Copyright © 2023 Wisdom K. Dogah.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any

means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic

or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission

of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations

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commercial uses permitted by copyright law.

For permission requests, please contact the publisher.

Email: [email protected].

1
This book is a work of non- fiction. Names, characters, places,

and incidents are the product of the author's imagination or

are used fictitiously. Any resemblance to actual events,

locales, or persons, living or dead, is entirely coincidental.

Cover design by ByteBuilders

Printed in Ghana

First Edition: 2024

Preface:
2
Welcome to BioQuest, a comprehensive resource designed to

equip you with the essential biology strategies for excelling in

the National Science and Maths Quiz (NSMQ) in Ghana. This

book is crafted specifically for ambitious students seeking to

master the intricacies of biology and translate their

knowledge into NSMQ success.

The NSMQ presents a unique challenge, demanding a deep

understanding of biological concepts alongside the ability to

apply that knowledge in a fast-paced, competitive

environment. BioQuest recognizes this challenge and

provides a roadmap to navigate it effectively.

Within these pages, you will find:

• Clear and concise explanations: Complex biological

concepts are presented in a clear and accessible manner,

making them easy to grasp and retain.

3
 • NSMQ-specific strategies: We delve into the specific

approaches and techniques that have proven successful

in tackling NSMQ biology questions.

• Practice questions and challenges: Test your

understanding with a diverse range of practice

questions, designed to mirror the format and difficulty

level of the NSMQ.

• Expert insights: Gain valuable guidance from

experienced educators and NSMQ champions who share

their insights and strategies.

BioQuest is not simply a textbook; it's a training manual for

aspiring NSMQ champions. We believe that with dedication,

effective study strategies, and the comprehensive knowledge

provided within this book, you can achieve your full potential

in the NSMQ biology arena.

4
This is your invitation to embark on a journey of scientific

discovery and conquer the exciting world of NSMQ biology.

Let BioQuest be your trusted companion on this path to

excellence.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the following

individuals who have been instrumental in the completion of

this book, "BioQuest."

First and foremost, I am deeply thankful to Cyril Mifetu for his

unwavering support and invaluable insights throughout the

5
entire process. His expertise and encouragement have been

indispensable.

I am also grateful to Nyuiefe Nathaniel for his dedicated

assistance and thoughtful feedback. His contributions have

greatly enhanced the quality of this work.

A special thank you goes to my family for their constant love,

patience, and encouragement. Their belief in me has been a

source of great motivation.

Thank you all for being a part of this journey.

6
Contents
CHAPTER 1: TECHNIQUES FOR ANSWERING TRUE OR FALSE ..................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 2: BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 3: SCIENTISTS AND THEIR INVENTIONS ..................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 4: AMINO ACIDS ......................................................................................................................... 62
Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins .................................................................................... 62
SAMPLE CONTEST QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER 5: ENZYMES................................................................................................................................. 83
CHAPTER 6: HORMONES .......................................................................................................................... 108
SAMPLE CONTEST QUESTION ........................................................................................................... 130
CHAPTER 7: THE BRAIN ............................................................................................................................ 181
CHAPTER 8: NEUROTRANSMITTERS ......................................................................................................... 196
Messengers of the Nervous System ................................................................................................ 196
CHAPTER 9: VITAMINS.............................................................................................................................. 257
CHAPTER 10: CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS ..................................................................... 262
CHAPTER 11: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM .............................................................................................. 269
Your Body's Communication Network ............................................................................................ 269
CHAPTER 12: BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION ..................................................................................... 275
CHAPTER 13: RESPIRATION ...................................................................................................................... 276
The Cellular Energy Engine ............................................................................................................. 276
CHAPTER 14: EVOLUTION ......................................................................................................................... 282
The Driving Force of Biodiversity .................................................................................................... 282
SAMPLE CONTEST QUESTIONS ......................................................................................................... 287
CHAPTER 15: GENERAL KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS .................................................................................. 331

7
CHAPTER 1: TECHNIQUES FOR ANSWERING TRUE OR FALSE

Understanding the Question:

• Read Carefully: Don't rush! Take a moment to fully

understand the statement. Look for keywords like

"always," "never," or "all" that might indicate absolutes

which are more likely to be false.

• Break it Down: Can you rephrase the statement in

simpler terms? This can help identify any hidden

assumptions or misleading wording.

Analyzing the Statement:

8
 • Scientific Facts: For science questions, rely on your

knowledge of scientific principles. Is the statement

consistent with what you've learned?

• Logical Reasoning: Use logic to evaluate the statement.

Does the cause-and-effect relationship make sense? Are

there any illogical jumps?

• Identify Extremes: Often, extreme statements ("always,"

"never") are more likely to be false than moderate ones

("sometimes," "may").

Using Strategic Techniques:

• If in Doubt, Pass: NSMQ penalizes wrong answers. If

you're unsure, strategically choose to pass and let the

other team answer.

• Turn it Around: Can you rephrase the statement into its

opposite? If the opposite is obviously true, then the

9
 original statement must be false (and vice versa). This

can be a quick check for some questions.

Remember:

• NSMQ Past Papers: Review past True/False questions

from the NSMQ. This will familiarize you with the format

and question style.

• Practice Makes Perfect: Do practice questions under

timed conditions to build speed and accuracy.

By applying these techniques and practicing regularly, you

can improve your chances of tackling True/False questions

confidently in the NSMQ!

10
CHAPTER 2: BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY

Core Branches:

1. Anatomy: Studies the structure and organization of living

organisms.

2. Biochemistry: Investigates the chemical processes within

living organisms.

11
3. Cell Biology: Examines the structure and function of cells,

the fundamental units of life.

4. Genetics: Investigates the study of genes and heredity.

5. Physiology: Examines the functioning of living organisms

and their organs.

12
Sub-Branches:

6. Astrobiology (Exobiology): Studies the possibility of life

on other planets and its potential conditions.

7. Bacteriology: Focuses on the study of bacteria.

8. Biogeography: Explores the geographic distribution of

plants and animals.

13
9. Botany: Studies plants, including their structure,

physiology, and evolution.

10. Chronobiology: Investigates biological rhythms and

their relationship with environmental cycles.

11. Developmental Biology: Studies the processes of

growth and development in organisms.

14
12. Ecology: Studies the interactions between

organisms and their environment.

13. Embryology: Focuses on the development of

embryos.

14. Endocrinology: Studies hormones and their effects

on the body.

15
15. Entomology: Studies insects and other arthropods.

16. Evolutionary Biology: Explores the origin and

diversification of life over time.

17. Herpetology: Studies reptiles and amphibians.

18. Ichthyology: Focuses on the study of fish.

16
19. Immunology: Studies the immune system and its

response to foreign invaders.

20. Limnology: Studies freshwater ecosystems.

21. Marine Biology: Focuses on the study of life in the

oceans and other marine environments.

17
22. Microbiology: Investigates microorganisms like

bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

23. Molecular Biology: Explores biological processes at

the molecular level.

24. Mycology: Focuses on the study of fungi.

18
25. Paleontology: Studies fossils and the history of life

on Earth.

26. Parasitology: Investigates the study of parasites and

their relationships with their hosts.

27. Plant Pathology: Studies plant diseases and their

causes.

19
28. Primatology: Focuses on the study of primates.

29. Radiobiology: Investigates the effects of radiation

on living organisms.

30. Structural Biology: Determines the three-

dimensional structures of biological molecules.

20
Specialized Branches:

31. Actinobiology: Studies the effects of radiation on

living organisms.

32. Aerobiology: Studies airborne organisms,

spores,etc.

21
33. Agrobiology: Investigates plant growth and nutrition

in relation to agriculture.

34. Bioarchaeology: Analyzes human and animal

remains from archaeological sites.

35. Bioengineering: Applies engineering principles to

biological systems.

22
36. Biophysics: Combines physics and biology to

understand biological systems at the molecular and

cellular level.

37. Biostatistics: Applies statistical methods to analyze

biological data.

38. Ethology: Studies animal behavior.

23
39. Forensic Entomology: Applies entomology

knowledge to legal investigations.

40. Conservation Biology: Focuses on the conservation

of biodiversity and ecosystems.

41. Histology: Studies the microscopic structure of

tissues.

24
42. Human Biology: Focuses on the biology of the

human species, including anatomy, physiology, and

genetics.

43. Limnology: Investigates freshwater ecosystems and

their organisms.

25
44. Mammalogy: Studies mammals and their

characteristics.

45. Marine Biology: Explores life in the oceans and other

marine environments.

46. Mycology: Focuses on the study of fungi, including

their structure, physiology, and ecological roles.

26
47. Nematology: Investigates roundworms and their

biology.

48. Neurobiology: Studies the nervous system, including

the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

49. Ornithology: Focuses on the study of birds.

27
50. Paleobotany: Studies fossil plants and their

evolution.

51. Paleontology: Investigates fossils and the history of

life on Earth.

52. Parasitology: Studies parasites and their

relationships with their hosts.

28
53. Pathology: Investigates the causes, processes, and

effects of diseases.

54. Pharmacology: Studies the effects of drugs on living

organisms.

55. Photobiology: Investigates the interactions between

light and living organisms.

29
56. Phycology: Focuses on the study of algae.

57. Plant Pathology: Studies plant diseases and their

causes.

58. Population Biology: Investigates the dynamics and

characteristics of populations.

30
59. Radiobiology: Studies the effects of radiation on

living organisms.

60. Systematics: Classifies and organizes living

organisms based on their evolutionary relationships.

61. Taxopathy: Studies the classification and naming of

diseases.

31
62. Teratology: Investigates the causes and

development of congenital malformations.

63. Toxicology: Studies the effects of poisons and toxins

on living organisms.

64. Virology: Focuses on the study of viruses and their

interactions with host organisms.

32
 65. Zoology: Studies the animal kingdom, including

their anatomy, behavior, and evolution.

Specialized Branches:

66. Agrostology: Focuses on the study of grasses and

their management.

33
67. Aquatic Biology: Studies life in aquatic

environments, including freshwater and marine

ecosystems.

68. Behavioral Ecology: Investigates the ecological and

evolutionary basis of animal behavior.

34
69. Bioinformatics: Applies computer science and

computational tools to analyze biological data.

70. Biometrics: Uses biological measurements for

identification and authentication purposes.

71. Biotechnology: Applies biological knowledge and

technology to develop products and processes, including

35
 pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and genetically modified

organisms.

72. Cancer Biology: Focuses on the study of cancer, its

causes, development, and treatment strategies.

73. Chronobiology: Investigates biological rhythms and

their relationship with environmental cycles.

36
74. Comparative Anatomy: Compares the anatomical

structures of different organisms to understand their

evolutionary relationships.

75. Developmental Genetics: Studies the role of genes

in development and differentiation.

37
76. Ecological Genetics: Investigates the genetic basis of

adaptation and population dynamics in ecological

contexts.

77. Epidemiology: Studies the patterns, causes, and

control of diseases in populations.

38
78. Ethnobotany: Studies the relationship between

humans and plants, including their uses in medicine,

food, and culture.

79. Ethnozoology: Investigates the relationship between

humans and animals, including their uses in food,

clothing, and cultural practices.

80. Evolutionary Developmental Biology (Evo-Devo):

Studies how developmental processes have evolved over

time and their influence on the diversity of life.

39
Major Specialties:

81. Anesthesiology: Manages pain and administers

anesthesia during surgery and procedures.

82. Cardiology: Deals with heart and blood vessel

diseases.

83. Dermatology: Addresses skin, hair, and nail

disorders.

84. Emergency Medicine: Provides immediate care for

critical and life-threatening conditions.

40
85. Family Medicine: Offers comprehensive healthcare

for individuals and families across all age groups.

86. Internal Medicine: Deals with non-surgical diseases

affecting various organ systems in adults.

87. Neurology: Focuses on the nervous system,

including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

88. Obstetrics and Gynecology: Provides care for

women during pregnancy, childbirth, and reproductive

health.

41
89. Ophthalmology: Deals with the diagnosis and

treatment of eye diseases.

90. Pediatrics: Focuses on the health and well-being of

children from birth to adolescence.

91. Psychiatry: Deals with mental, emotional, and

behavioral disorders.

92. Radiology: Utilizes medical imaging techniques for

diagnosis and treatment.

42
 93. Surgery: Involves performing surgical procedures to

treat various medical conditions.

Additional Specialties:

94. Allergy and Immunology: Deals with allergies,

asthma, and immune system disorders.

95. Endocrinology: Focuses on hormonal imbalances

and diseases related to glands.

96. Gastroenterology: Addresses diseases of the

digestive system.

43
97. Nephrology: Deals with kidney function and

diseases.

98. Oncology: Studies and treats cancer.

99. Orthopedics: Focuses on the musculoskeletal

system, including bones, joints, and muscles.

100. Otolaryngology: Deals with the ear, nose, and

throat.

