P.

4 SCIENCE LESSON NOTES FOR TERM ONE

Flowering plants
- These are plants that bear flowers.
terminal bud
flower

internode

node axillary bud or lateral bud

stem

Types of flowering plants

a) Monocotyledonous plants
These are plants whose seeds have one cotyledon
Examples of monocots
- maize - millet
- sorghum - rice
Characteristics of monocots

 They have parallel leaf venation

 Their seeds undergo hypogeal germination
 They have seeds with one cotyledon
 They have fibrous root system.
 They have herbaceous stems

1
b) Dicotyledonous plants
These are plants whose seeds have two cotyledons
Examples of dicotyledonous plants.
- Beans - soya
- Ground nuts - peas
characteristics of Dicots
 They have network leaf venation
 They have tap root system
 Their seeds undergo epigeal germination
 They have seeds with two cotyledons
 They have woody stems
ROOTS
- These are parts of a plant which grow in the soil
- A true root system develops from the radicle of the embryo.
Types of root system
- Tap root system
- Fibrous root system

1. Tap root system

lateral root

main root

Root hairs

root cap

Root hairs: absorb water and mineral salts from the soil
Tap roots: Fix the plant into the soil

2
 Root cap : Protects the growing tip of a root
Lateral root: Hold the plant firmly in the soil
NB: Tap root system is the characteristic of dicotyledonous plants such as beans,
soya, peas etc.
2. Fibrous root system.
This is the type of root system where there are many roots growing randomly from
the radicle of a seed.
Fibrous roots are found in monocotyledonous plants. like; maize ,sorghum, millet and
wheat.
Illustration

Activity
1. What is a root?
2. State any two parts that make up the root system.
3. How are root nodules useful to the dicotyledonous plants?
4. Identify the use of the organisms found in root nodules.
5. Of what importance are roots to the plant?
6. Name the two parts of a bean seed that make up the embryo.
7. Why are tap roots classified under primary roots?
8. Why is maize called a monocotyledonous plant?

TYPES OF ROOTS
 Tap roots
 Fibrous roots
 Adventitious roots

3
Examples of adventitious roots.
 Prop root  Storage roots
 Stilt roots  Clasping roots
 Buttress roots  Breathing roots
1. Prop roots
These are adventitious roots commonly found on stems of cereal plants e.g. maize.
They develop from nodes near the ground level.
They usually develop during flowering stage.
Prop roots help to give extra support to the plant.

Prop roots

2. Buttress roots.
These are parts of the plant that develop and enlarge from the stem near the ground.
Illustration.

3. Clasping roots.
These are roots found on climbing plants.
Illustration

4
4. Breathing roots.
These roots grow from the ground upwards.
Illustration

5. Stilt roots
These roots are found on plants which grow in muddy areas or swamps
Illustration

6. Storage roots.
 These are special roots which store food.
 They mainly store starch.
Examples of storage roots.
-carrots
-sweet potatoes
-cassava
A. carrot
Illustration

5
B. Cassava root tuber
Cassava is propagated / planted by use of stem cuttings
Illustration

C. Sweet potato tuber

This is a swollen adventitious root.
Illustration

Note: A root tuber is an adventitious root or lateral root which stores food.

OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules from an area of low salt concentration
to an area of high salt concentration through a semi- permeable membrane.
Experiment to demonstrate osmosis

6
USES OF ROOTS TO PLANTS
- Roots fix the plant firmly in to the soil.
- They absorb water from the soil.
- Some roots store food for the plant.
Uses of roots to man
- Some roots act as food.
- Some roots are used as herbal medicine.
STEMS
The stem has the following parts;
The growing tip of a plant called the terminal bud.
The angle between the leaf and the stem called the axil.
The axillary bud which grows into a branch or flower.
A node is the part on the stem where the leaf is fixed.
An internode; the distance between two nodes.
Note: The axillary bud is also called the lateral bud.
TYPES OF STEMS
They include
 Upright or erect stems.
 Underground stems
 Weak stems.
1. UPRIGHT OR ERECT STEMS.
These stems are found on either dicotyledonous or monocotyledonous plants.
They grow straight in space.
Examples include;
 woody plants -pineapples
 Beans -maize
 Peas -soya beans

7
2. UNDERGROUND OR STORAGE STEMS
These are stems which grow underground and store food.
Examples include
 Stem tubers  Bulbs
 Rhizomes  Corms

CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDERGROUND STEMS.

