NA = 6.02 x 1023]
A particle that contains 8 protons, 9 nutrons and 7 electrons could be written as;
e.
f. +

+
g.
h. -

How many moles of copper would be deposited by passing 3F of electricity through solution of copper(II)
tetraoxosulphate (VI)?
e. 0.5
f. 1.0
g. 1.5
h. 3.0
[1F = 96500C]
2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-
The above half cell reaction taking place at the anode during electrolysis of dilute ZnCl2 solution is;
e. Ionization
f. Oxidation
g. Reduction
h. Recombination.
An element X, forms a volatile hydride XH3 with a vapour density of 17.0. the r.a.m of X is; e. 34.0
f. 31.0
g. 20.0
h. 14.0
[H = 1]
Oxygen is a mixture of two isotopes and with relative abundance of 90% and 10% respectively. The r.a.m. of
oxygen is;
e. 16.0
f. 16.2

Page 79 of 88
g. 17.0
h. 18.0

Exercise III
1. Calculate the energy in joules of electron with a mass of 5.486 x 10-4 a.m.u.

Note IMev = 1.602 x 10-13J.

Then energy, E = mc2 or m x 931.5Mev.

[c = 3.0 x 106ms-1].

2. Calculate the nuclear binding energy and the average nuclear energy for Lithium atom

with nucleons.

Given that the mass of a proton = 1.0075atoms and that of a neutron = 1.08857amu, if

the atomic mass of lithium is = 6.941

Mass of the bear nucleous = 3 (1.00728) + 4(1.00826).

= 3.02184 + 4.03304

= 7.05488amu

The mass defect m = 7.05488 – 6.941

= 0.11388amu

The B.E per atom = B.E

Na

The B.E per nucleon = B.E/Na

Ar

35 37
3. The experimentally determined weight of chlorine is 35.45. If cl and cl weight are

34.ab and 36.98 respectively, find the relative abundance of chlorine 35.

Hint: Let the abundance of 35cl be z% and that of 37cl be = (100 – x)%.

4. An element B has three naturally occurring isotopes, 1B, 2B and 3B. if the isotopes 1B

and 2B occurs with equal percentage abundances and the relative atomic mass of B =

2.10, Calculate the % abundance of 3B.

Page 80 of 88
5. One dm3 of deuterium enriched sample of hydrogen was found to weigh 0.10g at s.t.[.

what is the isotopic composition of this gas?

[vm = 22.4dm3mol-1] [H =1, D =2]

1 2
Let the % of 1H = x% and 1D = (100 – x)%.

1dm3 weighs = 0.10g

22.4dm3 will weigh = xg which will be the

x = 0.1 x 22.4 = 2.24g

R.a.m = Ar = 2.24 = 1.12g

2 2

R.a.m = (1 x X) + (100-x) x 2
100

1.12 = x + 200 – 2x

100

1.12 x 100 = x – 2x + 200

112 = -x + 200

X = 200 – 112

2
X = 88%, while that of 1D = 100 – x = 100- 88

= 12%.

6. Compute the smallest radius of hydrogen ato, given h = 6.626 x 10-34js, mass of

electron = 9.11 x 10-31kg and electronic charge = 4.800 x 10-10C [Z for H = 1, n = 1].

7. Given the mean atomic mass of chlorine prepared in the laboratory to be 35.5 and

assuming that chlorine contains two isotopes of mass number 35 and 37, what is the

percentage composition of the isotopes of mass number 35?

Page 81 of 88
8. For the reaction NH4.NO2 N2 + 2H2O, Calculate the volume of nitrogen that

would be produced at s.t.p from 3.20g of the dioxonitrate (III) salt [N = 14, O = 16, H

= 1 and Vm = 22.4dm3].

9. What mass of divalent metal M (Atomic mass = 40) would react with excess

hydrochloric acid to librate 224cm3 of dry hydrogen gas at s.t.p. [Vm = 22400cm3].

10. The number of atoms of chlorine present in 5.85 of Nacl is ?

11. .How many coulumbs of electricity are passed through a solution in which 6.5A due

allowed to m for 1.0 hour?

12. What will be the volume in dm3 of 2.5mole of oxygen (molar volume of a gas at s.t.p =

22.4dm3).