44
101. Pathology: Analyzes tissues and fluids to diagnose

diseases.

102. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation: Helps patients

regain function and independence after injuries or

illnesses.

103. Pulmonology: Focuses on the respiratory system

and lung diseases.

104. Infectious Disease: Deals with the diagnosis,

treatment, and prevention of infectious diseases.

45
105. Rheumatology: Focuses on diseases affecting joints,

muscles, and bones.

106. Urology: Deals with the urinary tract and male

reproductive system.

107. Plastic Surgery: Performs reconstructive and

cosmetic procedures.

108. Maxillofacial Surgery: Deals with the jaw, face, and

associated structures.

46
109. Neurological Surgery: Operates on the brain, spinal

cord, and nervous system.

110. Palliative Care: Focuses on improving the quality of

life for patients with serious or terminal illnesses.

47
CHAPTER 3: SCIENTISTS AND THEIR INVENTIONS

Genetics:

• Gregor Mendel (1822-1884):

Considered the "Father of Genetics," Mendel's experiments

with pea plants laid the foundation for understanding the

principles of inheritance, including dominance, recessiveness,

and segregation.

• James Watson (born 1928)

48
 And

• Francis Crick (1911-2004):

Their discovery of the double helix structure of DNA in

1953 revolutionized our understanding of genetics and

heredity.

49
• Barbara McClintock (1902-1992):

• Discovered transposable elements ("jumping genes") and

their role in gene regulation, a significant contribution to

understanding gene expression.

50
Evolution:

• Charles Darwin (1809-1882):

• Proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in

his book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859. This theory

established that all living organisms share a common

ancestor and have evolved over time through natural

selection.

51
Microbiology:

• Alexander Fleming (1881-1955):

• Accidentally discovered penicillin in 1928, leading to the

development of the first widely used antibiotic and

revolutionizing the treatment of bacterial infections.

52
 • Louis Pasteur (1822-1895):

• Pioneered the germ theory of disease, demonstrating

that microorganisms cause specific illnesses. He also

developed vaccines against anthrax, cholera, and rabies.

Cell Biology:

• Robert Hooke (1635-1703):

53
• Coined the term "cell" after observing cork tissue under a

microscope, laying the foundation for cellular biology.

• Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723):

54
Observed and described living microorganisms for the first

time, including bacteria and protozoa.

Other Notable Discoveries:

• Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778):

• Developed a hierarchical classification system for living

organisms, still used today as a foundation for

taxonomy.

• Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958):

55
 • Contributed crucial X-ray crystallography data that was

instrumental in deciphering the structure of DNA.

• Marshall Nirenberg (1927-2010) and Heinrich Matthaei

(1929-2010): Cracked the genetic code, deciphering the

relationship between DNA codons and specific amino

acids in protein synthesis.

Physiology:

• Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564):

56
 • Pioneered the study of human anatomy through detailed

dissections and illustrations, challenging existing medical

knowledge.

• William Harvey (1578-1657): Described the circulatory

system, including the role of the heart in pumping blood

throughout the body.

Neuroscience:

57
 • Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934): Pioneered the study

of the nervous system using the Golgi stain, revealing

the intricate structure of neurons and their connections.

• Alan Hodgkin (1914-2004) and Andrew Huxley (1917-

2012): Elucidated the mechanism of action potentials in

nerve cells, explaining how electrical signals are

transmitted.

Ecology:

• Rachel Carson (1907-1964): Her book "Silent Spring"

raised awareness about the detrimental effects of

pesticides like DDT on the environment, leading to

significant environmental regulations.

58
 • E.O. Wilson (1929-2021): Advocated for biodiversity

conservation and the importance of studying social

insects like ants to understand ecological principles.

Other Notable Discoveries:

• Discovery of Viruses: Several scientists contributed to the

identification and understanding of viruses, including

Dmitri Ivanovsky, Martinus Beijerinck, and Wendell

Stanley.

• The Human Microbiome: Research has revealed the vast

and diverse microbial communities inhabiting the human

body and their influence on health and disease.

• CRISPR-Cas9 Technology: This revolutionary tool allows

for precise editing of genes, opening up possibilities for

gene therapy and other applications.

59
Other Notable Scientists:

• Rosalind Elsie Franklin: Although often overshadowed,

her X-ray crystallography data was instrumental in

deciphering the structure of DNA.

• Barbara McClintock: Discovered transposable elements

("jumping genes"), revolutionizing our understanding of

gene regulation and impacting fields like cancer

research.

• Jane Goodall: Pioneered long-term field studies of

chimpanzees, providing invaluable insights into primate

behavior and social structures.

60
• Erwin Chargaff didn't invent a specific device or

technique in the traditional sense. His contributions lie in

the fundamental observations he made about the

composition of DNA, known as Chargaff's rules.

• However, his work had a profound impact on the field of

genetics and led to several significant advancements:

• 1. Double Helix Structure of DNA:

• Chargaff's discovery of base pair ratios (A=T and G=C)

provided crucial evidence for the double helix structure

of DNA proposed by Watson and Crick. The 1:1 ratio

suggested that the bases paired up specifically, forming

the complementary rungs of the double helix.

• 2. Understanding of Genetic Information:

61
 • Chargaff's observation that the specific sequence of

bases varies between species indicated that this

sequence, not the overall base composition, encodes the

genetic information unique to each organism. This laid

the foundation for understanding the role of DNA in

heredity and the concept of the genetic code.

CHAPTER 4: AMINO ACIDS

Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins

Structure:

62
Amino acids are organic compounds composed of an amino

group (-NH₂), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a side chain (R

group) attached to a central carbon atom. There are 20

standard amino acids, each with a unique side chain.

Classification:

Amino acids can be classified based on the nature of their

side chains:

1. Non-polar, aliphatic:

- Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine.

2. Aromatic:

- Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan.

63
3. Polar, uncharged:

- Serine, Threonine, Cysteine, Methionine, Asparagine,

Glutamine.

4. Positively charged (basic):

- Lysine, Arginine, Histidine.

5. Negatively charged (acidic):

- Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid.

Functions:

1. Protein Synthesis:

64
 - Amino acids link together through peptide bonds to form

proteins, which are essential for structure and function in the

body.

2. Enzyme Function:

- Some amino acids serve as cofactors for enzymes,

influencing their activity.

3. Cell Signaling:

- Amino acids play a role in cell signaling and

neurotransmission.

65
4. Metabolism:

- Amino acids can be catabolized to produce energy or used

in various metabolic pathways.

5. Immune System:

- Some amino acids contribute to the immune response.

Essential vs. Non-essential:

- Essential Amino Acids:

- The body cannot synthesize these, so they must be

obtained through diet.

- Examples: Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine.

66
- Non-essential Amino Acids:

- The body can synthesize these, and they are not required in

the diet.

-Examples: Glycine, Alanine, Asparagine.

AMINO ACIDS SYMBOLS

1. Alanine Ala, A

2. Arginine Arg, R

67
3. Asparagine Asn, N

4. Aspartic acid Asp, D

5. Cysteine Cys, C

6. Glutamine Gln, Q

7. Glutamic acid Glu, E

8. Glycine Gly, G

9. Histidine His, H

10. Isoleucine Ile, I

68
11. Leucine Leu, L

12. Lysine Lys, K

13. Methionine Met, M

14. Phenylalanine Phe, F

15. Proline Pro, P

16. Serine Ser, S

17. Threonine Thr, T

69
 Trp, W

18. Tryptophan

19. Tyrosine Tyr, Y

20. Valine Val, V

N/B: You can create your own mnemonics to help you

memorize the amino acids.

Keep in mind that these amino acids serve as the building

blocks for protein synthesis, and their specific sequence in a

protein determines its structure and function.

70
SAMPLE CONTEST QUESTIONS

1. Question:

- True or False: All amino acids have at least one chiral

center.

-Answer:

- True. All amino acids, except glycine, have at least one

chiral center.

2. Question:

71
 - Which amino acid is classified as both ketogenic and

glucogenic?

- Answer:

- Isoleucine.

3. Question:

- What is the term for the structural arrangement where the

amino group of one amino acid is connected to the carboxyl

group of another amino acid?

- Answer:

72
 - Peptide bond.

4. Question:

- Which amino acid is unique in having a secondary amine

instead of a primary amine?

- Answer:

- Proline.

5. Question:

- True or False: Cysteine and tyrosine are both aromatic

amino acids.

73
 - Answer:

- False. Only tyrosine is aromatic; cysteine is not.

6. Question:

- Which amino acid is responsible for initiating protein

synthesis in bacterial cells?

- Answer:

- N-formylmethionine (fMet).

7. Question:

74
 - What is the primary role of tRNA (transfer RNA) in protein

synthesis?

- Answer:

- Carries amino acids to the ribosome during translation.

8. Question:

- Which amino acid is coded by only one codon in the

genetic code?

- Answer:

- Methionine (AUG).

75
9. Question:

- What is the common feature of the amino acids isoleucine,

leucine, and valine?

- Answer:

- They are branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs).

10. Question:

- Which amino acid is known for its role in the synthesis of

collagen and connective tissues?

76
 - Answer:

- Proline.

11. Question:

- True or False: Serine and threonine are both polar amino

acids with hydroxyl groups in their side chains.

- Answer:

- True.

12. Question:

77
 - What is the significance of the term "essential amino

acids"?

- Answer:

- Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body

and must be obtained from the diet.

13. Question:

- Which amino acid is associated with the neurotransmitter

serotonin?

- Answer:

78
 - Tryptophan.

14. Question:

- What is the function of the amino acid histidine in enzyme

catalysis?

- Answer:

- Acts as a proton donor/acceptor in enzyme active sites.

15. Question:

- Which amino acid is often involved in disulfide bond

formation, contributing to protein stability?

79
 - Answer:

- Cysteine.

16. Question:

- True or False: Glycine is optically active.

- Answer:

- False. Glycine is achiral.

17. Question:

80
 - What is the term for the process where amino acids are

linked together to form a protein chain?

- Answer:

- Protein synthesis or translation.

18. Question:

- Which amino acid is often phosphorylated in cellular

signaling cascades?

- Answer:

- Tyrosine.

81
19. Question:

- In terms of charge, what is the distinguishing feature

between aspartic acid and asparagine?

- Answer:

- Aspartic acid is negatively charged (acidic), while

asparagine is uncharged.

20. Question:

- Which amino acid is known as a neurotransmitter and is

involved in muscle contraction?

82
 - Answer:

- Acetylcholine, derived from choline and acetyl coenzyme

A (CoA).

CHAPTER 5: ENZYMES

Enzymes are biological catalysts that facilitate and regulate

biochemical reactions in living organisms. Each enzyme has a

specific function and plays a crucial role in maintaining the

homeostasis and proper functioning of biological systems.

1. DNA-related Enzymes:

83
 - DNA polymerase

- RNA polymerase

- Helicase

- Ligase

- Topoisomerase

FUNCTIONS

DNA Polymerase:

• Responsible for replicating DNA during cell division.

• Synthesizes new DNA strands by adding nucleotides

complementary to the existing DNA template.

• Ensures accurate replication of the genetic code,

essential for cell survival and inheritance.

84
RNA Polymerase:

• Transcribes DNA into RNA, the first step in gene

expression.

• Binds to specific DNA sequences called promoters and

reads the DNA code, producing a complementary RNA

molecule.

• Different RNA polymerases exist, each responsible for

the synthesis of different types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA,

rRNA).

Helicase:

• Unwinds the double helix structure of DNA during

replication and other DNA processing activities.

• Breaks the hydrogen bonds between the complementary

base pairs, allowing access to the DNA template for

enzymes like DNA polymerase.

85
Ligase:

• Joins fragments of DNA together, sealing the gaps

between newly synthesized DNA segments during

replication.

• Plays a crucial role in DNA repair processes, mending

breaks or nicks in the DNA strands.

Topoisomerase:

• Manages the topological complexity of DNA molecules.

• Relaxes supercoiling or knots that can form in DNA

during various processes like replication or transcription.

• Ensures smooth DNA processing by maintaining its

proper structure and preventing entanglement.

86
2. RNA-related Enzymes:

- RNAase

- Reverse transcriptase

FUNCTIONS

RNAase:

• RNAase is an enzyme responsible for degrading RNA

molecules.

• It plays a crucial role in regulating RNA turnover,

removing unwanted or damaged RNA molecules from

the cell.

• Different types of RNAases exist, each with specific

functions and target RNA molecules.

87
Reverse Transcriptase:

• Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme with a unique ability

to synthesize DNA from an RNA template.

• This process, known as reverse transcription, is vital in

the life cycle of certain viruses like HIV.

• During viral replication, the viral RNA genome is

converted into DNA by reverse transcriptase, allowing

integration into the host cell's genome.

• Reverse transcriptase also plays a role in some cellular

processes, such as the generation of certain DNA copies

from RNA templates.