 They have scale leaves.
 They have buds.
 They have adventitious roots.
A STEM TUBER
 These are swollen underground stems which store food.
 They have buds.
 They have scale leaves.
Examples of stem tubers
Irish potato

White yams

8
B. Bulbs.
A bulb is a small underground stem with fleshy leaves which store food.
A stem of a bulb does not store food.
A stem of a bulb helps in attaching all the leaves together.
Bulbs are propagated using seeds or bulbs themselves.
Examples of bulbs
 onions  garlic
 shallots  chieves
Structure of a bulb (onion)

scale leaves
fleshy leaves
axillary bud
stem
adventitious roots
FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART
Foliage leaves: These leaves make food for the plant.
Storage / Fleshy leaves: They store the manufactured food.
Axillary buds: They develop into new shoots.
Stem: It holds all the leaves together.
Scale leaves: They protect the fleshy leaves.
C. Rhizomes:
A rhizome is a horizontal underground stem.
It has adventitious roots which grow from the stem and nodes.
Most rhizomes are swollen with stored food.
The stem is the rhizomes food storage organ.

9
Examples of rhizomes
 ginger  cannalilly
 zoysia  couch grass
 tumeric
D. Corms
A corm is a short vertical underground stem.
It is swollen with stored food.
It has scale leaves, axillary buds and adventitious roots
Examples of corms
 Coco –yams
 gladiolus.
 crocus
3. Weak stems.
These are weak stems which cannot support themselves upright.
Qn: Why do plants with weak stems climb others?
 To get enough sunlight.
Groups of weak stems
Climbing stems
Creeping stems
WAYS HOW PLANTS WITH WEAK STEMS CLIMB OTHERS
They include:
1. By using tendrils
The lateral bud of a plant or the leaf tip develops into a tendril.
Examples of plants which use tendrils.
 Passion fruits  pumpkins
 gourds  cucumbe
 cowpeas
10
Illustration

tendril

2. By using hooks
Some plants have downward pointing thorns.
The thorns prevent the plant from slipping down the other plant it is climbing.
Illustration
hook

3. By twining or clasping.
Plants clasp their stems around a support.

Examples of plants that clasp.

 beans
 morning glory
 yams
Creeping stems ( runners)
These are weak stems that grow on the ground
They have nodes with adventitious roots
11
Examples of plants with creeping stems
Pumpkin
Wondering Jew
PLANT PROPAGATION
Plant propagation is the way of obtaining new plants from old plants.
Some plants are propagated by using their stems or any part of the parent plant.
WAYS HOW SOME PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED.
Bulbs (onions) : by planting bulbs themselves or using seeds
Rhizomes: by planting the stem of the rhizome itself.
Corms: by planting the stem of the corm itself.
Stem tubers: By planting the stem tubers themselves.

Plants propagated by stem cutting.

 Cassava plant
 rose plant
 sweet potato plant
 NB;sweet potatoes can also be propagated using potato vines
 Sugarcane can also be propagated by planting setts.
 hibiscus flowers
 sugarcane plant
Plants propagated by suckers
 bananas  sugarcanes
 sisal  pineapples/crown/slips.

FUNCTIONS OF A STEM TO A PLANT

 They hold the leaves on a plant.
 They hold the flowers for proper pollination.
12
 They hold the fruits for proper dispersal of seeds.
 Some stems store food for some plants.
USES OF STEMS TO ANIMALS.
 Most stems are used for timber and firewood.
 Some stems are used as herbal medicines.
 Stems are used as food for animals.

LEAVES
Leaves grow in various shapes.
Parts of a leaf
lamina or leaf blade apex
leaf margin

stomata veins

midrib (main vein)

leaf stalk
leaf base
Functions of each part
Veins: supply water and mineral salts to other parts of the leaf.
Leaf stalk: this attaches a leaf to the branch.
Stomata: allow gaseous exchange
Leaf venation.
Leaf venation is the arrangement of veins in a leaf.
Types of leaf venation
- Network venation
- Parallel venation.
NET WORK VENATION
The leaf has veins made like a net.

