UNIT- 2

ECOSYSTEM: CONCEPT, STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

Ecosystem Definition
“An ecosystem is defined as a community of life forms in concurrence with non-living
components, interacting with each other.”

What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a
chain of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was
first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
Read on to explore the structure, components, types and functions of the ecosystem in the
notes provided below.
Structure of the Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:
• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system
where the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or
decomposers).
• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms
higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
• Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be
carnivores or omnivores.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food.
Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.
 • Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain
as they have no natural predators.

• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they
help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.
Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water,
soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve the
exchange of energy.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an
ecosystem are:
• Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
• Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic
level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and
then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
• Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is
the major site for decomposition.
• Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various
forms for the utilisation by various organisms.
Types of Ecosystem -An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an
ocean, spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem

• Terrestrial Ecosystem -Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems.

There are different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological
zones. They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem - A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals
and microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment.
Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem - In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and
herbs. Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland
ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem - Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or
where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of
ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.
Desert Ecosystem - Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little
rainfall and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.
• Aquatic Ecosystem - Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water.
These can be further divided into two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes
lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain - The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy
required for all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis,
which is used to synthesise their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed
on through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and
eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the
reducers liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.

2. Ecological Pyramids - An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of

the number, energy, and biomass of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles
Elton was the first ecologist to describe the ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the
consumer level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological
pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and
secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the
quaternary consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary
consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the
same trend as the other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the
secondary consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful.
These grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mouse, which are comparatively less in
number. The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on
by apex predators such as the brown snake eagle.
In essence:
Grasshopper →Mouse→ Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle
3. Food Web - Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the
food chains within a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the
foundation of all the food chains. In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the
primary producer.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1 What is the ecosystem?
The ecosystem is the community of living organisms in conjunction with non-living
components of their environment, interacting as a system.
Q2 What are the different types of ecosystems?
The different types of the ecosystem include:
• Terrestrial ecosystem
• Forest ecosystem
• Grassland ecosystem
• Desert ecosystem
• Tundra ecosystem

• Aquatic ecosystem
• Freshwater ecosystem
• Marine ecosystem

Q3 What are the functional components of an ecosystem?

The four main components of an ecosystem are:

(i) Productivity

(ii) Decomposition

(iii) Energy flow

(iv) Nutrient cycling

Q4 Which ecosystem do we live in?

We live in a terrestrial ecosystem. This is the ecosystem where organisms interact on
landforms. Examples of terrestrial ecosystems include tundra, taigas, and tropical rainforests.
Deserts, grasslands and temperate deciduous forests also constitute terrestrial ecosystems.

Q5 What is the structure of the ecosystem?

The structure of the ecosystem includes the organisms and physical features of the
environment, including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular habitat. It also
provides information regarding the climatic conditions of that area.

Q6 Which is the largest ecosystem in the world?

The largest ecosystem in the world is the aquatic ecosystem. It comprises freshwater and
marine ecosystems. It constitutes 70% of the surface of the earth.

Q7 What is the major function of an ecosystem?

The ecosystem is the functional unit of the environment system. The abiotic components
provide the matrix for the synthesis of organic components. This process involves the
exchange of energy.

Q8 What all include the non-living things in an ecosystem?

The non-living things in an ecosystem include air, wind, water, rocks, soil, temperature and
sunlight. These are known as the abiotic factors of an ecosystem.

http://eagri.org/eagri50/ENVS302/pdf/lec04.pdf
https://byjus.com/biology/ecosystem/
https://gacbe.ac.in/pdf/ematerial/18BZO63C-U2.pdf
https://www.earthreminder.com/forest-ecosystem-types-characteristics/

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: - TYPES & STAGES

Ecological Succession Definition

“Ecological succession is a series of changes that occur in an ecological community over
time.”

The most widely accepted definition of ecological succession is as follows “ecological

succession is a sequence of changes that occur in an ecological system over time.” In simpler
terms, it can be defined as the sequence of colonization of species in an ecosystem from a
barren or an unfertile region of land. The first species to inhabit an area are mosses and
lichens. These make the region suitable for the growth of advanced species like grasses,
shrubs, and trees. Ecological succession is a very necessary type of growth and development
of a progressing ecosystem as a whole. It also ensures new areas are colonized, and
deteriorated ecosystems are recolonized so that the organisms can easily adapt to the constant
changes in the environment and continue to survive well.
The definition of ecological succession as mentioned above is discussed widely in the article,
the stages of succession are also mentioned in the article. The types and examples are also
discussed in the article.

What is Ecological Succession?