3. Protein-related Enzymes:

88
 - Protease

- Peptidase

- Helicase

- Ligase

- Kinase

- Phosphatase

FUNCTIONS

Protease:

• Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides or amino

acids.

89
 • Plays a crucial role in various biological processes,

including digestion, protein turnover, and regulation of

cellular functions.

• Different types of proteases exist, each with specific

cleavage sites and target proteins.

Peptidase:

• A more specific type of protease that breaks down

proteins into individual amino acids.

• Peptidases are essential for digestion, as they break

down dietary proteins into their constituent amino acids

for absorption.

• They also play a role in various other processes, such as

protein degradation and signaling pathways.

90
 • Transfers a phosphate group from a high-energy

molecule (often ATP) to another molecule, typically a

protein.

• This phosphorylation process plays a critical role in

regulating various cellular activities, such as enzyme

activation, signal transduction, and cell cycle control.

• Different kinases exist, each with specific target

molecules and functions.

Phosphatase:

• Removes phosphate groups from phosphorylated

molecules, reversing the action of kinases.

• Plays a crucial role in regulating cellular processes by

counteracting the effects of phosphorylation and

maintaining a balance in signaling pathways.

91
 • Different phosphatases exist, each with specific target

molecules and functions.

4. Metabolic Enzymes:

- Amylase

- Lipase

- Protease

- Catalase

- ATP synthase

FUNCTIONS

Amylase:

92
 • Breaks down carbohydrates, specifically starch and

related polysaccharides, into simpler sugars like glucose.

• This process is crucial for digestion, as it allows the body

to absorb and utilize the energy stored in carbohydrates.

Lipase:

• Breaks down lipids (fats) into glycerol and fatty acids.

• This process is essential for digestion, as it allows the

body to absorb and utilize the energy stored in fats.

Catalase:

• Decomposes hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into water and

oxygen.

• This is important for protecting cells from the harmful

effects of hydrogen peroxide, which can damage cellular

components.

ATP Synthase:

93
 • An enzyme embedded in the mitochondrial membrane.

• Utilizes the energy released during electron transport in

cellular respiration to synthesize ATP (adenosine

triphosphate), the primary energy currency of cells.

5. Digestive Enzymes:

- Amylase

- Lipase

- Pepsin

- Trypsin

- Lactase

94
FUNCTIONS

Pepsin:

• A digestive enzyme secreted in the stomach.

• Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides and amino

acids in the acidic environment of the stomach.

• Initiates protein digestion, preparing them for further

breakdown by other enzymes in the small intestine.

Trypsin:

• A digestive enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the

small intestine.

• Further breaks down peptides and proteins into smaller

peptides and individual amino acids.

• Plays a crucial role in completing protein digestion and

allowing for absorption of amino acids.

Lactase:

95
 • An enzyme produced in the small intestine.

• Breaks down lactose, the sugar found in milk, into its

simpler components, glucose and galactose.

• Necessary for digesting milk and milk products, as

lactose cannot be absorbed intact by the body.

6. Cellular Respiration Enzymes:

- Glycolytic enzymes (hexokinase, phosphofructokinase,

pyruvate kinase)

- Citric acid cycle enzymes (citrate synthase, isocitrate

dehydrogenase)

- Electron transport chain enzymes (cytochrome c oxidase)

96
FUNCTIONS

Glycolytic Enzymes:

• Hexokinase: Adds a phosphate group to glucose,

converting it into glucose-6-phosphate. This activates the

glucose molecule and traps it within the cell for further

metabolism.

• Phosphofructokinase: Controls a key regulatory step in

glycolysis, phosphorylating fructose-6-phosphate to form

fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. This committed step

determines the rate of glucose breakdown.

• Pyruvate kinase: Converts phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)

into pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis. This step

97
 generates ATP and prepares pyruvate for further

processing in the mitochondria.

Citric Acid Cycle Enzymes:

• Citrate synthase: Condenses acetyl CoA with

oxaloacetate to form citrate, the first molecule of the

citric acid cycle. This marks the entry point for pyruvate

into the cycle.

• Isocitrate dehydrogenase: Catalyzes the conversion of

isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate, releasing NADH and CO2 in

the process. This step generates energy in the form of

NADH.

Electron Transport Chain Enzymes:

• Cytochrome c oxidase: The terminal enzyme in the

electron transport chain. It accepts electrons from

cytochrome c and transfers them to oxygen, the final

98
 electron acceptor. This process pumps protons across

the mitochondrial membrane, generating ATP through

ATP synthase.

7. Photosynthesis Enzymes:

- Rubisco (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate

carboxylase/oxygenase)

- ATP synthase

FUNCTIONS

Rubisco (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase):

99
• Rubisco is a key enzyme in the Calvin Cycle, responsible

for fixing atmospheric CO2 into organic molecules. It has

two main functions:

o Carboxylation: This is the primary function of

Rubisco. It fixes CO2 into RuBP (ribulose-1,5-

bisphosphate), forming two molecules of 3-

phosphoglycerate (3-PGA). This process is crucial for

capturing carbon from the atmosphere and

converting it into usable organic molecules for the

plant.

o Oxygenation: Rubisco can also react with O2 instead

of CO2 in a less efficient process called

photorespiration. This process consumes energy

and releases CO2 back into the atmosphere, but it

100
 can help protect the plant from the harmful effects

of excess oxygen.

ATP Synthase:

• ATP synthase is an enzyme embedded in the

mitochondrial membrane. It utilizes the proton gradient

generated by the electron transport chain to synthesize

ATP, the primary energy currency of cells.

• The proton gradient creates a potential energy

difference across the mitochondrial membrane. ATP

synthase acts as a channel, allowing protons to flow back

into the mitochondrial matrix. This flow of protons drives

the rotation of a protein complex within ATP synthase,

which in turn leads to the synthesis of ATP from ADP and

inorganic phosphate.

101
8. Coagulation Enzymes:

- Thrombin

- Fibrinogen

- Plasmin

Thrombin:

• Thrombin is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in blood

clotting.

• It converts fibrinogen, a soluble protein, into insoluble

fibrin threads, forming a blood clot.

• This process helps seal wounds and prevent blood loss.

102
Fibrinogen:

• Fibrinogen is a soluble protein present in blood plasma.

• It is the precursor to fibrin, the main component of blood

clots.

• During blood clotting, thrombin cleaves fibrinogen,

converting it into insoluble fibrin threads that form the

clot.

Plasmin:

• Plasmin is an enzyme that breaks down fibrin clots.

• After a blood clot has served its purpose in sealing a

wound, plasmin dissolves the clot to prevent excessive

clotting and maintain blood flow.

• This process is crucial for preventing blockages in blood

vessels and maintaining vascular health.

103
9. Hormones and Signaling Enzymes:

- Adenylate cyclase

- Phospholipase

- Protein kinase

FUNCTIONS

Adenylate Cyclase:

• Adenylate cyclase is an enzyme that catalyzes the

conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP), a crucial second

messenger in cellular signaling pathways. cAMP plays a

role in various cellular processes, including:

o Glucose metabolism

104
 o Cell proliferation

o Hormone action

Phospholipase:

• Phospholipase is a general term for a group of enzymes

that hydrolyze phospholipids, a major component of cell

membranes. Different types of phospholipases exist,

each targeting specific phospholipid molecules and

generating different products. Some key functions of

phospholipases include:

o Signal transduction

o Lipid metabolism

o Membrane remodeling

Protein Kinase:

• Protein kinases are a large family of enzymes that

transfer phosphate groups from ATP to proteins. This

105
 phosphorylation process plays a critical role in regulating

various cellular activities, such as:

o Enzyme activation

o Signal transduction

o Cell cycle control

o Protein-protein interactions

10. Immune System Enzymes:

- Lysozyme

- Complement proteins

- DNAse

106
FUNCTIONS

Lysozyme:

• Lysozyme is an enzyme found in tears, saliva, and some

white blood cells.

• It breaks down the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell

walls, leading to cell lysis and bacterial death.

• This plays a crucial role in the immune system's defense

against bacterial infections.

Complement Proteins:

• Complement proteins are a group of proteins in the

blood that work together to eliminate pathogens and

damaged cells.

107
 • They function as part of the immune system's innate

immune response, amplifying the effects of antibodies

and promoting inflammation.

DNase:

• DNase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes DNA, breaking down

the phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides.

• It plays a role in various cellular processes, including:

o DNA degradation during apoptosis (programmed

cell death)

o DNA repair

o Gene regulation

CHAPTER 6: HORMONES
108
 - Hormones are like tiny messengers in our bodies.

- They are chemicals made by glands and travel through the

bloodstream.

2. Types

- Peptide Hormones: Dissolve in water (e.g., insulin).

- Steroid Hormones: Like fat, derived from cholesterol (e.g.,

testosterone).

- Amino Acid-Derived Hormones: These come from amino

acids (e.g., adrenaline).

3. Glands:

109
 - Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood.

- Examples: Pituitary, Thyroid, Adrenal glands.

4. Functions:

- Metabolism: Hormones like insulin help control sugar

levels.

- Growth: Growth hormone influences height.

- Reproduction: Sex hormones (estrogen, testosterone)

control development.

- Stress: Adrenaline responds to stress situations.

5. Control:

110
 - Negative Feedback: Hormones stop their own release to

keep balance.

- Positive Feedback: Rare, amplifies a response (e.g.,

oxytocin in childbirth).

6. Imbalance:

- Too much or too little hormones can cause health issues.

- Disorders like diabetes or thyroid problems are examples.

7. Interaction:

- Synergism: Hormones working together have a stronger

effect.

111
 - Antagonism: One hormone can block the action of

another.

8. Examples:

- Insulin: Manages blood sugar.

- Thyroxine: Controls metabolism.

- Testosterone: Important for male traits.

- Estrogen: Influences female traits.

9. Uses:

- Hormones are used in medicine to treat certain conditions.

112
 - They help doctors understand and fix problems in the

body.

PLANTS HORMONES

1. Auxins:

- Function: Stimulate cell elongation, promote apical

dominance, and participate in tropisms.

- Location: Produced in apical meristems (tips of stems and

roots), young leaves, and developing seeds.

2. Gibberellins:

113
 - Function: Promote stem elongation, seed germination, and

flowering.

- Location: Synthesized in the apical meristems, young

leaves, and developing seeds.

3. Cytokinins:

- Function: Stimulate cell division, influence root and shoot

growth, and delay senescence.

- Location: Mainly produced in root tips, developing

embryos, and young leaves.

4. Abscisic Acid (ABA):

114
 - Function: Inhibits growth, promotes seed dormancy, and

regulates responses to environmental stress.

- Location: Synthesized in various plant organs, including

roots, leaves, and green fruits.

5. Ethylene:

- Function: Promotes fruit ripening, leaf and flower

senescence, and is involved in stress and wound responses.

- Location: Produced in various plant tissues, especially in

areas of rapid growth, aging flowers, and ripening fruits.

6. Brassinosteroids:

115
 - Function: Promote cell elongation, cell division, and

differentiation in stems and pollen tubes.

- Location: Synthesized in young developing tissues,

particularly in stems and seeds.

7. Jasmonates:

- Function: Involved in plant defense mechanisms against

herbivores and pathogens and regulating growth and

development.

- Location: Produced in response to stress, found in various

plant tissues.

8. Salicylic Acid:

116
 - Function: Plays a role in the plant's defense against

pathogens, especially in systemic acquired resistance.

- Location: Produced in response to pathogen attack and is

found in various plant tissues, particularly in areas affected by

disease.

These hormones work together in a complex network to

regulate various aspects of plant growth, development, and

responses to the environment.

HORMONES IN HUMANS

1. Insulin:

117
 - Function: Regulates blood glucose levels by promoting

glucose uptake and storage.

- Location: Produced in the beta cells of the pancreas.

2. Glucagon:

- Function: Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating the

breakdown of glycogen into glucose.

- Location: Produced in the alpha cells of the pancreas.

3. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH):

- Function: Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and

release thyroid hormones.

118
 - Location: Produced in the anterior pituitary gland.

4. Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3):

- Function: Regulate metabolism and energy production in

cells.

- Location: Produced in the thyroid gland.

5. Cortisol:

- Function: Regulates metabolism, reduces inflammation,

and helps the body respond to stress.

- Location: Produced in the adrenal cortex.

119
6. Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine

(Noradrenaline):

- Function: Mediate the "fight or flight" response, increasing

heart rate and preparing the body for stress.

- Location: Produced in the adrenal medulla.

7. Aldosterone:

- Function: Regulates electrolyte and water balance by

promoting sodium retention in the kidneys.

- Location: Produced in the adrenal cortex.

8. Testosterone

120
 - Function: Regulates male reproductive functions, including

sperm production and development of male secondary sexual

characteristics.

- Location: Produced in the testes.

9. Estrogen and Progesterone:

- Function: Regulate female reproductive functions,

including the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

- Location: Produced in the ovaries.

10. Melatonin:

121
 - Function: Regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian

rhythms.

