Assignment-1 Solution

Course: B.Tech. Semester: IV Branch: Civil Engineering

Subject Name: Structural design and drawing-1 Subject Code: CE-222 Year: 2025

Q 1. What are the limitations of working stress and ultimate load methodsof RCC design. Why
limit state method is superior then working stress and ultimate load method?

Answer: The limitations of working stress and ultimate load methods of RCC design are as
follows:
Limitations of Working Stress Method:
i. Assumption of Linear Elastic Behavior: The working stress method assumes that concrete
and steel behave linearly elastic throughout the loading range. However, this assumption may
not hold true, especially near ultimate loads or under non-linear loading conditions.
ii. Subjectivity in Factor of Safety: Determining the appropriate factor of safety in the working
stress method is subjective and can vary among designers. This subjectivity may lead to
inconsistencies and potentially unsafe designs.
iii. Neglect of Crack Width Control: The working stress method often overlooks crack width
control, which is essential for ensuring the durability and serviceability of concrete structures,
particularly under environmental exposure and cyclic loading.

Limitations of Ultimate Load Method:

i. Conservatism and Overdesign: The ultimate load method tends to produce conservative
designs by focusing solely on the ultimate strength of materials without considering factors
like load redistribution or ductile behavior. This can result in heavier and costlier structures.
ii. Neglect of Serviceability Criteria: Ultimate load method primarily addresses ultimate limit
states (ULS) and may not adequately consider serviceability criteria like deflection, vibration,
and crack control, leading to structures that may fail to meet functional requirements.
iii. Difficulty with Dynamic Loading: Ultimate load method may not be suitable for structures
subjected to dynamic loading (e.g., seismic or wind loads) as it does not account for dynamic
response and energy dissipation mechanisms.

Superiority of Limit State Method:

i. Consideration of Multiple Limit States: The limit state method considers both ultimate and
serviceability limit states, ensuring that the structure is safe and functional throughout its
design life.
ii. Probabilistic Approach: Unlike deterministic methods like working stress and ultimate load
methods, the limit state method adopts a probabilistic approach, accounting for uncertainties
in material properties, loading conditions, and other factors.
iii. Incorporation of Material Non-linearity: The limit state method accounts for material non-
linearity, allowing for more accurate predictions of structural behavior, especially in the post-
elastic range.
iv. Flexibility in Load Combinations: The limit state method provides flexibility in handling
different load combinations, including dead loads, live loads, wind loads, and seismic loads,
allowing for a more comprehensive analysis of structural performance.
Overall, the limit state method addresses the limitations of the working stress and ultimate load
methods by considering multiple limit states, adopting a probabilistic approach, accounting for
material non-linearity, and providing flexibility in load combinations, making it the preferred choice
for modern RCC design.

Q2. What are the advantages and drawbacks of concrete?How is compressive strength of
concrete determined?

Answer: The advantages and drawbacks of concreteare discus below.

Advantages of Concrete:
a) Versatility: Concrete is a versatile construction material that can be molded into various
shapes and sizes to suit different design requirements.
b) Durability: Properly designed and placed concrete structures can have long service lives, as
concrete is resistant to weathering, corrosion, and fire.
c) Strength: Concrete has excellent compressive strength, making it suitable for supporting
heavy loads in structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams.
d) Cost-effectiveness: Concrete is often cost-effective compared to other construction materials,
especially when considering its durability and low maintenance requirements over the life of a
structure.
e) Thermal Mass: Concrete's high thermal mass makes it effective at storing and releasing heat,
contributing to energy efficiency in buildings.
Drawbacks of Concrete:
a) Low Tensile Strength: Concrete has relatively low tensile strength compared to its
compressive strength, making it prone to cracking under tensile loads or in situations where
restraint against shrinkage is inadequate.
b) Shrinkage and Creep: Concrete undergoes shrinkage and creep over time, which can lead to
cracking and deformation in structures if not properly accounted for in design and
construction.
c) Brittleness: Concrete is brittle, meaning it tends to fail suddenly and without warning once it
reaches its ultimate strength, without exhibiting significant deformation or warning signs.
d) Environmental Impact: The production of concrete involves significant energy consumption
and carbon emissions, contributing to environmental concerns, especially when large
quantities are used in construction projects.