The gradual and progressive growth of a species in any given area with respect to its
changing surroundings is called an ecological succession. It is an anticipated change that
beholds the biotic components being an inevitable part of them in the environment.
Ecological succession aims at reaching the equilibrium in the ecological system. This is
achieved by a community called the climax community. To attain this point of equilibrium
constant change (increase or decrease) in the number of species is observed. The area in
which the order of communities undergoes a specific change is called sere. Each changing
community is therefore called a seral community. All communities around us have undergone
ecological succession ever since their existence was identified. Evolution thus is a
simultaneously occurring process along with ecological succession. Also, the initiation of
life on earth can be considered to be a result of this succession process.
Any area where life started from scratch by succession is termed to have been gone under a
process called primary succession. If on the other hand, if life begins at a place that has lost
all its existing life forms then the process is called secondary succession. Primary succession
is a gradual and low process because in this case, life starts from nothing. Secondary
succession is a faster process because life has already been supported in these conditions
earlier. The first species that come into existence during primary succession is known as
pioneer species.
Types of Ecological Succession
As mentioned above primary and secondary succession is the two main types of ecological
succession. The following stages of ecological succession are discussed below:

Primary Succession -Primary succession is the succession that begins in lifeless areas such
as the regions devoid of soil or barren lands where the soil is unable to sustain life. When the
planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only made up of rocks.
These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form soil. This is a process
called erosion. The soil then becomes the foundation of plant life. These plants help in the
persistence of different animals and progress from primary succession to the climax
community. When the primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place.
Secondary Succession- Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets
wiped out. For e.g., a climax community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the
devastation. This is known as secondary ecological succession. Small plants emerge first,
followed by larger plants. The tall trees block the sunlight and change the structure of the
organisms below the canopy. Finally, the climax community comes into action.

What is Cyclic Succession?

The change in the structure of an ecological system on a cyclic basis is called cyclic
succession. There are some plants that stay dormant for most of the year but emerge all at
once. This can cause structural variations in the ecosystem.

What is Seral Community?

“A Seral community is a transitional stage of ecological succession progressing in the
direction of the climax community.” A sere, or seral community, is described as the
progression of an ecological community's growth phases from the pioneers to the climax. A
climax community in the ecological community wherein the populations are stable and
coexist in harmony with one another and their surroundings is defined as the last stage of
succession, and it remains basically intact until it is destroyed by a natural disaster or human
intervention. Seral community is substituted by the succeeding community. It consists of
simple food webs and food chains. It exhibits a very low degree of diversity. The individuals
are less in number and the nutrients are also less.

Types of Seres -There are seven different types of seres, these are mentioned below in the
table below along with their meaning
Types of Seres Explanation
Hydrosere Succession in an aquatic habitat.
Xerosere Succession in a dry habitat.
Lithosere Succession on a bare rock surface.
Psammosere Succession initiating on sandy regions.
Halosere Succession starts in saline soil or water.
Senile The succession of microorganisms on dead matter.
Ecosphere Development of vegetation in an era.

Examples of Ecological Succession (Following are the important examples of ecological