13
Illustration.

Net work veins

Network venation is found in leaves of dicotyledonous plants.
e.g beans , hibiscus flower, peas.
Parallel venation
The veins in a leaf run from the leaf stalk to the apex of the leaf in a parallel form.
Parallel venation is found in leaves of monocotyledonous plants like
Maize plants, millet plants, sugarcane plants, rice plants, grass, wheat plants.

TYPES OF LEAVES
1. Simple leaves
2. Compound leaves

SIMPLE LEAVES
A simple leaf is a leaf with one leaf blade and one leaf stalk.
Examples of simple leaves
 Simple serrated leaf  Simple divided entire
 Simple lobed leaf  Simple palmate
 Simple entire  Monocotyledonous plant leaf
(a) Simple serrated (b) Simple divided entire

14
(c) Simple lobed (d) simple palmate

(e) Monocotyledonous plant leaf [simple lanciolate]

Compound leaves
A compound leaf is a leaf with many leaflets.
The leaflets are divided at original leaf stalk.
Each leaflet has its own small stalk called ranchis
Examples of compound leaves
 compound pinnate leaf
 compound bipinnate leaf
 compound trifoliate leaf
 compound digitate leaf
Illustration
Compound pinnate Compound bipinnate

15
Compound trifoliate Compound digitate

Functions of leaves to plants

 Leaves make food for the plant.
 Leaves help a plant to carry out transpiration.
 Some leaves store food and water for the plant e.g. onions, bryophyllum
 Some leaves are used for propagation e.g. bryophyllum
Uses of leaves to people
 Some leaves are eaten as food e.g amaranthus.
 Some leaves are used as herbal medicine
 Some leaves are used for plant propagation.
 Some leaves are used to thatch houses.
Processes that take place in leaves
1. Photosynthesis
2. Transpiration
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make their own food by the help of
sunlight.
The food made by plants is known as starch.
“Photo” means light while synthesis means making or building up.
The raw materials for photosynthesis are water and carbon dioxide
The by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen.

16
Conditions necessary for Photosynthesis
 Chlorophyll
 sunlight
Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is the colouring matter in plants.
Chlorophyll helps to trap sunlight.
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water in form of water vapour to the
atmosphere.
The stomata are small holes found on leaves
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
 Temperature  Wind
 Light intensity  Surface area of a leaf
 Humidity

Temperature: Plants lose a lot of water on a hot day than a cool day
Light intensity: It increases the rate of water loss.
The stomata are open during day and closed at night
Wind: The rate of transpiration is very high when it is windy because more water
vapour is blown away from the leaf surface.
Large surface area of the leaf: This increases the rate at which water is lost by the
number of stomata it may have.
Humidity: It is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
High humidity, low transpiration and low humidity, high transpiration.
Ways how plants increase the rate of transpiration
 By developing many leaves
 Developing broad leaves.
17
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION
 Transpiration helps plants to absorb more water and mineral salts from the soil.
 It helps in cooling the plants.
HOW PLANTS REDUCE THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION.
 By producing a layer of wax by the leaves to cover the stomata.
 Shedding leaves by some plants during dry season
 Some plants modify their leaves into thorns e.g cactus plants.
FLOWERS
 A flower is a reproductive part of a flowering plant.
 It is where reproductive cells (gametes) are produced.
 A flower helps to produce fruits and seeds(reproduction).
The external structure of a flower

corolla

calyx

The internal structure of a flower

stigma
anther
petal

ovary ovules
sepal
receptacl
e flower stalk

FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART

Petals
A group of petals on a flower is called corolla.

18
Petals are brightly coloured to attract pollinators like birds, insects and animals.
Insects, birds and animals feed on nectar.
Petals have nectaries or nectar glands at their base.
Nectary glands produce a sweet juice called nectar.
Pistil or Carpel
The pistil is the female part of a flower
It is made up of three main parts; namely
Ovary; It contains undeveloped seeds called ovules.
An ovule is a female gamete
Stigma: It receives pollen grains from the anthers.
Style: It holds the stigma in position.
Illustration
Stigma

Style

C. The Stamen
The stamen is the male part of a flower.
It is made up of the anther head and filament.
The anther head produces and stores pollen grains.
The filament supports the anther head
Illustration

anther

19
D. Sepals
A group of sepals is called calyx.
Sepals protect the flower during the bud stage.
E. Flower stalk
It holds the flower in a position for easy pollination
POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma.
TYPES OF POLLINATION
Self-pollination
Cross pollination
Self pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the
same flower or another flower on the same plant.
Illustration

HOW THE FLOWER IS ADAPTED (SUITED ) FOR SELF POLLINATION.