Q3.State the basic assumptions used in the theory of bending as applied to limit states design of
beams.

Answer:The basic assumptions used in the theory of bending are as follows:

i. Plane Sections Remain Plane: This assumption states that plane sections before bending
remain plane after bending, albeit without deformation. It implies that there is no warping or
twisting of the cross-sections during bending.
ii. Linear Stress-Strain Relationship: The material behavior of concrete and steel is assumed
to follow linear stress-strain relationships within their elastic limits. This assumption
simplifies the analysis by allowing the application of basic principles of mechanics.
 iii. Elastic Behavior: It is assumed that the beam behaves elastically under the applied loads.
This implies that the deformation of the beam is proportional to the applied loads and follows
Hooke's Law.
iv. Perfect Bond between Concrete and Steel: It is assumed that there is perfect bond between
the concrete and the reinforcing steel, ensuring that they act together as a composite material
under bending.
v. Negligible Axial Deformation: Axial deformation of the beam due to axial loads is often
neglected in bending analysis.

Q4.What are the partial safety factors used for concrete compressive strength and steel tensile
strength? Can you guess why a higher factor of safety is used for concrete than steel?
Answer: The partial safety factors used for concrete compressive strength and steel tensile
strength are given below as per IS 456: 2000 code.
i. Partial Safety Factor for Concrete Compressive Strength (ϒc): This factor accounts for
uncertainties in material properties, variations in construction quality, workmanship and other
factors affecting the strength of concrete. The value of ϒc is usually around 1.5, depending on
the design code and the specific application.
ii. Partial Safety Factor for Steel Tensile Strength (ϒs): This factor similarly considers
uncertainties in material properties, fabrication quality, and other factors affecting the strength
of steel reinforcement. The value of ϒs is typically lower than that of concrete and is often
around 1.15.
The reason a higher factor of safety is used for concrete than for steel can be attributed to several
factors:
Material Behavior: Concrete is a brittle material that exhibits less predictable behavior compared to
steel, which has more ductile characteristics. Concrete's behavior can be influenced by factors such as
aggregate quality, curing conditions, and workmanship, leading to higher variability in strength.
Load Redistribution: Steel reinforcement can undergo significant deformation and redistribution of
stresses before failure, providing some degree of ductility and redundancy to the structure. On the
other hand, concrete tends to fail more suddenly and without warning once it reaches its ultimate
strength, without exhibiting significant deformation. Therefore, a higher safety margin is applied to
concrete to account for this lack of ductility.
Serviceability Considerations: Concrete structures are often designed not only for ultimate strength
but also for serviceability criteria such as deflection, crack control, and durability. The higher safety
factor for concrete helps ensure that these serviceability requirements are adequately met under
varying loading conditions.

Q5.Explain the terms ‘under reinforced’, ‘balanced’ and ‘over reinforced’ section in bending.
Explain which of these should be recommended in design.

Answer:
Under Reinforced Section:
An under reinforced section is one where the amount of steel reinforcement provided is insufficient to
develop the full tensile capacity of the concrete.In such sections, concrete reaches its ultimate
compressive strength before the steel reinforcement yields.As a result, the concrete fails in tension
first, typically by crushing or cracking, before the steel reinforcement can fully yield.Under reinforced
sections exhibit ductile behavior, with noticeable deflection and warning signs before failure
occurs.This type of section is often preferred in design because it provides warning signs before
failure and allows for redistribution of forces after yielding of steel, contributing to ductility and
structural safety.
Balanced Section:
A balanced section is one where the compressive capacity of the concrete and the tensile capacity of
the steel reinforcement are fully utilized simultaneously at failure.In a balanced section, both the
concrete and the steel reinforcement reach their respective ultimate capacities at the same time.This
results in a section that exhibits ductile behavior, with gradual yielding of steel and cracking of
concrete occurring simultaneously.Balanced sections are often considered optimal in design because
they utilize both materials efficiently, resulting in a balanced design with good ductility and strength.
Over Reinforced Section:
An over reinforced section is one where the amount of steel reinforcement provided exceeds the
capacity of the surrounding concrete in tension.In such sections, the steel reinforcement reaches its
yield strength before the concrete reaches its ultimate compressive strength.Over reinforced sections
exhibit brittle behavior, with sudden and catastrophic failure occurring once the steel reinforcement
yields, without significant warning signs or deformation.While over reinforced sections may have
higher ultimate strengths, they lack ductility and fail abruptly, which can compromise the safety of the
structure, especially under dynamic or seismic loading conditions.
In design, balanced sections are typically recommended because they utilize both concrete and steel
reinforcement efficiently, leading to a balanced distribution of forces and optimal structural
performance. Balanced sections provide a good balance between strength and ductility, allowing for
gradual failure mechanisms and providing warning signs before ultimate failure occurs. However, the
specific choice of section type may depend on factors such as structural requirements, loading
conditions, and desired performance criteria.