- Location: Produced in the pineal gland.

11. Growth Hormone (GH):

- Function: Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and

regeneration.

- Location: Produced in the anterior pituitary gland.

12. Prolactin:

- Function: Stimulates milk production in the mammary

glands.

122
 - Location: Produced in the anterior pituitary gland.

13. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH):

- Function: Regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the

blood.

- Location: Produced in the parathyroid glands.

14. Calcitonin:

- Function: Regulates calcium levels by promoting calcium

deposition in bones.

- Location: Produced in the thyroid gland.

123
15. Oxytocin:

- Function: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth

and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

- Location: Produced in the hypothalamus and released

from the posterior pituitary gland.

16. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH, Vasopressin):

- Function: Regulates water balance by promoting water

reabsorption in the kidneys.

- Location: Produced in the hypothalamus and released

from the posterior pituitary gland.

124
17. Leptin:

- Function: Regulates appetite and energy expenditure.

- Location: Produced by fat cells.

18. Ghrelin:

- Function: Stimulates hunger and promotes the intake of

food.

- Location: Produced in the stomach.

19. Cholecystokinin (CCK):

- Function: Stimulates the release of digestive enzymes,

regulates appetite, and promotes feelings of fullness.

125
 - Location: Produced in the small intestine.

20. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH):

- Function: Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol

and other stress-related hormones.

- Location: Produced in the anterior pituitary gland.

21. Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH):

- Function: Regulates skin pigmentation.

- Location: Produced in the anterior pituitary gland.

22. Parathyroid Hormone-Related Protein (PTHrP):

126
 - Function: Regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism,

similar to PTH.

- Location: Produced in various tissues, including bone,

kidneys, and placenta.

23. Inhibin:

- Function: Inhibits the secretion of follicle-stimulating

hormone (FSH) to regulate the menstrual cycle and

spermatogenesis.

- Location: Produced in the ovaries and testes.

24. Relaxin:

127
 - Function: Prepares the body for childbirth by relaxing the

uterine muscles and inhibiting uterine contractions during

pregnancy.

- Location: Produced in the ovaries and placenta.

25. Thymosin:

- Function: Plays a role in the development and maturation

of T-lymphocytes, important for the immune system.

- Location: Produced in the thymus.

26. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP):

128
 - Function: Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance by

promoting sodium excretion in the kidneys.

- Location: Produced in the atria of the heart.

27. Erythropoietin:

- Function: Stimulates the production of red blood cells in

the bone marrow in response to low oxygen levels.

- Location: Produced in the kidneys.

28. Renin:

- Function: Initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone

system, regulating blood pressure and fluid balance.

129
 - Location: Produced in the kidneys.

29. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing

Hormone (LH):

- Function: Regulate the reproductive system by stimulating

the ovaries and testes.

- Location: Produced in the anterior pituitary gland.

These hormones collectively contribute to the complex and

integrated regulation of various physiological processes in the

human body.

SAMPLE CONTEST QUESTION

130
PREAMBLE: Give the functions of the following plant's

hormones

1. Auxin

Answer:

1. Cell Elongation:

- Auxin promotes cell elongation by increasing cell wall

extensibility. This is crucial for the growth of stems and

roots.

2. Apical Dominance:

131
 - Auxin helps maintain apical dominance by inhibiting

the growth of lateral buds. This ensures that the main,

uppermost bud (apical bud) grows more vigorously.

3. Phototropism:

- Auxin is involved in phototropism, the bending of

plant parts toward a light source. It promotes elongation

on the shaded side of the stem.

4. Geotropism:

- Auxin influences geotropism, the growth response of

plants to gravity. In roots, it inhibits growth on the lower

side, promoting downward growth.

132
5. Root Formation:

- Auxin stimulates the formation of roots, especially in

stem cuttings. This property is often utilized in

horticulture for propagating plants.

6. Fruit Development:

- Auxin plays a role in fruit development by promoting

cell division and enlargement in the fruit tissues.

7. Vascular Tissue Differentiation:

- Auxin is involved in the differentiation of vascular

tissues, influencing the development of xylem and

phloem.

133
8. Leaf Abscission:

- In deciduous plants, auxin inhibits leaf abscission

(shedding) by preventing the formation of the abscission

zone.

9. Delaying Senescence:

- Auxin can delay senescence (aging) in leaves, helping

to maintain the vitality of the plant.

10. Tropic Responses:

- Auxin is involved in various tropic responses, such as

hydrotropism (response to water), thigmotropism

(response to touch), and chemotropism (response to

chemicals).

134
2. Gibberellin

Answer:

1. Stem Elongation:

- Gibberellins promote the elongation of stems by

stimulating cell division and expansion. This is important

for overall plant growth and development.

2. Seed Germination:

- Gibberellins play a key role in breaking seed

dormancy and promoting seed germination. They

activate enzymes that mobilize stored nutrients in the

seed.

135
3. Flowering:

- Gibberellins are involved in the regulation of

flowering. They promote the development of floral

organs and are crucial for the transition from vegetative

to reproductive growth.

4. Fruit Development:

- Gibberellins influence fruit development by promoting

cell division and enlargement. They are particularly

important for seedless fruit formation in certain crops.

5. Leaf Expansion:

136
 - Gibberellins contribute to the expansion of leaves by

stimulating cell elongation. This is important for

maximizing the plant's photosynthetic capacity.

6. Breaking Apical Dominance:

- Gibberellins help break apical dominance, allowing

the growth of lateral buds. This is important for

branching and overall plant architecture.

7. Tuber and Bulb Growth:

- In certain plants, gibberellins contribute to the growth

of tubers (e.g., potatoes) and bulbs.

8. Delaying Senescence:

137
 - Gibberellins can delay senescence (aging) in certain

plant tissues, helping to extend the overall lifespan of

leaves and other organs.

9. Male Sterility in Flowers:

- Gibberellins can induce male sterility in some flowers,

preventing the formation of functional pollen. This

property is sometimes used in hybrid seed production.

10. Dwarfism in Plants:

- In some cases, the absence or deficiency of

gibberellins can result in dwarfism in plants. Conversely,

application of gibberellins can counteract dwarfism.

138
3. Cytokinin

Answer:

1. Cell Division:

- Cytokinins promote cell division in plant tissues,

particularly in meristematic regions such as root and

shoot apical meristems.

2. Shoot and Root Growth:

- Cytokinins stimulate shoot and root growth by

influencing cell division and elongation. They help

maintain a balance between shoot and root

development.

139
3. Delaying Senescence:

- Cytokinins play a role in delaying senescence (aging)

in leaves by slowing down the breakdown of chlorophyll

and other cellular components.

4. Promotion of Chloroplast Development:

- Cytokinins contribute to the development and

maintenance of chloroplasts, which are essential for

photosynthesis.

5. Breaking Apical Dominance:

- Cytokinins work in conjunction with auxins to break

apical dominance, promoting the growth of lateral buds

and branching in the plant.

140
6. Delaying Leaf Abscission:

- Cytokinins help delay leaf abscission (shedding) by

inhibiting the formation of the abscission zone.

7. Enhancement of Nutrient Uptake:

- Cytokinins can enhance the uptake of nutrients,

particularly in the roots, by promoting the development

of root hairs and increasing the permeability of cell

membranes.

8. Regulation of Cell Differentiation:

141
 - Cytokinins play a role in the regulation of cell

differentiation, influencing the formation of vascular

tissues and other specialized cell types.

9. Stress Response:

- Cytokinins are involved in the plant's response to

stress, such as drought or salinity, by promoting adaptive

changes in growth and development.

10. Delaying Aging in Cut Flowers:

- Cytokinins are sometimes used to extend the vase life

of cut flowers by delaying senescence.

142
PREAMBLE: Mention the type of hormones in plants

responsible for the following functions

1. Fruit ripening

Answer: Ethylene

2. Cell elongation

Answer: Auxin

3. Stem elongation

Answer: Gibberellins

143
PREAMBLE: Which of the following hormones are responsible

for the following functions in humans?

1. Stress

Answer: Cortisol

2. Regulating the balance of water and electrolytes in the

body

Answer: Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

3. Regulates skin pigmentation

Answer: Melanocyte - Stimulating Hormone(MSH)

144
PREAMBLE: Which of the following are responsible for the

following functions in plants ?

1. Phototropism

Answer: Auxin

2. Breaking apical dominance

Answer: Gibberellins

3. Tropic responses such as thigmotropism, hydrotropism,

and chemotropism.

Answer: Auxin

145
PREAMBLE: Which of the following hormones in humans is

responsible for the following functions?

1. Regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms.

Answer: Melatonin

2. Stimulates milk production in the mammary glands.

Answer: Prolactin

3. Regulate female reproductive functions, including the

menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

Answer: Estrogen and Progesterone

146
PREAMBLE: Give the parts of a plant where the following

plant's hormones can be found.

1. Gibberellins

Answer: Produced in young leaves, roots, and seeds.

2. Auxin

Answer: Found in the apical meristem (tips of stems and

roots), young leaves, and developing seeds.

3. Cytokinin

Answer: Synthesized in actively growing tissues like

roots, embryos, and fruits.

147
PREAMBLE: Where can you find the following hormones in

humans?

1. Growth hormone (GH)

Answer: Produced by the anterior pituitary gland

2. Melatonin

Answer: Produced by the pineal gland.

3. Cortisol

Answer: Produced by the adrenal glands (specifically the

adrenal cortex)

148
 ROUND 2 ( SPEED RACE )

1. What are hormones in plants?

Answer:

In plants, hormones, also known as phytohormones or

plant hormones, are chemical messengers that regulate

various physiological processes. These hormones control

growth, development, and responses to environmental

stimuli. Unlike animals, plants lack a centralized

endocrine system with specific glands; instead, plant

149
 hormones are produced in various tissues throughout

the plant.

2. Give two examples of hormones in animals and their

functions.

Answer:

Adrenaline (Epinephrine) and Noradrenaline

(Norepinephrine):

Mediate the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart

rate and preparing the body for immediate action in

response to stress.

Testosterone:

150
 Responsible for the development of male reproductive

tissues and secondary sexual characteristics.

3. What is the primary function of auxins in plants, and how

do they contribute to tropic responses?

Answer: Auxins primarily promote cell elongation in

plants. They contribute to tropic responses by causing

differential growth on the shaded side of the plant,

leading to phototropism (bending toward light) and

gravitropism (response to gravity).

151
 4. Explain the role of gibberellins in plant growth and

development.

Answer: Gibberellins stimulate stem elongation, promote

seed germination, and enhance flowering. They are key

regulators of plant growth, especially in the context of

internodal elongation.

5. How do cytokinins influence cell division and differentiation

in plants?

Answer: Cytokinins stimulate cell division and promote the

differentiation of cells into various tissues. They play a crucial

role in meristem activity and overall plant development.

152
6. What is the significance of abscisic acid (ABA) in plant

responses to environmental stress, particularly water stress?

Answer: ABA plays a key role in plant responses to water

stress. It induces stomatal closure, reducing water loss

through transpiration, and promotes dormancy in seeds and

buds to conserve water during unfavorable conditions.

7. Describe the functions of ethylene in plant physiology,

especially in fruit ripening.

Answer: Ethylene promotes fruit ripening by triggering the

expression of genes involved in the degradation of cell wall

components. It also induces leaf and flower senescence and

plays a role in responses to stress and mechanical injury.

153
8. In what ways do brassinosteroids influence plant growth,

and what physiological processes are they associated with?

Answer: Brassinosteroids promote cell elongation and

division, enhance vascular differentiation, and play a role in

seed germination. They are associated with various

physiological processes related to plant growth and

development.

9. Discuss the role of jasmonates in plant defense

mechanisms.

Answer: Jasmonates are involved in regulating plant defense

mechanisms against herbivores and pathogens. They trigger

154
the expression of genes related to the production of

secondary metabolites and proteins that deter herbivores and

inhibit pathogen growth.

10. Explain the role of insulin in glucose homeostasis,

detailing its effects on cells and tissues.

Answer: Insulin is a hormone that promotes glucose uptake

by cells, especially muscle and adipose cells, and inhibits

glucose production in the liver. It facilitates the conversion of

glucose into glycogen for storage, lowering blood glucose

levels.

155
11. How does the hypothalamus regulate the release of

hormones from the pituitary gland, and what is the

significance of the hypothalamus-pituitary axis?

Answer: The hypothalamus releases releasing and inhibiting

hormones that regulate the secretion of hormones from the

pituitary gland. This axis is crucial for controlling the

endocrine system, influencing the release of hormones that

regulate various physiological processes.

12. Discuss the functions of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and

their role in metabolism.

Answer: Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism by

influencing energy production and utilization. They control

156
basal metabolic rate, protein synthesis, and the sensitivity of

tissues to other hormones.

13. Question: How does cortisol contribute to the body's

stress response, and what are its effects on metabolism and

the immune system?