succession):-
Acadia National Park -This national park faced a dreading wildfire. Restoration of the
forest was left on to Mother Nature. In the initial years, only small plants grew on the charred
soil. After several years, the forest showed diversity in tree species. However, the trees before
the fire were mostly evergreen, while the trees that grew after the fire turned out to be
deciduous in nature.
Ecological Succession of Coral Reefs- Small coral growths colonize the rocks. These polyps
grow and divide to form coral colonies. The shape of the coral reefs attracts small fish and
crustaceans that are food for the larger fish. Thus, a fully functional coral reef is formed.
Causes of Ecological Succession (Some important causes may be defined as below):
• Climatic Causes: these can be rainfall, temperature variations, humidity, gas composition,
etc.
• Biotic Causes: the organisms in a community compete to thrive for existence. Some of
them are lost in the process while some new ones are incorporated.
• External Causes: soil conditions are affected by the process of migration, invasion, and
competition amongst various species.
Characteristics of Ecological Succession (Ecological succession has subsequent
characteristics:)
• It results from the disparity in the physical atmosphere of the community.
• It is a systematic procedure of community development.
• It involves variations in species structure and it increases the diversity of species.
• Nutrient variation regulates the settlement of new communities.
• Succession operates in a stabilized ecosystem.
Mechanism of Ecological Succession - The entire process of primary succession is
accomplished through a series of progressive steps followed one after another. The different
sequential steps may be outlined as below:
Nudation: - It is a process of formation of a bare area without any form of life for the arrival
of new species. The causes of nudation may be:
Topographic: E - The existing community may fade away due to soil erosion, landslide,
volcanic activity, etc.
• Climatic: The existing community may be demolished due to storm, fire, frost, drought.
• Biotic: The community may also be destroyed by anthropogenic activities like the
destruction of the forest, the destruction of grassland, etc.
Invasion: The successful establishment of a species in a vacant area is called invasion. This
process of establishment is completed in three successive steps:
• Migration (dispersal): The seeds, spores of the species are carried to the unadorned
area by the agents like air, water, etc.
 • Establishment: The process of the successful establishment (germination and growth)
of the species in the new area as a result of adjustment with the prevailing conditions
is known as ecesis.
• Aggregation: After ecesis, the individuals of species increase their number by
reproduction and thus, are aggregated in a particular area.
Competition and Coaction:- As the species aggregate within a restricted space, there
happens competition for space and nutrition. Secondly, the life process of one individual is
affected by the surrounding species in various ways which are known as coaction.
Reaction:- The species present in an environment constantly interact with it by causing its
modification. The mechanism of the modification of the environment through the influence
of living organisms on it is known as a reaction. Hence, the existing community may be
replaced by another community.
Stabilization: - At last, a final or terminal community is established which can maintain
equilibrium. This community is known as the climax community.
Ecological Succession is the process by which the mix of species and
habitats changes over time in 5 stages. The stages of Ecological Succession
are as follows:
• Nudation: Nudation is the first stage of succession. It is the formation of a nude or a bare
area. It might result from flooding, erosion, landslide, volcanic eruption, or other artificial
or natural reasons.
• Invasion: Invasion is the arrival of the propagules or the reproductive bodies of different
organisms that can settle on the bare area.
• Competition and Co-action: Competition and Co-action mean that the population of the
invasive species increases in number within a limited space.
• Reaction: Since the organisms grow in a place, the environment molds itself under the
organism’s influence. It means that the area’s temperature, land, water, and soil change.
• Stabilization or Climax: The Climax or Stabilized stage is the final or terminal stage of
ecological succession. The terminal or final communities referred to as the climate
community, reach this stage and become more stable and stay there for a longer time. For
instance, grasslands, forests, and coral reefs.

Ecological Succession in Ecosystem

Ecological succession is essential for the healthy growth and development of the ecosystem
as it initiates the colonization and diversification of a new region and the recolonization of a
region that has been wiped out due to natural and anthropogenic causes.

Ecological Succession and Stability of Ecosystem: Succession occurs in a series of stages

which leads to the establishment of a stable and final community. The final stable community
of plants is called the Climax community.

Ecological Succession in Ecosystem

Ecological Succession and Diversity in Ecosystem: Ecological Succession provides
diversity as well as depth to a biotic community in an ecosystem. As succession is the
gateway of evolution without which life cannot grow or progress.

Ecological Succession Helps Maintaining Equilibrium in Ecosystem: A community goes

through stages of ecological succession until it reaches equilibrium. When a community
reaches the climax stage of succession the composition of the community becomes stable
thus any small changes or disturbances will be counterbalanced by other changes to restore
the original stage.

https://byjus.com/biology/ecological-succession/
https://www.vedantu.com/biology/ecological-succession
https://byjusexamprep.com/upsc-exam/what-are-the-5-stages-of-
succession#:~:text=The%205%20Stages%20of%20Succession%20are%20Nudation%2C%2
0Invasion%2C%20Competition%20and,stages%2C%20biotic%20communities%20develop
%20slowly.
https://testbook.com/articles/what-are-the-5-stages-of-succession
https://www.studyiq.com/articles/ecological-succession/

BIODIVERSITY & ITS CONCEPT

What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of the living organism present in a specific geographical region. It
includes various animals, plants and the microorganism, the genes they have and the
ecosystems formed by them.

It relates to the diversity among living organisms, including the diversity within and between
the species and among the different ecosystems they form.
The term ‘Biodiversity’ coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1985 and popularised by the
socio-biologist Edward Wilson to describe the combined diversity at all the levels of
biological organisation.
Biodiversity, besides its ecological significance provides a socio-economic and monetary
asset to the nation.
Human society depends on biological resources, their diversity and the ecosystems that
sustain them to provide essential goods and services.

Concept of Biodiversity: It has been estimated that more than 50 million species of
plants, animals and micro-organisms are existing in the world. Out of these, about 1.4 million
species have been identified so far. Each species is adapted to live in specific environment,
from mountain peaks to the depth of seas, from polar ice caps to tropical rain forests and
deserts. All this diversity of life is confined to only about one kilometre thick layer of
lithosphere hydrosphere and atmosphere which form biosphere.
Though the study of environment and ecology is quite old, the term biodiversity has been
introduced by Walter Rosen in 1986. Biological diversity or Biodiversity is defined as the
variety and variability among the living organisms and the ecological complexes in which
they occur.
It refers to the variability’s among species of plants, animals and microorganisms;
ecosystems; ecosystem including terrestrial, aerial, marine and other aquatic system and
ecological complexes of which they are part. In simpler terms, biodiversity is the assemblage
of different life forms.