14
13. A bone fragment excavated from archeological diggings has a 6C ratio that is only

6.2% of that in the atmosphere. How old is the bone fragment?

For a radioactive decay process

In N = ℷt or In No = ℷt
No N

14
In 100 = ℷt = [ t1/2 6C = 5570years]
6.2

ℷ= 0.693 = 0.693=
t1/2 5570

= 1.24 x 10-4 year -1

T= 1 x ln100

2 6.2

= 2.7806 X 104

1.24

= 22424.35 years.

Page 82 of 88
14. Calculate the energy of an electron (MeV) with a mass 5.486 x 10-4a.m.u.

15. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of Lithium atom with 7-nucleons.

Given that Lithium has mass obtained by spectrometry 6.941

[Mass of P = 1.00708amu, n = 1.00867)

19
16. How much energy is required to break a single 9F nucleus, the protons and neutrons if

the neucleus has a mass of 18.99840amu.

87
17. A certain rock has a mass ratio of Sr/87Rb of 0.007 : 1.00. The 87
Rb is a beta emitted

with a half life of 5.0 x 10-11 years. What is the age of the rock?

18. What are the ionization energy in joules of HC+ and B4+?

Recall that E = RHhc 1 - 1

n21 n00

19. Calculate the De Broghe wavelength for an electron accelerated through a potential of

1.602 x 10-19j.

Recall K.E, E = 1/2mc2

M.E = ½ (mc)2 = ½ p2

= P = (2mE)1/2 = P l2 = ℷ = l1
ℷ ℷ

20. What is the wavelength for a neutron from an atomic pole having the energy of 8.23 x

10-2g?

21. What will be the value of the wavelength of an - particle of energy 6.84 x 10-13J?

For an - particle there are 4 nucleons

M = 4 x 1.7 x 10-27kg.

Page 83 of 88
22. Which of the following are not permissile sets of quantum number for an electron in an

atom?

n l m s

(a) 2 2 1 ½

(b) 3 2 1 ½

(C) 3 2 3 -1/2

(D) 3 2 -2 1

Given the frequency of convergence limit of the lyman series of a hydrogen atom, find

the ionization enthalpy of hydrogen atom.

Frequency of convergence limit = 3.29 x 1013Hz

Planks constant = 6.626 x 10-34Js

Avogaros constant = 6.02 x 1023

For one hydrogen atom, E = hv = 6.626 x 10-34 x 3.29 x 1015

E = 2.18 x 10-18j

For 1 mol of H- atom E = hvL = 2.18 x 10-18 x 6.02 x 1023

= 1312360Jmol-1

= 1312KJmol-1

Given the wavelength of convergence limit of the lyman series of a sodium atom, find the

first ionization enthalpy of sodium atom.

ℷCL = 242nm

h = 6.626 x 10-34Js

L = 6.02 x 1023

C = 3.0 x 108ms-1

For 1 mol of Na-atom – E = hvL

Page 84 of 88
 = hcL
ℷ
= 6.626 x 10-34 x 3 x 108 x 6.02 x 1023

242 x 10-9

= 494486Jmol-1

= 494.486Kjmol-1

Given that the energy associated with first energy level and the 6th energy level of

hydrogen atom are -2.18 x 10-18 J and -6.05 x 10-20J respectively. Calculate the E

when electron falls from n = 6 to n = 1.

Given that E when electron falls from n = 6 to n = 1 of hydrogen atom is – 2.12 x 10-

18
J find the wavelength of the emitted radiation

23. It takes 7.21 x 10-19J of energy to remove an electron 37 from an iron atom. What is

the maximum wavelength of light that can do this?

24. How many orbitals can have designation of 1s, 2p and 3d.

25. What is the maximum number of electrons in the orbital that has the following quantum

numbers:

(a) n=1 , l = 0, m=?

(b) n = 2, l = 1?

(c) n=3 l = 0, m = 0?

26. Given that the frequency of converge limit of lymen series of helium is 5.29 x 1015Hz,

Calculate the ionization enthalpy of the helium atom?