The anthers and stigma mature at the same time e.g. the conifers.
The flower remains closed until self-pollination has taken place e.g. the conifers
The flower is hermaphrodite i.e. it has both male and female reproductive parts.
Cross pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of
another flower on another plant of the same species.

20
Illustration

HOW THE FLOWER IS ADOPTED (SUITED) FOR CROSS POLLINATION.

 The male and female flowers occurs on the same plant e.g. in maize and coconut
plants.
 The male and female flowers occur on separate plants e.g. in pawpaws.
 The male and female parts mature at different times i.e. the stamen may mature
first or the pistil.
The pollen grains cannot germinate on the stigma of the same flower e.g. in passion
fruits.
AGENTS OF POLLINATION
Agents of pollination are things responsible for the transfer of pollen grains to the
stigma.
Agents of pollination
Insects ; e.g bees, beetles, butterflies, moths,
 wind
 water
 animals e.g bats
 Birds e.g sunbird, humming bird.
 Moths pollinate flowers at night.
How?

By detecting the scent of flowers.

21
CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS
 They have brightly coloured petals.
 They have nectar.
 They are well scented.
 They are large and seen easily
 They have broad sticky stigma.
 They have large, rough and heavy pollen grains
 The anthers produce few pollen grains.
 The stamen have short filaments.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS.
The flowers are small and not easily seen.
The petals have dull colours.
The flowers do not produce nectar.
They produce a lot of pollen grains.
They have small, smooth and light pollen grains
They have long feathery stigma.
The flowers don’t have scent
FERTILIZATION
Fertilization is the union or fusion of the male and female gametes to form a zygote.
Fertilization takes place in the ovary of a flower (plant)
In flowering plants, the male gametes are the pollen grains and the female gametes
are the ovules.
NOTE: 1. A gamete is a reproductive cell.
2. After pollination, fertilization takes place.
3. After fertilization, ovules grow into seeds and the ovary grows into a fruit.
4. The calyx, corolla, stamen and style wither slowly and fall off.
5. In some flowers, the calyx may remain.
22
IMPORTANCE OF POLLINATION
Pollination allows fertilization to take place in farmers’ crops.
Pollination allows high yield in farmers’ harvest
USES OF FLOWERS TO MAN
 Flowers are used to get insecticides.
 They are used for decoration on various functions.
 They are used to get dye.
 Flowers are used to make perfumes.
 They serve as a source of income.

TROPISM
Tropism is the growth movement of plants in response to stimulus.
A stimulus is any change in the environment to which the plant is sensitive.
Each type of tropism is named according to the type of stimulus involved.
TYPES OF TROPISMS
 Phototropism  Geotropism
 Hydrotropism  Thigmotropism or haptotropism
 Chemotropism

Phototropism
This is the growth movement (response) of a plant shoot towards light.

23
Geotropism
This is the growth movement (response) of plant roots towards the direction of the
force of gravity.
Plant roots grow downwards due to the force of gravity.

Hydrotropism
This is the growth movement (response) of plants roots towards the source of water or
moisture.

Thigmotropism
This is the growth movement (response) of certain parts of some plants in response to
the stimulus of touch on one side.
This stimulus helps climbing plants to twine or clasp on other plants.
It also helps other plants to fold themselves when touched.
Chemotropism
This is the growth movement of plant parts in response to source of chemicals. e.g
Pollen tubes grow towards the stigma through the style towards the ovary and finally
towards the ovules.