If reflects the number of different organisms and their relative frequencies in an ecological
system. It includes the organisation of organisms at many levels ranging from complete
ecosystems to the chemical components that form the molecular basis of heredity. Thus,
biodiversity is sum of all the genes, varieties, species, populations in different ecosystems and
their relative abundance.

Scientists are aware of the immense potentials of various life-forms existing on the
earth. Our planet’s requirements and services depend mainly on the biological
resources. Biological resources not only provide us nourishment, clothing, housing, fuel
and medicine but also meet our several other requirements. Therefore the knowledge of
biodiversity is of immense utility in planning sustainable livelihood and conserving the
natural resources.
Significance of Biodiversity: Biodiversity, besides its ecological significance provides a
socio-economic and monetary asset to the nation. Human society depends on biological
resources, their diversity and the ecosystems that sustain them to provide essential goods and
services.

Values related to biodiversity can be grouped into three categories as

below:
Productive use:- This is assigned to the products that are commercially harvested for
exchange in formal markets and is, therefore, the only value of biological resources that is
concerned in national income. Biodiversity provides us many products, such as fuel, timber,
fish, fodder, skin, fruits, cereals and medicines. In 1994-95 the income from agriculture,
forestry and fisheries in India was nearly 30 per cent or 736.88 billion rupees.

Consumptive use:- Consumption value is related to natural products that are consumed
directly, i.e., the goods which do not come under normal circulation of trade. For example, a
significant number of such non-timber forest products as soft broom grass and cane come
under this category.

Indirect use: Indirect use of biodiversity is of much significance because this value is related
primarily with functions of ecosystem and is concerned with national accounting systems.
They may provide us indirect benefits as non-consumptive values. Maintenance of ecological
balance, conservation of natural resources and prevention of soil erosion may be considered
as the examples of indirect use of biodiversity.

Type of Biodiversity:-

A species can exhibit significant genetic diversity across its distributional

range. A notable example is the medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria, which
Genetic
displays genetic variation across various Himalayan ranges. India boasts
diversity
over 1,000 different types of mangoes and a staggering 50,000 distinct genetic
variations of rice.
Species The diversity of the flora and fauna at the species level. For instance,
diversity the Eastern Ghats have a lesser amphibian species diversity than the Wester
Ghats.
It refers to the diversity of different biological communities or ecosystems
Ecologica like rain forests, deserts, mangroves, corals etc. India, for instance, with
l diversity its wetlands, estuaries, alpine meadows etc. has a bigger diverse ecosystem
than a Scandinavian country.
Genetic Diversity: ‘Genetic diversity pertains to the range of diversity in the genetic
resources of the organisms’. Every individual member of a plant or animal species differs
from other individuals in its genetic constitution. Each individual has specific characters,
which is due to the genetic makeup or code. The genes present in the organisms can form
infinite number of combinations that causes genetic variability. Thus, we find that each
human, who is representative of the same species, i.e. Homo sapiens, is distinct from another.
Similarly, there are many varieties within the same species such as rice, wheat, apples,
mangoes, etc. that differ from one another in shape, size, colour of flowers and taste of fruits
and seeds due to the variations at the genetic level. The term ‘gene pool’ has been used to
indicate the genetic diversity in the different species (Fig. 19.2). This also includes the
diversity in the wild species, which through intermixing in nature over millions of years have
given rise to newer varieties. The domesticated varieties of agricultural crops and animals
have also evolved from the wild gene pool.

The genetic variability is essential for healthy breeding population, the reduction in genetic
variability among breeding individuals leads to inbreeding which in turns can lead to
extinction of species. In the recent decades, a new science named ‘biotechnology’ has
emerged. It manipulates the genetic materials of different species through various genetic re-
combinations to evolve better varieties of crops and domestic animals.