Q6.A rectangular RC beam has a width of b mm and effective depth of d mm. Derive expressions
for the following:(a) Neutral axis depth (b) Lever arm (c) Moment of resistance(d) Limiting
percentage of steel
Solution
(a) Neutral Axis Depth:
By the help of above figure

Equilibrium of forces in bending requires that at all times tension be equal tocompression,

we have

Total tension T = fstAst

Total compression C = 0.36fckbx

Where fst = actual tension in steel corresponding to the strain in steel.

Equating the two expressions.

we obtain

0.36fck b(x) = fstAt

x=fstAt/0.36fckb

For underreinforced beams, steel first reaches yield stress of 0.87f,. Substituting its value and

dividing both sides by the effective depth d (IS 456 Annexure G), we get

xu/d =0.87fyAst/0.36fckbd

where x, is the depth of neutral axis at ultimate failure of the beam.

(b) Lever Arm:

lever arm is the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the couple forming
compressive and tensile force

from above figure we obtain

LA=(d-0.416xu)

(c) Moment of Resistance:

The ultimate moment of resistance Mu in terms of steel and concrete strength can be found
bytaking moments of the tension forces about the centre of compression. Thus,

Mu = (0.87fyAst) X (Lever arm)

LA = (d-0.416x)

LA = d- ( 0.416 (0.87fyAst)/0.36fckb )

Mu=0.87fyAst(d-1.005fyAst/fckb)
which can be written for all practical purposes as given in IS 456, Annexure G as follows:

Mu =0.87fyAstd(1-fyAst/fckbd)

(d) Limiting Percentage of Steel:The limiting percentage of steel (Ptlim) is the maximum
amount of steel reinforcement allowed in a beam. For rectangular beams, the limiting
percentage of steel can be calculated using the formula

We know that

0.87fyAst=0.36fckbxu

This can rewritten as

Ast/bd=0.36fck*xu/0.87fyd=constant*fck/fy

P=(Ast/bd)X100

Rewrite the Ast/bd in term of pt we get

Pt(lim)=constant*(fck/fy)

Ptfy/fck =constant=41.3xu/d for a given grade of steel

Q7.Calculate the limiting moment of resistance for the beams having size 200×300, 200×400,
200×500, 300×400, 300×500, 300×600 using Grade of Steel Fe-415 and Fe-500.Assume M25
grade concrete and effective cover to reinforcement is 35mm.Discuss the effect of change in
beam size and steel grade.

For section 200x300mm

For Fe415 Mu = 0.138fck bd2 = 0.138 x 25 x 200 x 2652 = 48455250 Nmm

For Fe500 Mu = 0.133fck bd2= 0.133 x 25 x 200 x 2652 = 46699625 Nmm

For section 200x400mm
For Fe415 Mu = 0.138fck bd2 = 0.138 x 25 x 200 x 3652 = 91925250 Nmm
For Fe500 Mu = 0.133fck bd2= 0.133 x 25 x 200 x 3652 = 88594625 Nmm
For section 200x500mm
For Fe415 Mu = 0.138fck bd2 = 0.138 x 25 x 200 x 4652 = 149195250 Nmm
For Fe500 Mu = 0.133fck bd2= 0.133 x 25 x 200 x 4652 = 143789625 Nmm
For section 300x400mm
For Fe415 Mu = 0.138fck bd2 = 0.138 x 25 x 300 x 3652 = 137887875 Nmm
For Fe500 Mu = 0.133fck bd2= 0.133 x 25 x 300 x 3652 = 132891938 Nmm
For section 300x500mm
For Fe415 Mu = 0.138fck bd2 = 0.138 x 25 x 300 x 4652 = 223792875 Nmm
For Fe500 Mu = 0.133fck bd2= 0.133 x 25 x 300 x 4652 = 215684438 Nmm
For section 300x600mm
For Fe415 Mu = 0.138fck bd2 = 0.138 x 25 x 300 x 5652 = 330397875Nmm
For Fe500 Mu = 0.133fck bd2= 0.133 x 25 x 300 x 5652 = 318426937.5Nmm