Answer: Cortisol, released by the adrenal glands, is a key

stress hormone. It increases blood glucose levels, suppresses

the immune system, and mobilizes energy stores to prepare

the body for a "fight or flight" response.

157
14. Elaborate on the functions of growth hormone (GH) and

its role in growth, development, and metabolism.

Answer: Growth hormone stimulates growth, cell

reproduction, and regeneration. It plays a crucial role in

growth during childhood, maintenance of tissues, and

metabolism regulation.

15. Discuss the feedback mechanisms involved in the

regulation of sex hormones, such as estrogen and

testosterone.

Answer: Sex hormones are regulated by feedback loops

involving the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Changes in

158
hormone levels trigger feedback signals that either stimulate

or inhibit further hormone release.

16.What are the functions of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and

calcitonin in calcium homeostasis?

Answer: PTH increases blood calcium levels by stimulating

calcium release from bones and enhancing calcium

absorption in the intestines. Calcitonin, produced by the

thyroid gland, lowers blood calcium levels by promoting

calcium storage in bones.

159
17. Question: How do insulin and glucagon work together to

regulate blood glucose levels, and what happens during

insulin resistance?

Answer: Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by promoting

glucose uptake, while glucagon increases blood glucose levels

by stimulating glycogen breakdown. Insulin resistance occurs

when cells become less responsive to insulin, leading to

elevated blood glucose levels.

18. Explain the physiological effects of adrenaline

(epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) during the

"fight or flight" response.

160
Answer: Adrenaline and noradrenaline increase heart rate,

dilate airways, and redirect blood flow to vital organs during

the "fight or flight" response. They prepare the body for

immediate action in response to stress.

19. Question: Discuss the role of melatonin in the regulation

of circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles.

Answer: Melatonin, produced by the pineal gland, helps

regulate circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles. Its

secretion is influenced by light and darkness, helping to

synchronize the body's internal clock with the day-night cycle.

161
ROUND 3 ( TRUE OR FALSE )

1. True or False: Auxins are only produced in the apical

meristem and have no role in lateral bud growth.

Answer: False. Auxins are also produced in developing leaves

and seeds, and they play a role in inhibiting lateral bud

growth.

2. True or False: Ethylene is only involved in promoting fruit

ripening and has no other functions in plants.

Answer: False. Ethylene also plays a role in inducing leaf and

flower senescence and responding to stress and mechanical

injury.

162
3. True or False: Gibberellins primarily inhibit stem elongation

and promote seed dormancy.

Answer: False. Gibberellins stimulate stem elongation and

promote seed germination.

4. True or False: Abscisic acid (ABA) is exclusively involved in

promoting seed germination and has no role in responses to

environmental stress.

Answer: False. ABA plays a crucial role in responses to

environmental stress, including water stress, by inducing

stomatal closure and promoting dormancy.

163
5. True or False: Cytokinins are only produced in roots and

have no effect on the development of shoots.

Answer: False. Cytokinins are synthesized in actively growing

tissues, including roots, and they play a key role in promoting

cell division and shoot development.

6. True or False: Brassinosteroids are exclusively responsible

for promoting seed germination and have no role in

regulating plant growth.

Answer: False. Brassinosteroids promote various aspects of

plant growth, including cell elongation and division, vascular

differentiation, and seed germination.

164
7. True or False: Jasmonates are solely involved in promoting

leaf senescence and have no role in plant defense

mechanisms.

Answer: False. Jasmonates play a crucial role in regulating

plant defense mechanisms against herbivores and pathogens.

8.True or False: Insulin is only involved in lowering blood

glucose levels and has no impact on fat metabolism.

Answer: False. Insulin not only lowers blood glucose levels but

also promotes fat storage by inhibiting the breakdown of

stored fat.

165
9. True or False: Cortisol, known as the stress hormone, is

primarily responsible for the "fight or flight" response.

Answer: False. While cortisol is involved in the stress

response, it is not the primary hormone responsible for the

acute "fight or flight" response; adrenaline (epinephrine) and

noradrenaline (norepinephrine) play more significant roles.

10. True or False: Growth hormone (GH) continues to

influence growth and development throughout adulthood.

Answer: True. GH remains important in adulthood for

maintaining bone density, muscle mass, and overall tissue

health.

166
11. True or False: The thyroid hormones, T3 and T4, are

exclusively involved in regulating body temperature and have

no impact on metabolism.

Answer: False. Thyroid hormones play a crucial role in

regulating metabolism, affecting how the body uses energy.

12. True or False: Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin

work together to regulate blood calcium levels, maintaining a

delicate balance.

Answer: False. PTH and calcitonin have opposing actions. PTH

raises blood calcium levels, while calcitonin lowers them.

167
13.True or False: Estrogen and progesterone are hormones

exclusively associated with the female reproductive system

and have no roles in males.

Answer: False. While estrogen and progesterone are

predominant in females, males also produce small amounts

of these hormones.

14. True or False: Melatonin is only responsible for regulating

sleep-wake cycles and has no other physiological functions.

Answer: False. Melatonin has antioxidant properties and is

involved in various physiological processes beyond regulating

circadian rhythms.

168
ROUND 5 (RIDDLE)

1.

- Clue 1: I'm the growth promoter, making stems reach for

the skies.

- Clue 2: Found in young leaves, seeds, and stems, I help

plants grow in long helms.

- Clue 3: My influence on germination is strong, making

seeds sprout before too long.

- Clue 4: Tall plants owe me for their height; without me,

they wouldn't reach the light.

169
 - Clue 5: You can call me "Gib," but don't be shy; I'm the

reason why plants reach for the sky.

- Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Gibberellins

2.

- Clue 1: I'm the hormone of growth, found at the tips.

- Clue 2: Phototropism and gravitropism are my games; I

control plant direction with no shames.

- Clue 3: In the apical meristem, you'll find me strong;

inhibiting lateral buds, all day long.

170
 - Clue 4: Call me "Aux," I'm branching out; promoting

growth is what I'm all about.

- Clue 5: In young leaves and seeds, I take my place;

elongating cells at a steady pace.

- Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Auxin

3.

- Clue 1: I'm the gas of ripening, turning fruits sweet.

- Clue 2: Released by fruits, I'm the cause of their scent; their

ripening process is where I'm sent.

171
 - Clue 3: Leaf and flower senescence, I accelerate; in

stressful times, I dominate.

- Clue 4: I'm ethylene, not just a gas; I'm responsible for

plant processes en masse.

- Clue 5: In response to stress, I play my part; causing fruits

to ripen from the start.

- Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Ethylene

4.

- Clue 1: In roots and shoots, I make cells divide.

172
 - Clue 2: Lateral bud growth is where I reside; promoting

branches, I take pride.

- Clue 3: Delaying senescence, I keep things young; in plant

development, my song is sung.

- Clue 4: Call me "Cyt," the division master; promoting

growth, I'm a faster caster.

- Clue 5: Synthesized in tissues actively growing; with cell

division, I'm always showing.

- Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Cytokinin

173
5.

- Clue 1: I'm the key to your sleep-wake state.

- Clue 2: Pineal gland is where I'm produced; in circadian

rhythms, I'm seduced.

- Clue 3: Regulating sleep, I'm the boss; in darkness, my

levels emboss.

- Clue 4: Day and night, I keep the pace; in the brain, I find

my space.

- Clue 5: In jet lag, I might be your savior; when it comes to

sleep, I'm a behavior.

- Clue 6: What am I?

174
 Answer: Melatonin

6. Riddle for Insulin:

- Clue 1: I'm the regulator of glucose, keeping levels in

check.

- Clue 2: Beta cells release me in the pancreas; without me,

diabetes may release its stigmas.

- Clue 3: Cells uptake glucose, thanks to me; converting it to

energy, I'm the key.

- Clue 4: High blood sugar, I'll decrease; without me, it won't

find release.

- Clue 5: After a meal, I'm on the rise; managing glucose, I'm

the prize.

175
 - Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Insulin

7.

- Clue 1: I'm the hunger hormone, making you crave.

- Clue 2: Released by the stomach, I signal hunger's wave;

when you're empty, I'm the rave.

- Clue 3: Before meals, I peak; making you hungry, my

streak.

- Clue 4: In fasting, I take the stage; sending hunger signals,

I engage.

176
 - Clue 5: When the stomach's empty, I'm high; suppressing

me, you might give hunger the bye.

- Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Ghrelin

8.

- Clue 1: I'm the male hormone, defining manhood.

- Clue 2: Produced in the testes, I play my part; deepening

the voice, I'm a work of art.

- Clue 3: Facial and body hair, I command; in muscle mass, I

take my stand.

177
 - Clue 4: Libido and sperm production, I enhance; in male

characteristics, I advance.

- Clue 5: In puberty, I make my scene; masculinity is where

I've been.

- Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Testosterone

9.

- Clue 1: I'm a chemical messenger, in charge of control.

- Clue 2: Secreted by glands, I travel far; influencing

processes, I'm the star.

178
 - Clue 3: Insulin, estrogen, and more; I regulate functions at

the core.

- Clue 4: Endocrine system, I call my home; from head to toe,

I freely roam.

- Clue 5: Feedback loops, I often obey; maintaining balance,

I'm here to stay.

- Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Hormone

10.

179
 - Clue 1: I'm the hormone of pregnancy, preparing the

womb.

- Clue 2: Produced by the ovaries, I'm part of the menstrual

bloom.

- Clue 3: In the luteal phase, I rise with grace; preparing the

uterus for a possible embrace.

- Clue 4: Estrogen's partner, in the menstrual dance;

without me, fertility might not have a chance.

- Clue 5: During pregnancy, I take the lead; supporting the

embryo is my creed.

- Clue 6: What am I?

Answer: Progesterone

180
CHAPTER 7: THE BRAIN

- The brain is a complex organ that serves as the command

center of the central nervous system in humans and many

other animals.

- It is responsible for controlling and coordinating various

bodily functions and processes.

181
2. Structure:

- The brain consists of several interconnected parts,

including the:

- Cerebrum: Largest part, responsible for conscious

thought, memory, and voluntary actions.

182
 - Cerebellum: Coordinates muscle movement and balance.

- Brainstem: Regulates essential functions like breathing,

heartbeat, and digestion.

- Hippocampus, Amygdala, and Thalamus: Play key roles in

memory, emotions, and sensory processing.

3. Hemispheres:

- The brain is divided into two hemispheres: the left

hemisphere and the right hemisphere.

- Each hemisphere is associated with specific functions; for

example, the left hemisphere is often linked to language and

analytical thinking.

183
4. Neurons and Synapses:

- The brain is made up of billions of nerve cells called

neurons.

- Neurons communicate with each other through specialized

junctions called synapses, where neurotransmitters transmit

signals.

5. Functions:

- The brain controls:

- Cognition: Thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving.

- Emotions: Processing and regulating feelings.

184
 - Motor Skills: Controlling voluntary and involuntary

movements.

- Sensory Perception: Interpreting information from the

environment.

- Homeostasis: Maintaining internal balance.

6. Plasticity:

- The brain exhibits neuroplasticity, the ability to reorganize

and adapt by forming new neural connections throughout

life.

- This enables learning, memory formation, and recovery

from injury.

185
7. Importance of Sleep:

- Adequate sleep is crucial for brain function, including

memory consolidation, emotional regulation, and overall

cognitive performance.

8. Protection:

- The brain is protected by the skull, a bony structure that

acts as a protective casing.

- The blood-brain barrier prevents harmful substances in the

bloodstream from entering the brain.

9. Disorders:

186
 - Various disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's

disease, and mental health conditions, can affect the brain's

structure and function.

MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

1. Cerebrum:

- Location: Largest part of the brain, occupying the

uppermost region.

- Functions:

- Responsible for conscious thought, reasoning, and

problem-solving.

- Controls voluntary movements.

187
 - Processes sensory information.

- Houses the cerebral cortex, which is divided into four

lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.

2. Cerebellum:

- Location: Located at the back of the brain, below the

cerebrum.

- Functions:

- Coordinates voluntary muscle movements and motor

skills.

- Plays a crucial role in maintaining balance and posture.

188
3. Brainstem:

- Location: Connects the brain to the spinal cord and is

situated at the base of the brain.

- Functions:

- Regulates basic life functions such as breathing,

heartbeat, and blood pressure.

- Houses structures like the medulla oblongata, pons, and

midbrain.

4. Medulla Oblongata:

- Location: Lower part of the brainstem, just above the

spinal cord.

189
 - Functions:

- Controls involuntary functions like heartbeat and

breathing.

- Regulates reflexes such as coughing and swallowing.

5. Pons:

- Location: Located above the medulla oblongata and below

the midbrain.

- Functions:

- Acts as a bridge connecting different parts of the brain.

- Involved in sleep regulation, facial movement, and

certain reflexes.

190
6. Midbrain:

- Location: Above the pons and below the thalamus.

- Functions:

- Coordinates visual and auditory reflexes.