24
This is due to chemicals in the ovules and stigma.
Summary
Tropism / response Stimulus
Phototropism Light
Geotropism Force of gravity
Hydrotropism Water or moisture
Thigmotropism or haptotropism Touch
Chemotropism Chemicals other than water

SEEDS
A seed is a fertilized ovule
Classification of seeds
a) Monocots
b) dicots
Monocotyledonous seeds are seeds that have one cotyledon
Examples of monocotyledonous seeds
- maize - barley
- millet - rice
- sorghum
A structure of maize grain
style scar

endosperm plumule

testa cotyledon
radicle

stalk scar

b) Dicotyledonous seeds
- These are seeds that have two cotyledons.
25
 Examples include
- beans - soya
- peas - ground nuts
A structure of a bean seed

testa plumule
radicle
hilum
micropyle

cotyledon

Functions of each part

1. Plumule – develops into short system
2. Radicle – develops into root system
3. Testa – protects the internal parts from damage.
4. Cotyledon- It stores food for the seed.
Cotyledon (maize) absorbs food nutrients from the endosperm and supply it to the
embryo.
5. Endosperm stores food for the embryo
6. Micropyle – lets in water and air into the seed during germination
7. Hilum – it is a scar to which the seed /grain was attached

Seed Germination
- Germination is the development of a seed embryo into a young plant.
- A seedling is a young plant
Types of germination
 Epigeal germination
This is the type in which the cotyledon comes out of the ground.

26
A bean seed

Steps under gone by a seed during germination

- The seed absorbs water and swells
- The radicle grows and pushes through the testa
- The radicle grows down wards and it is protected by the root cap
- Root hairs absorb water and mineral salts
 Hypogeal germination
This is type of germinations in which a cotyledon remains under ground.

A maize grain

Condition for germination

- Water
- Warmth
- Oxygen
GROWING CROPS
Groups of crops (catergories of crops)
- Annual crops
- perennial crops
27
- Biennial crops
a) Annual crops: These are crops which mature and harvested within one year.
Examples of annual crops
- sun flower - peas
- sorghum - maize
- beans - ground nuts
b) Perennial crops: These are crops that are harvested year after year.
Examples of perennial crops
- coffee crop - tea crop - banana crop

Garden tools
These are tools used by farmers to carry out garden activities.
Common garden tools and their uses
- Panga – used for clearing bush, harvesting, cutting small branches
- Hoe – used for weeding, digging
- Forked hoe – for digging stony soil, removing roots of weeds in the garden
- Rake – for levelling soil, collecting grass, spreading manure
- Trowel – for transplanting seedlings
- An axe – used for cutting big trees
- Watering can – for watering or irrigating crops
- Wheel barrow – for transporting harvested crops
Caring for garden tools
- storing garden tools in clean dry places
- painting garden tools
- cleaning them after use

CROP GROWING PRACTICES

- Clearing land: This is the first stage in a food path.
- Clearing land is done with the following tools
28
  hoe  panga
 ox-plough  axe
- ploughing land
 It is done using a tractor, ox-plough, hoes, and forked hoe.
 Ploughing the land is done to make the soil loose and soft
 It makes the soil aerated
- Planting
 This refers to putting seeds in holes and covering with soil.
Methods of planting
 Row planting. This is the planting of seeds in holes in a line.
 Broadcasting. This is the planting of seeds by throwing them using the hand in a
garden.

Crop growing practices.

a) Weeding is the removal of plants from an area where they are not wanted.
Examples of weeds.
- nut grass - timothy grass
- couch grass
- spear grass
Dangers of weeds.
- They compete with crops for water and mineral salts
- Weeds are hiding places for crop pests.
- Weeds reduce space for crops to grow.
- Weeds lower crop yields.
Uses of weeds.
- For feeding some farm animals
- For thatching houses
29
- For mulching
Ways of controlling weeds.
- By uprooting and burning them - By spraying with herbicides
- By mulching - By cutting and burning them
b) Thinning.
Thinning is the removal of excess seedlings in the garden
Advantages of thinning crops
- It creates space for crops to grow
- It makes weeding easy
- It prevents overcrowding in seedlings
- It reduces competition for soil nutrients among plants.
Commonly thinned crops
- cotton - millet
- sunflower - maize
- banana
c) Mulching
- Mulching is the covering of top soil with dry plant materials in the garden.
Examples of mulches
- Dry banana leaves - Dry grass
- Dry maize stalks
Advantages of mulching
- Mulching keeps moisture in the soil
- Mulching controls soil erosion
- Mulching adds humus in the soil making it fertile
- Mulching controls growth of weeds
NB; how does mulching conserve soil moisture?
Mulching prevents direct sun rays from reaching the soil to cause evaporation.
How does mulching improve soil fertility?