Limiting Moment capacity is directly proportional to grade of concrete and width of beam but
it is directly proportional to the square of its effective depth.

Q8.Determine the lever arm for a rectangular beam of size 300 mm x 450 mm with50 mm
effective cover which is made up of M 25 concrete and is reinforced with 4-20 mm diameter bars
of Fe 415 grade of steel.

Solution:
Area of steel (Ast):
Ast = 4xπ/4x20² = 1256.64 mm²
Compressive force of concrete (C) = 0.36 fckbxu
Tensile force of steel (T) = 0.87 fyAst if xu ≤ xulim
From statical equilibrium, C = T
C = 0.36 fck b xu = 0.87 fyAst
0.36 x 25 x 300 x xu = 0.87 x 415 x 1256.64
xu = 167.11 mm
Also limiting depth of neutral axis (xulim) = 0.48 d
= 0.48 x (450-50) = 192 mm >xu (= 167.11 mm)
Thus,
steel will reach its yield point first i.e. fst = 0.87 fy
lever arm (z) = d-0.42 xu
= (400-0.42 x 167.11) mm = 330.48 mm

Q9.Calculate Moment of Resistance of a rectangular beam of size 400 x 650 mm which is

reinforced with: (a) 3-16 mm (b) 8-25mm. Calculate area of steel required for limiting section
also. Use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel. Assume effective cover is 50 mm.

Solution:
(a) 3-16 mm ϕ bars
D = 650mm d = 650 - 50 = 600mm
Area of steel = 3xπ/4x162=603.2 mm²
Limiting depth of NA
Xulim = 0.48d (for Fe 415)
= 0.48x600 = 288mm
Actual depth of NA
C=T
0.36 fck b xu = 0.87 fyAst
(Assuming under reinforced section so that fst = 0.87fy)
0.36x30x400x xu = 0.87x415x 603.2
xu= 50.41mm <xulim (=288 mm)
Thus, assumption of under-reinforced section is correct.
i.e. xu<xulim
Moment of resistance
MR = 0.36fckb xu(d-0.42Xu)
= 0.36x30x400x50.41(600 - 0.42x50.41)
= 126.05 kNm
Unfactored moment/working moment = 126.05/1.5 = 84.03kNm
From tension side
MR = 0.87fyAst(d-0.42x)
= 0.87x 415x 603.2(600 - 0.42x 50.41)
= 126.06 kNm
Unfactored MR = 126.05/1.5 = 84.04 kNm
(b) 8-25 mm & bars
Given: Area of steel = 8x π/4x252 = 3927 mm²
Limiting depth of NA xulim = 0.48d = 0.48X600 = 288mm
Actual depth of NA xu = 0.36fck b xu = 0.87 fyAst
xu= 328mm >xulim (=288 mm)
This section is over reinforced and f≠ 0.87fy. So limit Xu to xulim
Mu = 0.36fck bxulim(d-0.42 xulim)
Mu= 0.36x30x400x288(d - 0.42x288) = 596kNm
Mu = 0.138fck bd2= 596 kNm (for Fe 415)
Unfactored MR = 596/1.5 = 397 kNm
Area of steel for limiting section:
Astlim = Mulim / 0.87fy(d-0.42Xulim)
596 x 106 / 0.87 x 415(600-0.42x288) = 3445.9 mm²
Alternatively
Pt lim = 41.61 (fck /fy) (xulim/d) = 41.61(30/415) (0.48) = 1.44%
Astlim= 1.44/100 ×400×600 = 3465.6 mm²