Species Diversity:- According to Biological Species Concepts (BSC), species is a basic unit
of classification and is defined as a group of similar organisms that interbreed with one
another and produce offspring’s and share a common lineage. Species diversity refers to
biodiversity at the most basic level and is the ‘variety and abundance of different types of
individuals of a species in a given area’. It includes all the species on Earth, ranging from
plants such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms,
angiosperms and all the species of animals including unicellular protozoans to mammals.
Certain regions support more diverse populations than others. Regions that are rich in
nutrients and have well balanced climatic factors, such as moderate temperature, proper light
and adequate rainfall, show high degree of diversity in their life forms. The tropical areas
support more diverse plant and animal communities than the desert and polar areas, as for
examples, tropical forest has higher species diversity as compared to a timber plantation. The
regions that are rich in species diversity are called hotspots of biodiversity.
Ecological/Ecosystem Diversity:- Each ecosystem consists of organisms from many
different species, living together in a region connected by the flow of energy and nutrients.
The Sun is the ultimate source of energy for all the ecosystems. The Sun’s radiant energy is
converted to chemical energy by plants. This energy flows through the different systems
when animals eat the plants and then are eaten, in turn, by other animals. Fungi and bacteria
derive energy from the decomposing dead organisms, releasing nutrients back into the soil as
they do so. An ecosystem, therefore, is a collection of living components, like microbes,
plants, animals, fungi, etc. and non-living components, like climate, matter and energy that
are connected by energy flow. Ecological diversity refers to the ‘variability among the species
of plants and animals living together and connected by flow of energy and cycling of
nutrients in different ecosystems or ecological complexes’. It also includes variability within
the same species and variability among the different species of plants, animals and
microorganisms of an ecosystem. Thus, it pertains to the richness of flora, fauna and
microorganisms with in an ecosystem or biotic community.
The richness of the biosphere in terms of varied life forms is due to the variations in the
ecosystems. The earth has a number of ecosystems like grasslands, forests, semi-arid deserts,
marine, freshwater, wetland, swamp, marshlands (Fig. 19.3) etc. each one having its distinct
floral, faunal and microbial assemblages. Ecological diversity represents an intricate network
of different species present in local ecosystems and the dynamic interaction among them. The
ecological diversity is of great significance that has developed and evolved over millions of
years through interactions among the various species within an ecosystem.

Measuring Biodiversity:
There are various mathematical ways of measuring biodiversity, which calculate the number
of species diversity in different regions. The measure of diversity of species is also known as
species richness.

Measurement of Diversities:

Alpha Diversity within a particular area or ecosystem is represented by

Diversit alpha diversity. The number of species in an ecosystem, also
y known as species richness, indicates its level of biodiversity.
Beta It is a difference of diversity between ecosystems, usually
Diversit measured as the change in amount of species among the
y ecosystems.
Gamma
It measures overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a
Diversit
region.
y
Terminology Related to Species:

Flagship Species
• A species is chosen to serve as a representative, symbol or ambassador for a specific habitat,
issue, campaign or environmental cause.
• The examples are Giant panda, Indian tiger, Golden lion, African elephant, Asian elephant
etc.

Keystone Species
• Species that cause significant changes in the abundance or occurrence of at least one other
species when they are added to or removed from an ecosystem.
• These species play a role in the structure, functioning or productivity of a habitat or
ecosystem.
• Predators like Tiger, Lion, Crocodile, and Elephant etc. are part of it.

Priority Species
• A priority species indicates a significant threat within an eco-region, and conserving this
species will greatly help in addressing the broader threat.
• It is also important to note that this species plays a vital role in the economic or spiritual
welfare of the people living in that eco-region.

Indicator Species:
• An indicator species or a group of species is selected to represent and provide information
about the condition of an ecosystem or a specific process occurring within that ecosystem.
• Crayfish as indicators of freshwater quality.
• Lichens are indicators of air quality (sensitive to sulphur dioxide).

Foundation Species
• Like Corals serve as the dominant primary producers in an ecosystem, exhibiting both
abundance and influence.

Charismatic Species
• Certain charismatic megafauna captures the attention of the general public and are often
utilized by environmental activists to promote conservation efforts that extend beyond the
scope of these particular species.
• The examples are Giant panda, Barasingha (Bhoorsingh from Kanha National Park), The
Bengal Tiger and Blue Whale are examples.

Invasive/Alien Species
• Species that occur outside their natural range and threaten native plants and animals or
other aspects of biodiversity by altering and utilising the components of the ecosystem in
which they are introduced.
• The examples are Goat weed, Calotropis/Madar, Swallow wort, Water Hyacinth,
Alternanthera paronychioides etc.