27. What is the mass of 0.2 mole of CaCO3?

[ Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16]

28. Find the number of ions in 5.61g of CaCO [ Ca = 40, O = 16]

29. Find the mass in grams of 0.01mole of ZnS [S = 32.1, Zn = 65.4]

Page 85 of 88
 14
30. The half life of radioactive Carbon 6C is about 5700 years. How many years would be

required to reduce 32 micrograms of the isotopes to one microgram?

31. When 147N is bombarded with neutrons. The nitrogen nucleus capture a neutron with

the formation of 146C. what particle is expelled from the nitrogen nucleus in order to

bring about the charge?

222
32. The half life of radon 86Rn, is approximately 4 days. A tube containing 1g of radon

was stored in a hospital for 12 days. How much radon remained in the tube?

33. Complete the following nuclear reactions

27 4 30
(i) 13Al + 2He 13P +?

6
(ii) 3Li + 21H 2

55
(iii) 27Co + 0-e

24
34. A radioactive isotope, 11A, loses a B – particle yielding a stable isotope, B. what is the

element B?

35. The mass spectrum of lead is given below. Given that the r.a.m of lead is 208.242,

Calculate the height of thee peak at mass number 208.

23.6
abundance
Reactive

22.6

1.5

204 206 207 208

36. The mass spectrum of neon is given below. Determine the r.a.m of neon.

Page 86 of 88
 37.

114

abundance
Reactive

11.2

0.2

20 21 22

Mass/charge

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM:

Visible light spectrum represents a narrow part of the electromagnetic spectrum which ranges from 10-13 to

106.

Spectrometer is used to analyse spectra of substances.

Cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, UV rays, visible rays, infrared rays, microwave/radiowaves and

electromagnetic waves.

When white light passes through a prism and is allowed to fall on a screen, a rainbow of different colours is

observed. The spectrum of different colours composed of visible light of all wavelength. In the spectrum, no

separate lines are observed, this is known as continuous spectrum.

However, when hydrogen is subjected to a high p.d at low pressure and is allowed to pass through a prism,

coloured lines were observed. The hydrogen spectrum is called an emission. Several series or groups are called

line spectrum and studied and named after their predecessors.

The intensity of spectrum lines and distance between two successive decrease until they converge at a point

called the convergence limit and continuum.

Page 87 of 88
QUESTIONS

1. The radioactive decay of 206Tl to 206Pb has a half-life of 4.20 minutes, starting with 5.00 x 1022 atoms

of 206Tl, calculate the number of atoms left after 4.20 minutes.

2. The decay constant of 45Ca is 4.23 x 10-3 day-1. What is the half-life of this isotope. Express in days?

3. The decay constant of 36Cl is 2.30 x 10-6 year-1. What is the half-life of this isotope expressed in years?

4. 75Se has half-life of 120days. If we begin with 8.00g of 75Se, how many grams would remain after

240days?

5. Strontium-90 is of the product fission of 235U. This strontium isotope is radioactive with a half-life of

281years. Calculate how long it will take for 1.00g of the isotope to be reduced to 0.200g by decay.

6. A sample of rock is found to contain 14.3Ng of uranium-238 and 4.52Ng of lead-206. If the half-life of
238U is 4.51 x 10 years, what is the age of the rock?

7. A sample of charcoal from Katsina in Nigeria had a constant rate of 2.4 disintegration per minute per

gram. Assuming that the fire that produced the charcoal was lit by the artists of the renowned cave

paintings, when did these artists live? The rate of disintegration of 14C in living matter is 15.3dmin-1, t½

of C is 5730years.

dN/dt= rate= ƛNO

REFERENCES
Groos, L.M.and Wisseall, B., (1972). Principle of Physical Chemistry, British Scientific Publisher, 71-136.
McMURRRY, F., (2017). General and Physical Chemistry. WWW.e-Book. Fourth Edition, 300-467.
Olawole, S., (2003). Basic Principles of Physical Chemistry, Ibadan University Press Polygraphics ventures
Limited. 88-91 and 40-50.
Saminu, M.D., (2006). Basic Physical Chemistry For first year University Knowledge and colleges,
BalcoComputer Services, F. Block, Bayero University, Kano. Nigeria, Second edition, 112-130.

Page 88 of 88