- Plays a role in motor control and eye movement.

7. Thalamus:

- Location: Located at the top of the brainstem, beneath the

cerebrum.

- Functions:

191
 - Acts as a relay station for sensory information, directing

signals to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

8. Hypothalamus:

- Location: Below the thalamus.

- Functions:

- Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and

circadian rhythms.

- Controls the release of hormones from the pituitary

gland.

9. Hippocampus:

192
 - Location: Found within the temporal lobes of the cerebral

cortex.

- Functions:

- Involved in the formation and consolidation of new

memories.

- Plays a role in spatial navigation.

10. Amygdala:

- Location: Also within the temporal lobes.

- Functions:

- Processes emotions, especially fear and pleasure.

- Influences the formation of emotional memories.

193
11. Pineal Gland:

- Location: Located deep within the brain, near the center.

- Functions:

- Produces the hormone melatonin, regulating sleep-wake

cycles (circadian rhythms).

• Note that the Cerebrum:

o The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher

cognitive functions like:

▪ Reasoning and problem-solving

▪ Learning and memory

▪ Sensory perception (vision, hearing, touch, etc.)

194
 ▪ Emotions and personality

▪ Movement control

o Divided into two hemispheres (left and right), each

controlling the opposite side of the body.

o Further divided into four lobes with specialized

functions:

▪ Frontal Lobe: Planning, decision-making,

movement control, speech production (Broca's

area)

▪ Parietal Lobe: Processing sensory information

(touch, taste, temperature), spatial awareness.

▪ Temporal Lobe: Hearing, language

comprehension, memory

▪ Occipital Lobe: Visual processing

195
 • Limbic System: A group of structures involved in

processing emotions, memory, and motivation.

CHAPTER 8: NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Messengers of the Nervous System

196
- Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit

signals across synapses, the tiny gaps between nerve cells

(neurons), facilitating communication in the nervous system.

197
Types of Neurotransmitters:

1. Acetylcholine (ACh):

- Function: Involved in muscle contraction, learning, and

memory.

- Location: Found in neuromuscular junctions and

throughout the central nervous system.

2. Dopamine:

- Function: Regulates mood, pleasure, and reward; involved

in motor control.

198
 - Implications: Associated with conditions like Parkinson's

disease and schizophrenia.

3. Serotonin:

- Function: Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

- Implications: Linked to mood disorders such as depression

and anxiety.

4. Norepinephrine:

- Function: Influences alertness, arousal, and mood.

- Implications: Associated with the "fight or flight" response.

199
5. Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA):

- Function: Inhibitory neurotransmitter, calming the nervous

system.

- Implications: Involved in anxiety disorders and epilepsy.

6. Glutamate:

- Function: Excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in learning

and memory.

- Implications: Imbalance linked to neurological disorders,

such as Alzheimer's disease.

7. Endorphins:

200
 - Function: Act as natural painkillers and produce feelings of

pleasure.

- Implications: Released during exercise, stress, and

excitement.

201
Neurotransmission Process:

1. Synthesis: Neurotransmitters are synthesized within

neurons from precursor molecules.

2. Storage: Once synthesized, neurotransmitters are stored in

vesicles within the neuron's axon terminals.

3. Release: When an action potential reaches the axon

terminal, vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

202
4. Binding: Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the

postsynaptic neuron, transmitting the signal.

5. Reuptake: Excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the

presynaptic neuron, ending the signal.

Significance:

- Neurotransmitters play a critical role in various aspects of

human behavior, cognition, and overall neurological function.

- Imbalances in neurotransmitter levels are linked to a range

of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

203
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND

HORMONES

Neurotransmitters and hormones are both signaling

molecules that play crucial roles in communication within the

body, but they differ in several key aspects. Here are the main

differences between neurotransmitters and hormones:

- Neurotransmitters: These are chemical messengers that

transmit signals across synapses, the gaps between nerve

cells (neurons), facilitating communication within the nervous

system.

204
 - Hormones: These are chemical messengers released by

endocrine glands into the bloodstream. They travel

throughout the body, affecting target cells and organs to

regulate various physiological processes.

2. Location of Action:

- Neurotransmitters: Act locally at synapses, where nerve

cells meet. The effects are rapid and occur in a specific,

localized area.

- Hormones: Act systemically by traveling through the

bloodstream. They can affect cells throughout the body but

may take longer to produce effects compared to

neurotransmitters.

205
3. Mode of Transport:

- Neurotransmitters: Released by neurons into synapses and

quickly bind to receptors on adjacent neurons or target cells.

- Hormones: Released into the bloodstream and travel to

distant target cells. They bind to receptors on the surface or

within the target cells.

4. Speed of Action:

- Neurotransmitters: Rapid and result in fast, short-lived

effects.

- Hormones: Slower, with effects that may take longer to

manifest but can be more sustained.

206
5. Duration of Action:

- Neurotransmitters: Effects are typically brief, as

neurotransmitters are rapidly cleared from the synapse.

- Hormones: Effects can be more prolonged, as hormones

circulate in the bloodstream and may have a longer half-life.

6. Target Cells:

- Neurotransmitters: Primarily target adjacent neurons or

muscle cells.

- Hormones: Target a wide range of cells and organs

throughout the body.

207
7. Origin:

- Neurotransmitters: Synthesized within neurons and

released from nerve terminals.

- Hormones: Produced by endocrine glands such as the

pituitary gland, thyroid gland, and adrenal glands.

8. Regulation:

- Neurotransmitters: Release is tightly regulated by electrical

impulses (action potentials) in neurons.

- Hormones: Release is often regulated by feedback

mechanisms involving the endocrine system and influenced

208
by various factors such as stress, sleep, and circadian

rhythms.

9. Examples:

- Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin,

glutamate, and GABA.

- Hormones: Insulin, cortisol, estrogen, testosterone,

adrenaline, and thyroxine.

While both neurotransmitters and hormones are vital for

communication within the body, they differ in terms of

location of action, mode of transport, speed and duration of

action, target cells, origin, and regulation. These differences

209
reflect their distinct roles in coordinating and regulating

various physiological processes.

SAMPLE CONTEST QUESTION

ROUND 1

PREAMBLE: Give two examples of neurotransmitters each

1. Answer:

Endorphins and Glutamate

2. Answer:

210
 Acetylcholine and Dopamine

3. Serotonin and Norepinephrine

PREAMBLE: Give one difference each of neurotransmitters

and hormones

Answer: Neurotransmitters and hormones are both signaling

molecules in the body, but they differ in various aspects. Here

are two key differences between neurotransmitters and

hormones:

211
1. Location of Action:

- Neurotransmitters: These are chemical messengers that

transmit signals across synapses, which are the junctions

between nerve cells (neurons) or between a neuron and a

muscle cell. Neurotransmitters are released locally at synapse

and act on postsynaptic receptors, leading to rapid, specific

responses in nearby cells.

- Hormones: These are chemical messengers that are

typically released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands.

Hormones travel throughout the body and can affect cells at

distant locations from where they were produced. They act on

target cells that have specific receptors for the hormone.

212
2. Speed of Action:

- Neurotransmitters: The action of neurotransmitters is

rapid and usually occurs within milliseconds. The transmission

of signals between neurons at synapses allows for quick and

precise communication within the nervous system.

- Hormones: The action of hormones is generally slower

compared to neurotransmitters. Hormones circulate in the

bloodstream, and it may take seconds to minutes, or even

longer, for them to reach their target cells and exert their

effects. Hormonal responses are often involved in more

prolonged and sustained physiological processes.

213
Neurotransmitters act locally at synapses, facilitating rapid

communication within the nervous system, while hormones

travel through the bloodstream to affect target cells at a

distance, participating in slower and more sustained

regulatory processes.

ROUND 2

1. Question: What is the primary function of

neurotransmitters in the nervous system?

- Answer: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that

transmit signals between neurons or from neurons to target

214
cells (such as muscle cells or glands) at synapses. They play a

crucial role in facilitating communication within the nervous

system.

2. Question: Name three major classes of neurotransmitters

and provide an example for each.

- Answer:

- Amino acids: Example - Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

- Monoamines: Example - Dopamine

- Peptides: Example - Substance P

215
3. Question: What is reuptake, and how does it relate to

neurotransmitter function?

- Answer: Reuptake is the process by which

neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron

after they have transmitted a signal. This recycling

mechanism helps to terminate the signaling action of

neurotransmitters and maintain the balance of

neurotransmitter levels in the synaptic cleft.

4. Question: What role does acetylcholine play in the nervous

system?

- Answer: Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that plays a

crucial role in the transmission of nerve impulses at

216
neuromuscular junctions. It is also involved in cognitive

functions, including memory and learning.

5. Question: What are excitatory and inhibitory

neurotransmitters, and how do they influence neuronal

activity?

- Answer: Excitatory neurotransmitters promote the

generation of action potentials in postsynaptic neurons,

leading to increased neuronal activity. Examples include

glutamate. Inhibitory neurotransmitters, such as GABA,

decrease the likelihood of action potential generation,

resulting in decreased neuronal activity.

217
6. Question: Explain the process of neurotransmitter release

and the role of calcium ions in this process.

- Answer: Neurotransmitter release occurs when an action

potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, causing voltage-

gated calcium channels to open. The influx of calcium ions

triggers the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic

membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic

cleft.

7. Question: What is the significance of neurotransmitter

imbalances in neurological disorders?

- Answer: Imbalances in neurotransmitters can contribute to

various neurological disorders, including depression,

218
schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease. Understanding these

imbalances is crucial for developing targeted therapeutic

interventions.

8. Question: Describe the concept of neurotransmitter

agonists and antagonists.

- Answer: Neurotransmitter agonists are substances that

mimic the action of neurotransmitters by binding to and

activating the same receptors. In contrast, antagonists bind to

receptors without activating them, blocking the action of

neurotransmitters. Both agonists and antagonists can have

therapeutic implications in drug development.

219
9. Question: How does the blood-brain barrier influence the

passage of neurotransmitters into the brain?

- Answer: The blood-brain barrier is a protective barrier that

limits the passage of substances, including neurotransmitters,

from the bloodstream into the brain. While some small

molecules and lipid-soluble neurotransmitters can pass,

larger or water-soluble neurotransmitters may require

specific transport mechanisms to cross the blood-brain

barrier.

10. Question: Discuss the role of neurotransmitters in the

regulation of mood and emotions.

220
 - Answer: Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and

dopamine, play a crucial role in regulating mood and

emotions. Imbalances in these neurotransmitters are

associated with mood disorders like depression and bipolar

disorder. Medications targeting these neurotransmitter

systems are commonly used in the treatment of mood

disorders.

11. Question: How do neuromodulators differ from

neurotransmitters in terms of their signaling functions?

- Answer: Neuromodulators are signaling molecules that,

while similar to neurotransmitters, typically have broader and

more diffuse effects on neuronal activity. They can influence

221
the sensitivity of neurons to neurotransmitters, modulating

overall neural network activity.

12. Question: Explain the concept of synaptic plasticity and its

relationship to learning and memory.

- Answer: Synaptic plasticity refers to the ability of synapses

to change their strength and efficiency over time. Long-term

potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) are forms

of synaptic plasticity associated with learning and memory.

These processes involve changes in the efficacy of

neurotransmission at specific synapses.

222
13. Question: How do drugs like selective serotonin reuptake

inhibitors (SSRIs) affect neurotransmitter levels, and for what

clinical conditions are they commonly prescribed?

- Answer: SSRIs increase the concentration of serotonin in

the synaptic cleft by inhibiting its reuptake. They are

commonly prescribed for conditions such as depression and

anxiety disorders, where serotonin imbalance is implicated.

14. Question: Define hormones and explain their general

mode of action in the body.

- Answer: Hormones are chemical messengers produced by

endocrine glands and released into the bloodstream. They

223
travel to target cells or organs with specific receptors, where

they regulate physiological processes by binding to these

receptors and initiating cellular responses.

15. Question: Differentiate between endocrine and exocrine

glands, providing examples of each.

- Answer: Endocrine glands release hormones directly into

the bloodstream, while exocrine glands secrete substances

through ducts. Examples of endocrine glands include the

pituitary gland and thyroid gland, while salivary glands and

sweat glands are examples of exocrine glands.

224
16. Question: How do steroid hormones differ from peptide

hormones in terms of their structure and mechanism of

action?

- Answer: Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol,

have a lipid-soluble structure, and typically act by entering

target cells and affecting gene expression. Peptide hormones,

on the other hand, are composed of amino acids, are water-

soluble, and generally act by binding to cell surface receptors

and activating second messenger systems.

17. Question: Describe the negative feedback mechanism in

hormonal regulation and provide an example.

225
 - Answer: Negative feedback is a regulatory mechanism

where the output of a system inhibits further production. In

hormone regulation, an increase in a hormone's

concentration often leads to feedback signals that reduce its

production. An example is the regulation of thyroid hormones

by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.