Significance of Biodiversity:
• Species of various types play important roles in ecosystems. Each organism not only meets
 its own needs but also provides benefits to other organisms in the environment.
• They capture, store, and utilize energy, produce and break down organic materials,
participate in water and nutrient cycles, and contribute to gas fixation in the atmosphere.
• Additionally, they help regulate the climate, promote soil formation, reduce pollution and
protect land, water, and air resources.
• These functions of biodiversity are crucial for maintaining ecosystem functions and stability
ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
The following is a list of the species that are unique to India and can only be found here:
• The Asiatic Lion and the Gir Forest -The Asiatic Lion, commonly known as the Indian
Lion, is endemic to only the Gir Forest National Park in Gujarat and the areas immediately
around it. These animals are considered to be on the verge of extinction. These are two of
India’s five big cats; the others are the Indian Leopard and the Bengal Tiger. India is home
to a total of five large cats.
• Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley- The Dachigam National Park in the Kashmir Valley and
the Chamba district in Himachal Pradesh are home to the Hangul, another name for the
Kashmir Stag. Both of these areas are located in Himachal Pradesh.
• The Western Ghats, and the Lion-Tailed Macaque - Only the Western Ghats of Southern
India are known to be home to this one-of-a-kind primate species, making it the world’s
rarest, most endangered primate.
• Purple Frog, Western Ghats -The only place on Earth where you can find the purple frog,
also called the Pignose frog, is in the rainforests of India’s western ghats. It burrows
underground for most of its existence.
• Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake - In addition to its other name, the Brow Antlered Deer, this
species can only be found in Manipur’s Keibul Lamjao National Park. This park is a
marshy wetland and it is situated in the southern portions of Loktak lake.
• Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills -It is an endangered species of wild sheep that can only be found
in the unique Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats.
Other species that can only be found in India include the following:
• Pygmy Hog, Assam
• Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
• Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
• Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
• Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
• Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
• Indian Giant Squirrel
• Bonnet Macaque
Endangered species examples - According to the IUCN RED List 2021, a total of 199
species in India are considered to be in the severely endangered category. There were a total
of twenty species from India that were added to the IUCN Red List of Critically Endangered
Species in the year 2021. There were fourteen animal species and six plant species. The
IUCN RED LIST is updated in two rounds: the first round saw the addition of five species,
and the second set of updates will be published on September 4, 2021. The IUCN Red
List of Critically Endangered Species now includes fifteen additional species that are
found in India. The names of these 20 Indian species have been categorised as
“Critically Endangered” on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Species in India that are on the verge of extinction;
• Kolar Leaf-nosed Large bat-like rock rat
• Namdapha The Squirrel That Can Fly
• Nicobar Hangul, also known as the Chinese Pangolin and Jenkin’s Shrew
• Andaman White-toothed Shrew
• Sumatran Rhinoceros
• Javan Rhinoceros
• Pygmy Hog
• Malabar Civet.
Conclusion - The Endangered Species Act is a statute that was evidently written by people
who had absolutely no clue about how society operates, despite the fact that it is a
wonderfully idealistic piece of legislation.
We are able to rescue species without compromising the rights of people or making a select
few individuals pay the majority of the expenditures associated with habitat protection. In
point of fact, deregulatory efforts might be the only method to rescue a great number of
species. Advocates for endangered species need to operate on two different levels to
safeguard wildlife and their habitats.
According to the findings of scientists, the greatest method to save an endangered species is
to save the unique habitats in which they can be found. It is necessary to provide wildlife
with sites where they may obtain food and shelter, as well as raise their young. The
deterioration of habitat is caused by activities such as logging, oil and gas drilling,
overgrazing, and development.

https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/general-awareness/endangered-
endemic-species-in-india/
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/biodiversity/biodiversity-concept-types-and-other-
details-with-diagram/7132
https://www.nextias.com/blog/biodiversity/
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/78642/1/Unit-7.pdf
https://theintactone.com/2023/03/08/threats-to-biodiversity-habitat-loss-poaching-of-wild-life-man-wildlife-
conflicts/

10 of the Most Endangered Species in India in 2024

CRISIS - MASS EXTINCTION / BY OLIVIA LAI /ASIA/ MAR 4TH 2024/ 6 MINS
EARTH.ORG IS POWERED BY OVER 150 CONTRIBUTING WRITERS

In the past 50 years, the planet has experienced rapid growth of human population,
development, and urbanisation, deforesting hundreds of million acres of forests across the
globe along the way. As a result, wildlife is losing more habitats and food by the day.
According to a 2020 analysis, the sixth mass extinction of wildlife on Earth is accelerating
with more than 500 species of land animals on the brink of extinction that will likely be lost
within the next two decades. As India is one of the most densely populated countries in the
world, it comes as no surprise that human activity and land development are increasing
rapidly. These are just 10 endangered species in India that are under threat and urgently need
protecting.
10 Endangered Species in India
1. Bengal Tiger

Bengal tigers account for about half of the world’s total tiger population, 70% of which can
be found living in India. Though this big cat is an adaptable animal that can live in various
habitats including forests, mangroves and wetlands, and has the ability to cope with hot or
cold temperatures, Bengal tiger populations have plummeted over the years. The animal has
been endangered following decades of persistent poaching for its skin and body parts, trophy
hunting, and severely reduced habitat from urban development. The species now live in
just 7% of their historical habitat range, with fewer than 2,000 individuals left in the wild. In
a densely populated country like India, human-wildlife conflict is also a contributing factor to
its dwindling numbers.