30
Mulches rote and form humus.
How does mulching control soil erosion?
By reducing the speed of running water.
Disadvantages of mulching
- Mulches can easily catch fire and burn crops.
- Mulches are hiding places for crop pests e.g. rats.
- Some mulches can turn into weeds
d) Pruning
- Pruning is the removal of unwanted parts of a plant.
Garden tools used for pruning
- secateurs
- pruning saw
- shears
The main garden tool used for pruning
is called secateur
Reasons why crop farmers prune their crops
- To remove hiding places for crop pest
- To make harvesting easy
- To give space for weeding and spraying
- To reduce the weight of the plant
Plants which are pruned include
- orange plant - coffee plant
- banana plant - lemon plant
- tomato plant

31
Secateurs
CROP HARVESTING
- Harvesting is the collection of mature crops from the garden
- Harvesting is usually done in the dry season.a
Reason; there is enough sunshine to dry harvested crops.
Methods of crop harvesting
- By uprooting using hands e.g. soya beans, beans, ground nuts
- By cutting using a panga e.g. sugar cane, bananas
- By digging out using a hoe e.g. cassava, sweet potatoes
- By picking using hands e.g. coffee, tomatoes, oranges
Storage
- This is the keeping of surplus food safely after harvesting
- Seeds and cereals after sun drying them, should be stored properly
- Other foods like cassava are sundried after harvesting to prevent them from rotting.
- The storage facility should be free from storage pests like rats, bean weevils etc

A storage facility (granary)

rat guards

Reasons for storing food.

- To prevent wastage of food
- To sell it when there is good market
- To get what to eat in the dry season
- To keep some for planting in the next season
32
Conditions for proper storage of food
- The seeds or grains should be stored when they are dry
- Stores should be well ventilated
- The roofs of stores should not leak
NB; rat guards prevent rats from entering into the granary
Record keeping
- This is a practice where a farmer writes down all the activities done on the farm
Reasons why crop farmers keep records
- They enable a crop farmer to calculate profits and losses
- They enable a crop farmer to plan for his farm
- Records can be used to get a loan from the bank
- they are kept for future use
- Records enable the farmers to be taxed fairly by the government.

Crop pests
- A crop pest is a living organism which destroys crops
- They include: animals, birds, insects etc
Dangers of crop pests
- They reduce crop yields
- They lower the quality of crop yields
Signs of pest damage on crops
- Some leaves are partly eaten up or have holes
- Fruits develop dark spots
- Cut off buds
- Seeds with holes
- Rotten tubers
- Stunted growth.

33
Pests of leguminous crops
Beans - Bean fly
- American ball worm
- bean aphid
- bean bruchids
- Cut worms
- bean weevil
Ground nuts - millipedes
- thrips
- ants
- termites
- Aphids
- squirrels
Cow peas - pod borer
- blossom beetles
- thrips
- pod sucking insects
Pests for root tubers
Cassava - cassava white fly
- rats
- mice
- squirrels
Sweet potatoes - sweet potato weevils
- caterpillars
- rats

34
Pests for cereal crops
Maize - maize stalk borer
- maize weevils
- monkeys
Rice - weaver birds
- locusts

How to control crop pests

- By spraying crops with pesticides - By practising crop rotation
- By putting scare crows in the garden. - By weeding regularly
- By using traps
Crop diseases
Cassava Cassava mosaic
Cassava streak
Cotton Leaf spot
Maize Maize streak
Tomato Tomato blight
G.nut Rosette
Banana Bacterial banana wilt
Cigar endrot
Panama disease

WEATHER CHANGES AROUND US

- Weather is the daily condition of the atmosphere of a place at a given time
Conditions of weather
- sunny - cloudy
- windy - rainy
Elements of weather
 temperature
35
  humidity
 cloud cover
 sunshine
 Rainfall
- sunshine
The amount of sunshine shone is measured using a sunshine recorder

frame for sensitive paper

glass ball

campbell’s sunshine recorder

Advantages/uses of sunshine
- Heat from the sun dries our wet clothes.
- It helps in the formation of rain
- it dries our harvested crops.
- It helps to kill some germs
Disadvantages of too much sunshine
- It makes water bodies to dry.
- It makes plants to dry in the garden.
Wind
Wind is moving air.
Wind vane is used to show the direction of wind.
Anemometer is used to measure the speed of wind.
Windsock is used to measure the strength of wind.