18. Question: Discuss the functions of insulin and glucagon in

regulating blood glucose levels.

- Answer: Insulin promotes the uptake of glucose by cells,

lowering blood glucose levels, while glucagon stimulates the

release of glucose into the bloodstream, raising blood glucose

levels. Together, they maintain glucose homeostasis.

226
19. Question: Explain the role of the hypothalamus in

hormonal regulation and its connection to the pituitary gland.

- Answer: The hypothalamus regulates the release of

hormones from the pituitary gland. It produces releasing and

inhibiting hormones that travel to the pituitary through the

hypothalamo-pituitary portal system, influencing the

secretion of pituitary hormones.

20. Question: What are the primary functions of the thyroid

hormones T3 and T4, and how are they regulated?

- Answer: Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, growth,

and development. Their production is controlled by thyroid-

227
stimulating hormone (TSH) released by the pituitary gland,

which, in turn, is regulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone

(TRH) from the hypothalamus.

21. Question: How do the adrenal glands contribute to the

body's response to stress, and what hormones are involved?

- Answer: The adrenal glands produce cortisol, known as the

stress hormone, which helps the body respond to stress by

increasing glucose levels and suppressing the immune

system. Additionally, adrenaline (epinephrine) is released,

promoting the "fight or flight" response.

228
22. Question: Discuss the roles of estrogen and progesterone

in the female reproductive system.

- Answer: Estrogen promotes the development of female

secondary sexual characteristics, regulates the menstrual

cycle, and supports reproductive health. Progesterone

prepares the uterus for pregnancy and helps maintain a

pregnancy.

23. Question: Explain the significance of growth hormone

(GH) in growth and development, and how its secretion is

regulated.

- Answer: Growth hormone stimulates growth, cell

reproduction, and regeneration. Its secretion is regulated by

229
growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth

hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) from the hypothalamus.

24. Question: Define plant hormones and provide an overview

of their roles in plant growth and development.

- Answer: Plant hormones, also known as phytohormones,

are chemical messengers produced by plants that regulate

various physiological processes. They influence growth,

development, and responses to environmental stimuli.

25. Question: Name the five major classes of plant hormones

and describe one significant function for each.

- Answer:

230
 - Auxins: Promote cell elongation and are involved in apical

dominance.

- Gibberellins: Stimulate stem elongation and seed

germination.

- Cytokinins: Regulate cell division and promote lateral bud

growth.

- Abscisic Acid (ABA): Inhibits growth, induces dormancy,

and regulates water balance.

- Ethylene: Regulates fruit ripening, senescence, and

response to stress.

26. Question: Explain the role of auxins in phototropism and

gravitropism.

231
 - Answer: Auxins are responsible for phototropism by

promoting cell elongation on the shaded side of a plant,

causing it to bend toward the light source. In gravitropism,

auxins regulate cell elongation in response to gravity,

influencing root and stem orientation.

27. Question: How do cytokinins and auxins interact to

regulate cell division and differentiation in plant tissues?

- Answer: Cytokinins and auxins often work in balance to

control cell division and differentiation. Cytokinins promote

cell division, while auxins influence cell elongation. The ratio

of cytokinins to auxins plays a crucial role in determining the

plant's overall growth pattern.

232
28. Question: Discuss the role of gibberellins in the regulation

of plant height and flowering.

- Answer: Gibberellins stimulate stem elongation by

promoting cell division and expansion. They also play a role in

breaking seed dormancy and promoting flowering in certain

plants.

29. Question: Explain how abscisic acid (ABA) is involved in the

response to environmental stress, such as drought.

- Answer: ABA is known as the stress hormone in plants.

During drought, ABA accumulates and induces stomatal

closure, reducing water loss through transpiration. It also

233
promotes seed dormancy and helps the plant cope with

various environmental stresses.

30. Question: Describe the function of ethylene in fruit

ripening and senescence.

- Answer: Ethylene is a plant hormone that promotes fruit

ripening, senescence (aging), and the abscission (shedding) of

leaves and flowers. It acts as a signaling molecule to

coordinate these processes.

31. Question: How do plants utilize brassinosteroids in growth

and development?

234
 - Answer: Brassinosteroids are involved in promoting cell

elongation, cell division, and differentiation. They influence

various aspects of plant growth, including seed germination,

stem elongation, and vascular tissue differentiation.

32. Question: Discuss the role of jasmonates in plant defense

mechanisms against herbivores and pathogens.

- Answer: Jasmonates are involved in the plant's defense

response to herbivores and pathogens. They induce the

production of defensive compounds, such as secondary

metabolites and proteins, to deter herbivores and protect

against pathogens.

235
33. Question: How do plants use auxin transport to

coordinate growth responses in different parts of the plant?

- Answer: Auxin transport is polar, meaning it moves

preferentially from the apical meristem downward. This

directional movement helps coordinate growth responses

such as apical dominance, phototropism, and gravitropism by

redistributing auxins within the plant.

ROUND 4

1. True or False: Acetylcholine is exclusively an excitatory

neurotransmitter in the human nervous system.

- Answer: False

236
 - Explanation: While acetylcholine can act as an excitatory

neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junctions, it can also be

inhibitory in certain neural pathways.

2. True or False: Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter

involved in the regulation of mood and emotions.

- Answer: True

- Explanation: Dopamine plays a crucial role in the brain's

reward system and is associated with mood regulation and

emotional responses.

3. True or False: Serotonin is synthesized and primarily found

in the peripheral nervous system.

237
 - Answer: False

- Explanation: Serotonin is synthesized in the central

nervous system and is involved in mood regulation, appetite,

and sleep, among other functions.

4. True or False: GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an

excitatory neurotransmitter that promotes neuronal firing.

- Answer: False

- Explanation: GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, and

its primary function is to inhibit or reduce neuronal activity.

5. True or False: Endorphins, which contribute to the feeling

of pleasure, are a type of neurotransmitter.

238
 - Answer: True

- Explanation: Endorphins are neuropeptides acting as

neurotransmitters and are involved in pain perception and

the modulation of mood.

6. True or False: Glutamate is the most abundant inhibitory

neurotransmitter in the human brain.

- Answer: False

- Explanation: Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory

neurotransmitter in the human brain, playing a key role in

synaptic transmission.

239
7. True or False: Neurotransmitter reuptake is a process that

decreases the concentration of neurotransmitters in the

synaptic cleft.

- Answer: True

- Explanation: Reuptake involves the reabsorption of

neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron, reducing their

concentration in the synaptic cleft.

8. True or False: Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is

exclusively released in the peripheral nervous system.

- Answer: False

- Explanation: Norepinephrine is released in both the

central and peripheral nervous systems and serves various

240
functions, including the regulation of arousal and stress

responses.

9. True or False: Neurotransmitters can only transmit signals

from neurons to muscle cells.

- Answer: False

- Explanation: Neurotransmitters can transmit signals

between neurons (neuron-to-neuron), from neurons to

muscle cells, and from neurons to gland cells.

10. True or False: The blood-brain barrier presents a

significant obstacle to the passage of neurotransmitters

between the bloodstream and the brain.

241
 - Answer: True

- Explanation: The blood-brain barrier limits the passage of

substances, including neurotransmitters, from the

bloodstream into the brain, maintaining a stable environment

for neural function.

11. True or False: Insulin and glucagon, produced by the

pancreas, work antagonistically to regulate blood glucose

levels.

- Answer: True

- Explanation: Insulin lowers blood glucose levels,

promoting glucose uptake by cells, while glucagon raises

242
blood glucose levels by stimulating the release of glucose

from the liver.

12. True or False: Parathyroid hormone (PTH) plays a role in

calcium homeostasis by promoting calcium excretion from

the kidneys.

- Answer: False

- Explanation: Parathyroid hormone (PTH) promotes the

release of calcium from bones and reabsorption of calcium by

the kidneys, helping to increase blood calcium levels.

13. True or False: Melatonin is a hormone produced by the

adrenal glands and is involved in the sleep-wake cycle.

243
 - Answer: False

- Explanation: Melatonin is produced by the pineal gland,

not the adrenal glands, and is crucial for regulating the

circadian rhythm and sleep-wake cycle.

14. True or False: Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) are primarily

responsible for regulating metabolism and energy

expenditure.

- Answer: True

- Explanation: Thyroid hormones play a key role in

regulating the body's metabolism and energy balance.

244
15. True or False: Human growth hormone (HGH) continues to

have significant effects on growth and development even

after puberty is complete.

- Answer: True

- Explanation: HGH continues to play a role in maintaining

bone density, muscle mass, and overall health throughout

adulthood.

16. True or False: Cortisol, often referred to as the "stress

hormone," is produced by the adrenal medulla in response to

stressful situations.

- Answer: False

245
 - Explanation: Cortisol is produced by the adrenal cortex,

not the adrenal medulla, and is involved in the body's

response to stress by regulating metabolism and immune

function.

17. True or False: Oxytocin and vasopressin are produced by

the pituitary gland and play roles in social bonding and water

balance, respectively.

- Answer: True

- Explanation: Oxytocin is involved in social bonding, while

vasopressin regulates water balance and concentration.

246
18. True or False: Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline

(norepinephrine) are both produced by the adrenal cortex.

- Answer: False

- Explanation: Adrenaline and noradrenaline are produced

by the adrenal medulla and play roles in the "fight or flight"

response.

19. True or False: Aldosterone, a hormone produced by the

adrenal glands, regulates sodium and potassium balance in

the body.

- Answer: True

247
 - Explanation: Aldosterone acts on the kidneys to regulate

sodium and potassium levels, influencing blood pressure and

electrolyte balance.

20. True or False: Prolactin is a hormone primarily involved in

regulating water balance in the body.

- Answer: False

- Explanation: Prolactin is a hormone produced by the

pituitary gland that stimulates milk production in mammary

glands and is involved in reproductive processes.

21. True or False: Leptin is a hormone produced by adipose

(fat) tissue and acts as an appetite suppressant.

248
 - Answer: True

- Explanation: Leptin signals satiety and inhibits hunger,

playing a role in regulating body weight and energy balance.

ROUND 5 (RIDDLES)

1.I'm a messenger in your head,

Helping nerves transmit, it's widely spread.

Synaptic gaps are where I play,

Dopamine, serotonin, and more - I'm here to stay.

What am I?

249
Answer:

Neurotransmitter

2. I'm a chemical courier, in the blood I roam,

Regulating functions, I'm never alone.

Endocrine glands release me with glee,

Controlling growth, metabolism, and much more, you see.

What am I?

Answer:

Hormone

250
4.In moments of stress, I take the stage,

Heart races, muscles engage.

Known for the fight or flight call,

In emergencies, I stand tall.

What am I?

Answer:

Adrenaline

4. Produced by a gland, I control glucose,

Helping cells absorb, a vital dose.

Pancreas is where I call home,

251
Diabetes fears me, as I freely roam.

What am I?

Answer:

Insulin

5. I'm a growth booster, plants understand,

Stems stretch out, a command.

Seed germination, that's my might,

In the world of hormones, I shine bright.

What am I?

252
Answer:

Gibberellin

6. I'm the thinker, the memory holder,

Complex thoughts, as I get bolder.

In the skull, I reside,

Consciousness and dreams, with me, coincide.

What am I?

Answer:

Brain

253
7. Similar to adrenaline, I'm in the race,

Quick response, in a tight space.

Produced in the adrenal medulla,

In stress situations, I'm the ruler.

What am I?

Answer:

Epinephrine

8. I'm the calmer, the relaxer, you see,

Inhibitory signals, a tranquil key.

Found in the brain, I bring ease,

254
From stress and anxiety, I release.

What am I?

Answer:

GABA

9. After birth, I take the lead,

Milk production, that's my deed.

Produced by the pituitary gland,

In breastfeeding, I lend a hand.

What am I?

255
Answer:

Prolactin

10. I'm the excitatory force in the brain,

Learning and memory, I help sustain.

Found in synapses, transmitting fast,

In neural communication, I'm unsurpassed.

What am I?

Answer:

Glutamate

256
CHAPTER 9: VITAMINS

You need to take a very good note of the vitamins and their

scientific names and their deficiency symptoms because this

has been a fundamental concept in nsmq.