2. Asiatic Lion

The Asiatic lion is about 10-20% smaller than its African cousins with a larger tail tuft and a
distinct belly fold. As the name suggests, the Asiatic Lion was historically native
across south-west Asia to eastern India. But now, the species’ entire population can only
be found in India and restricted to the Gir National Park and environs in Gujarat. Listed as an
endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) since
2010, the Asiatic lion only has about 500-650 individuals left in the country. While the
animal is mostly confined to the Gir Forest, many farmers still use crude and illegal electrical
fences to protect their crops where lions often get caught up in it. Likewise, nearly 20,000
open wells dug by farmers in the area for irrigation have led too many accidental drowning of
lions.

3. Snow Leopard

Much like the Asiatic Lion, snow leopards used to have much larger habitats and prowled
across the mountain ranges of Asia. Now, they can only be found in Ladakh, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand and the western and eastern parts of the Himalayas, with population
numbers down to about 500 in India. Unsurprisingly, this drop is the result of human
interference, namely animal poaching for its pelt and body parts, and a rapid decline of prey
due to increasing domestic livestock, which depletes the high altitude pasture lands. Conflicts
between remote communities and snow leopards have also been a threat to the species, as
well as hydroelectric and mining projects, which reduces the leopard’s natural habitat. As
female snow leopards tend to produce only one to two cubs once every two years, it also
makes it harder for the species to recover its numbers.

4. One-horned Rhinoceros –
Also known as the Indian rhinoceros, this animal is mostly found in India and the foothills of
Himalayas. One-horned rhinoceros has been heavily targeted for their horns for decades,
which allegedly have medicinal properties, and killed as agricultural pests. The population is
also impacted by frequent flooding seasons, forcing rhinos to move to higher ground and
outside of national parks, increasing risks of human-wildlife conflicts. These factors have
consequently driven the population to near extinction at the start of the 20th century,
dropping down to as little as 200 animals. But with the help of strict and targeted
conservation measures, current population numbers have risen back up to around 3,700 in
north-eastern India and the Terai grasslands of Nepal, making it “one of the most successful
conservation efforts in history”.

5. Blackbuck –

Due to severe poaching – hunted especially in the princely states of India for their pelts – and
habitat loss, the blackbuck, or Indian antelope, is now one of the most endangered species in
India. In 1947, there were around 80,000 blackbucks. But that number had fallen to 8,000 in
less than 20 years. Despite conservation efforts that help population numbers go back up to
around 25,000, factors such as preying stray dogs – which India has one of the highest rates
of – pesticides and moving vehicles all continuing threats to the species. You can find
blackbucks in small herds in open grasslands, dry scrub areas, and thinly forested areas
across India, and have been introduced in Argentina and the United States to help increase
their numbers.

6. Lion-tailed Macaque –

Endemic to the small and severely fragmented rainforests of Western Ghats of South India,
the lion-tailed macaque is a recognisable monkey identifiable by its silver-white mane that
surrounds its head. Estimates place the total wild population of the macaque around 4,000
individuals, and is projected to decline more than 20% in the next 25 years should threats like
hunting, roadkills and habitat loss persist. These rare primates are mostly shy and tend to
remain in the upper canopies of rainforest, which continues to dwindle due to deforestation
and land clearing. The species’ easy access to human food is also changing their behaviours,
driving the animal to spend less time foraging for food.

7. Resplendent Tree Frog –

This mysterious frog species was only discovered in 2010 at the highest peak of the Western
Ghats, and has a striking orange hue and several big glands covering its body surface. The
resplendent tree frog is so rare that they can only be found in the Anamudi summit in Kerala
within the Eravikulam National Park. Scientists estimate that there are only about 300
remaining animals and recommend top-priority conservation for this species.

8. Kashmiri Red Stag –

The Kashmiri red stag has been listed as a critically endangered species by the International
Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) for decades and is among the top 15 species of high
conservation priority by the Indian Government. As a result, the species is now largely
restricted within a 141 sq km area in Dachigam National Park. In the early 1990s, the number
of red stags was estimated to be around 5,000 but dramatically decreased to about 150 in
1970, and around 110-130 in 2015. Habitat fragmentation, land encroachment for grazing,
and very low fawn-female ratio are attributed to be the main causes behind red stag’s
population decline. Many ongoing conservation drives are attempting to tackle these issues to
help protect this critically endangered species in India.