Advantages of wind
 It helps in pollination  It helps in the formation of rain.
 It aids winnowing  It helps to dry wet clothes.
36
 Wind helps in seed dispersal
Disadvantages of wind
 Wind spreads germs that cause diseases.
 Strong wind throws down houses, buildings and trees.
 Strong wind causes storms on land and on water bodies.

Rainfall
Rain is the water falling in separate drops from the clouds.
Rainfall is the amount of rain water that falls in a certain area at a certain time.

Types of rainfall
 Convectional rainfall.
 Cyclonic rainfall.
 Relief rainfall
Rainfall is measured by an instrument called a rain gauge.
Illustration

funnel
directs water into the
bottle

metallic container protects

the delicate parts of a rain
gauge
measuring cylinder
measuring cylinder

1. Why is a rain gauge put in an open place?

- To prevent obstruction of rain drops.
2. Why is a rain gauge raised off the ground?
To prevent running water from entering in the rain gauge.
3. Why is rain fall measured in millimeters?
37
- To know how deep rain water has entered the ground

IMPORTANCE OF RAINFALL
 Rain is the main source of water.
 It provides water for plant growth.
DISADVANTAGES OF RAIN
 Too much rainfall destroys crops.
 It leads to floods.
 Construction of roads, house becomes difficulty.
 It destroys property.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a place or body.
Temperature is measured using a thermometer
A thermometer has the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
Types of thermometers
 Clinical thermometer
 Minimum and maximum thermometer (six’s thermometer)
 Wall thermometer
 Ordinary scientific thermometer
Clinical thermometer
It is used to measure the temperature of a human body.
It can be placed in the following places;
 in the armpits
 in the anus
 in the vagina
 in the mouth under the tongue

38
Diagram of a clinical thermometer.
mercury

kink bore stem

bulb

Kink: It prevents the back flow of mercury

WATER CYCLE
This is a way by which rain is formed.
Processes involved in the water cycle.
 Evaporation
 Transpiration
 Condensation
Diagram showing a water cycle
sun condensationC

rain

evaporation

water E

w
C – Condensation
E – Evaporation
T – Transpiration
W – Water body (lake or river)
Nimbus clouds provide us with rain.
Steps in the water cycle.
-The sun heats the water body and plants.
-Evaporation and transpiration occur. (Evapotranspiration).

39
-Water vapour condenses to form clouds.
-When clouds are heavy, they fall as rain by gravity.
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.
- A hygrometer is used to measure humidity.

Clouds
Clouds are made up of many droplets of water vaopour in the atmosphere
Types of clouds
- Nimbus-nearest
- Cumulus - Cirrus-farthest
- Cumulo nimbus - stratus
Weather station
- Is a place where weather conditions are measured and recorded?
Weather forecasting
This is the predicting of weather changes.
-It is done by meteorologists.
-The study of weather changes is called meteorology.
The importance of weather forecasting.
-It helps farmers to plan for their farming activities.
-It helps travelers to know the type of clothes to wear.
Stevenson screen
-It’s where delicate weather instruments are kept.
Examples of delicate weather instruments.
- barometer
- hygrometer
- six’s thermometer
1. Why is a Stevenson screen painted white?
40
 -To reflect heat.
2. Of what importance are louvres on a Stevenson screen?
Louvres allow in free circulation of air

PERSONAL HYGIENE
- General cleanliness of the body and things used on it
Activities done in personal hygiene
- bathing daily - washing hands
- cutting long finger nails short - washing the face
- Brushing teeth. -
ironing clothes
Items used for keeping our bodies clean
- bathing sponge - toothbrush
- water - nail cutter
- tooth paste - towel
- comb - soap
Reasons for keeping our body clean
- To prevent bad body smell.
- To remove germs from the body.
- To remove dirt on the body.
Ways of keeping our bedding and clothes clean
- washing them clean
- drying and ironing them
- keeping them in dust free areas
Reasons of keeping beddings and clothing clean
- To prevent bad smell
- To prevent parasites such as lice, bed bugs from breeding in them.
41
- To reduce the spread of germs.
Diseases spread through poor personal hygiene
-trachoma
-scabies
- Conjunctivitis
- Cholera
- Ringworm infection

42