9. Nilgiri Tahr –

This endangered mountain goat species only has about 2,500-3,000 individuals remaining in
the wild. Much like the other animals are on the list, wildlife poaching and habitat loss has
led the nilgiri tahr to be contained within the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, covering less
than 10% of their former range. But for these mountain goats, climate change is expected to
be an even bigger threat. The animal lives in high-altitude mountainous grasslands and rocky
cliffs of the Western Ghats, and is projected to become unsuitable habitats for the goats as
global surface temperatures rise.

10. Indian Bison (Gaur)

The largest and tallest in the family of wild cattle, the Indian bison is an animal native to
South Asia and South-East Asia but one that is severely threatened by wildlife poaching (for
its meat, horns and medicinal products), shrinking habitats and food scarcity from the
destruction of grasslands. Famously the inspiration behind the branding of the popular energy
drink, Red Bull, the bison has unfortunately lost more than 70% of its population in many
parts of their range. The gaur is listed as a vulnerable species by the International Union of
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is protected by India’s 1972 Wild Life Protection Act,
which calls for the reintroduction of native plants and regulation of indiscriminate cattle
grazing around areas where the gaurs roam.

MEDIA PLATFORMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

Media play an important role in influencing the attitudes of the public towards the
environment. The media’s role in increasing environmental awareness of the population is an
enormous one as it reaches a vast percentage of India’s complex society. Following are some
common media platforms: Newspapers and Magazines: Newspapers have always been a
profound source of information about daily events with the morning cup of tea. They act as a
source of motivation, for example, when they educate farmers about introducing organic
farming, new agricultural technologies or sensitising them about the negative consequences
of pesticides, stubble burning, etc. As a result of such exposure and subsequent public
pressure, local authorities, governments, industries and other stakeholders are often forced to
rectify their practices, to strongly enforce laws and regulations, and to abandon development
projects if their environmental and social costs outweigh benefits (both organisational and
societal). Similarly, the environmental magazine “Down to Earth” covers various
environment-related topics and their scientific background. Radio: Radio is an affordable,
most common medium of information and its signals cover almost the entire nation. It is
noteworthy that the Ministry of Environment & Forests used to broadcast two weekly
programmes on the environment, “Kinare-Kinare” and “Aao Dilli Savaren” on Delhi FM. At
the national level, the news on environmental aspects is scant, and if they are broadcast, they
are most often at the regional level. Community Media: With the integration of media with
community-based initiatives, community radio and video have opened doors for the remote
population to participate and initiate dialogues regarding their regional environmental
concerns. Community media also gives them the freedom to deliberate on environmental
protection activities to conserve and regenerate natural ecosystems. Henvalvani
Community Radio (Chamba, Uttarakhand) has extensively produced programmes on
the environment and climate change in the region.

Television: Studies indicate that television, by its audio-visual elements, enables a greater
retention tendency. As a result, the government is increasingly interested in allocating prime
time slots to environmental programmes on television. Presently, documentaries that revolve
around the environment attract fewer viewers, maybe because of the academic or obscure
manner in which they are presented. Mainstream channels such as the Discovery Channel,
National Geographic and Animal Planet broadcast exclusively on endangered species and
wildlife, sea life, other ecological aspects, etc. Programmes like “Virasat”, “Race to Save the
Planet”, quiz show “Terraquiz”, “Earth” was telecast by the Ministry of Environment &
Forest in collaboration with Doordarshan. In addition, BBC’s “Earth Report” offers exciting
pieces of information on the environment. In fact, reruns of “The New Adventures of Captain
Planet” on Cartoon Network catered to children’s younger population. They sensitised them
about deforestation, pollution, poaching and other environmental hazards.

New Media: The Internet’s exponential reach and easy accessibility make it the prime
resource for the global population to seek information about climate change,
environmentalism, and how to be green and eco-friendly. Nowadays, Internet services are
more frequently utilised for environmental awareness among people to engage in public
dialogue almost instantaneously. Social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook, etc., share
news, information, and articles and are thus, most resourceful for concerned “netizens” to
keep abreast of the environmental issues. The Internet has also created spaces for
convergence of traditional media with new media to produce an eclectic and multifaceted
resource for people to gain indigenous knowledge about environmentalism. Furthermore,
with the advent of mobile applications using different strategies to provide people with a
sense of ownership of the planet, the search engine “Ecosia” ensures its users spend 100% of
its profits on planting trees on suggested locations. The following section provides
information about prominent Indian Environmental Movements, discusses the initiatives
taken by Indian media, and elaborates the functions of media advocacy for environmental
projects.
To elaborate more-
https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/EnviStats_India_2024.p
df

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/78642/1/Unit-7.pdf
https://edubirdie.com/examples/role-of-media-in-environment-awareness/
https://environmentblogs.wordpress.com/2014/08/01/medias-role-in-environmental-coservation/