SCIENTIFIC EXAMPLES DEFICIENCY

VITAMINS NAMES OF FOOD SYMPTOMS

Carrots, Dry skin,

sweet night

potatoes, blindness,

spinach, impaired

Vitamin A Retinol liver immunity

Vitamin Thiamine Whole Fatigue,

257
B1 grains, weakness,

beans, beriberi

nuts, meat

Milk, Skin

yogurt, problems,

Vitamin eggs, mouth sores,

B2 Riboflavin mushrooms fatigue

Meat, Pellagra

poultry, (skin lesions,

Vitamin fish, diarrhea,

B3 Niacin peanuts dementia)

Meat, Fatigue,

Vitamin Pantothenic poultry, muscle

B5 Acid fish, cramps,

258
 avocados burning feet

Meat,

poultry, Anemia, skin

Vitamin fish, problems,

B6 Pyridoxine bananas seizures

Eggs, Hair loss,

Vitamin cheese, skin rash,

B7 Biotin liver, nuts fatigue

Leafy green

vegetables,

beans, Neural tube

lentils, defects in

Vitamin fortified babies,

B9 Folic Acid cereals anemia

259
 Meat, Anemia,

poultry, nerve

Vitamin fish, dairy damage,

B12 Cobalamin products fatigue

Citrus

fruits, Scurvy

tomatoes, (bleeding

bell gums,

peppers, fatigue, joint

Vitamin C Ascorbic Acid broccoli pain)

Sunlight, Rickets (soft

fatty fish, bones in

fortified children),

Vitamin D Cholecalciferol milk osteomalacia

260
 (soft bones

in adults)

Rare, but

Nuts, may include

seeds, muscle

vegetable weakness,

oils, nerve

Vitamin E Tocopherol avocado damage

Leafy green

vegetables,

broccoli, Excessive

Vitamin K Phylloquinone liver bleeding

261
CHAPTER 10: CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

The vast diversity of life on Earth necessitates a system for

organization and understanding. This is where classification

comes in, allowing us to group organisms based on their

shared characteristics.

The System:

The most widely used system is the Linnaean hierarchy, with

eight levels:

1. Domain (broadest - e.g., Bacteria, Eukarya)

2. Kingdom (e.g., Animalia, Plantae)

262
3. Phylum/Division (groups within kingdoms)

4. Class (e.g., Mammals, Angiosperms)

5. Order (e.g., Carnivora, Rosales)

6. Family (e.g., Felidae, Rosaceae)

7. Genus (groups of closely related species)

8. Species (the most specific - unique organisms)

N/B: You can use this abbreviation to memorize the

Linnaean hierarchy “DKPCOFGS” where the D=Domain

K=Kingdom

P=Phylum

C=Class

O=Order

F=Family

263
 G=Genus

S=Species

Domains in Classification:

1. Archaea Domain:

- Consists of ancient microorganisms with unique cell

structures.

- Often found in extreme environments like hot springs or

deep-sea vents.

- Represents one of the three primary domains of life.

264
2. Bacteria Domain:

- Comprises unicellular organisms with simpler cell

structures than Archaea.

- Widely distributed in various environments, including soil,

water, and living organisms.

- Another fundamental domain within the classification

system.

3. Eukarya Domain:

- Includes organisms with complex, membrane-bound cells.

- Further classified into four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi,

Plantae, and Animalia.

265
 - Represents the domain to which multicellular organisms,

including plants and animals, belong.

SOME PHYLUM, ORDERS AND THEIR CLASS

Phylum: Chordata

- Class: Mammalia

- Order: Primates

- Examples: Humans (Homo sapiens), Chimpanzees (Pan

troglodytes), Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla)

Phylum: Arthropoda

266
 - Class: Insecta

- Order: Lepidoptera

- Examples: Butterflies (e.g., Monarch butterfly - Danaus

plexippus), Moths

- Class: Arachnida

- Order: Araneae

- Examples: Spiders (e.g., Black widow - Latrodectus),

Tarantulas

- Class: Crustacea

- Order: Decapoda

- Examples: Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps

267
Phylum: Mollusca

- Class: Gastropoda

- Order: Pulmonata

- Examples: Snails (e.g., Garden snail - Helix aspersa)

- Class: Bivalvia

- Order: Mytiloida

- Examples: Mussels (e.g., Blue mussel - Mytilus edulis),

Clams

Phylum: Chordata

- Class: Aves

- Order: Passeriformes

268
 - Examples: Sparrows, Finches, Robins

- Class: Reptilia

- Order: Testudines

- Examples: Turtles (e.g., Loggerhead sea turtle - Caretta

caretta), Tortoises

- Class: Amphibia

- Order: Anura

- Examples: Frogs, Toads (e.g., American toad - Anaxyrus

americanus)

CHAPTER 11: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

269
The nervous system is the intricate network of cells and

structures responsible for coordinating all aspects of your

body's functions. It acts as the body's information processing

and communication center, allowing you to sense, think,

move, and react to your environment. Here's a breakdown of

its key components and functions:

Main Divisions:

The nervous system is primarily divided into two major parts:

• Central Nervous System (CNS):

o Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

o Acts as the main processing center, receiving

sensory information, interpreting it, and sending

commands to the body.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

270
 o Consists of a network of nerves that branch out

from the CNS to all parts of the body.

o Carries sensory information to the CNS and

transmits motor commands from the CNS to

muscles and organs.

Components of the Nervous System:

• Neurons:

o The fundamental unit of the nervous system,

responsible for transmitting electrical and chemical

signals.

o Each neuron has a cell body, dendrites (receiving

information), and an axon (transmitting

information).

• Nerves:

271
 o Bundles of axons wrapped in connective tissue,

forming pathways for information transmission.

• Neurotransmitters:

o Chemical messengers released by neurons at

synapses (junctions between neurons) to transmit

signals.

Functions of the Nervous System:

• Sensory Function: Detects and processes sensory

information from the environment (sight, sound, touch,

taste, smell) through sensory organs.

• Motor Function: Controls voluntary and involuntary

muscle movements, enabling actions like walking,

talking, and breathing.

272
 • Regulation of Body Functions: Manages vital functions

like heart rate, respiration, digestion, and blood

pressure.

• Thought and Memory: Enables higher cognitive functions

like thinking, learning, memory, and consciousness.

Subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

• Somatic Nervous System (SNS):

o Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

o Regulates involuntary functions like heart rate,

digestion, and breathing.

o Further divided into:

▪ Sympathetic Nervous System: Mobilizes the

body for action (fight-or-flight response).

273
 ▪ Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes

relaxation and homeostasis.

Additional Points:

• The nervous system is incredibly complex and continues

to be actively researched.

• Various neurological disorders can affect the nervous

system, causing impairments in its functions.

• Early diagnosis and treatment of nervous system

disorders are crucial for managing symptoms and

improving quality of life.

274
CHAPTER 12: BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION

Photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 +

6H2O

Aerobic Respiration:

C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (energy)

Anaerobic Respiration (Lactic Acid Fermentation):

C6H12O6 (glucose) → 2CH3CH(OH)CO2 (lactic acid) + 2 ATP

Anaerobic Respiration (Alcoholic Fermentation):

C6H12O6 (glucose) → 2CH3CH2OH (ethanol) + 2CO2 + 2 ATP

275
CHAPTER 13: RESPIRATION

The Cellular Energy Engine

Respiration is a fundamental metabolic process that occurs

within all living organisms. It is the process by which cells

break down organic molecules (primarily glucose) to release

energy, which is then used to fuel various cellular functions.

This energy is captured in the form of adenosine triphosphate

(ATP), the "energy currency" of the cell.

Types of Respiration:

There are two main types of respiration:

1. Aerobic Respiration:

276
 o Requires oxygen (O2) as the final electron acceptor.

o Occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.

o More efficient, yielding a maximum of 38 ATP

molecules per glucose molecule.

o Produces water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) as

waste products.

o Balanced equation: C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 →

6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

2. Anaerobic Respiration:

o Does not require oxygen as the final electron

acceptor.

o Occurs in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells.

o Less efficient, yielding only 2 ATP molecules per

glucose molecule.

277
 o Produces various organic molecules as waste

products, such as lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol

(in plants and yeast).

o Examples:

▪ Lactic Acid Fermentation: C6H12O6 (glucose) →

2CH3CH(OH)CO2 (lactic acid) + 2 ATP

▪ Alcoholic Fermentation: C6H12O6 (glucose) →

2CH3CH2OH (ethanol) + 2CO2 + 2 ATP

Stages of Aerobic Respiration:

Aerobic respiration can be further divided into four main

stages:

1. Glycolysis:

o Occurs in the cytoplasm.

o Breaks down glucose (C6H12O6) into two pyruvate

(C3H4O3) molecules without requiring oxygen.

278
 o Produces a small amount of ATP (2 ATP per glucose).

2. Pyruvate Oxidation and Acetyl CoA Formation:

o Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.

o Converts pyruvate into acetyl CoA, a molecule

readily used in the next stage.

o Produces NADH, a molecule that can be used to

generate ATP in the electron transport chain.

3. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):

o Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.

o Acetyl CoA enters the cycle and is further broken

down, releasing energy and generating NADH and

FADH2 (another electron carrier molecule).

4. Electron Transport Chain (ETC):

o Located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

279
 o Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transported

through a series of protein complexes, ultimately

transferring them to oxygen.

o This process generates a proton gradient across the

inner mitochondrial membrane, which is used to

produce ATP through ATP synthase.

Significance of Respiration:

Respiration is essential for all living organisms because it

provides the energy required for various cellular processes,

including:

• Maintaining cell structure and function

• Growth and development

• Active transport of molecules across membranes

• Muscle contraction

• Nerve impulse transmission

280
 • Biosynthesis of complex molecules

Additional Points:

• The efficiency of respiration can be affected by various

factors, such as the availability of oxygen, the type of

substrate being broken down, and the organism's

metabolic state.

• Respiration is tightly regulated by enzymes and other

control mechanisms to ensure efficient energy

production and prevent cellular damage.

• Understanding the different types and stages of

respiration is crucial for comprehending the fundamental

processes that power life at the cellular level.

281
CHAPTER 14: EVOLUTION
The Driving Force of Biodiversity

Evolution is the fundamental principle that explains the

gradual change in inherited traits within a population over

successive generations. It is the driving force behind the

incredible diversity of life on Earth, from single-celled

organisms to complex plants and animals. Here's a

breakdown of the key concepts:

Main Principles of Evolution:

• Change over Time: Populations of organisms change

over time, with new traits emerging and existing traits

becoming more or less common.

• Inheritance: These changes are driven by the inheritance

of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

282
 • Variation: Individuals within a population exhibit

variation in their traits, which arise from:

o Mutations: Random changes in the DNA sequence.

o Sexual Reproduction: Recombination of genes

during sexual reproduction creates new genetic

combinations.

• Natural Selection: Individuals with traits that are better

suited to their environment are more likely to survive

and reproduce, passing on their advantageous genes to

the next generation. This leads to a gradual shift in the

population's genetic makeup over time.

Mechanisms of Evolution:

283
 • Natural Selection: As described above, natural selection

is the primary mechanism driving evolution. It acts as a

filter, favoring individuals with advantageous traits.

• Genetic Drift: Random fluctuations in the frequency of

genes within a population, especially in small

populations.

• Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations

through migration or interbreeding, introducing new

genetic variation.

Evidence for Evolution:

• Fossil Record: Fossils provide a historical record of life on

Earth, showing the gradual change in organisms over

time.

284
 • Comparative Anatomy: Similarities in anatomical

structures between different species suggest a common

ancestor.

• Comparative Embryology: Similarities in early

developmental stages of different species indicate

shared ancestry.

• Biogeography: The geographical distribution of species

can be explained by historical events like continental drift

and speciation.

• Molecular Biology: Genetic similarities and differences

between species provide strong evidence for

evolutionary relationships.

Types of Evolution:

285
 • Microevolution: Changes in gene frequencies within a

population, leading to the gradual evolution of new

species.

• Macroevolution: Large-scale evolutionary changes that

result in the formation of new groups of organisms, such

as the diversification of dinosaurs into birds.

Importance of Evolution:

Understanding evolution is crucial for:

• Explaining the diversity of life on Earth.

• Comprehending the interconnectedness of all living

organisms.

• Predicting how organisms may adapt to future

environmental changes.

286
 • Developing new technologies and medical treatments

based on evolutionary principles.

Additional Points:

• Evolution is a continuous and ongoing process, shaping

life on Earth even today.

• The rate of evolution can vary depending on the

environmental pressures and the generation time of the

organisms.

• Evolution is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon,

with various mechanisms and factors contributing to its

outcomes.

SAMPLE CONTEST QUESTIONS

287
Round 2 (Speed Race)

1. What is the powerhouse of the cell?

- Answer: Mitochondrion

2. Which gas is produced during photosynthesis?

- Answer: Oxygen

3. What type of joint connects bones with cartilage?

- Answer: Fibrous joint

288
4. What is the study of classification and naming of organisms

called?

- Answer: Taxonomy

5. Which organ in the human body produces insulin?

- Answer: Pancreas

6. What is the largest organ in the human body?

- Answer: Skin

7. Which part of the eye is responsible for controlling the

amount of light entering?

289
 - Answer: Iris

8. Which blood vessels carry oxygenated blood away from the

heart?

- Answer: Arteries

9. What is the chemical name for table salt?

- Answer: Sodium chloride

10. Which type of muscle is involuntary and found in the walls

of organs?

- Answer: Smooth muscle

290
11. Which system in the body is responsible for producing

hormones?

- Answer: Endocrine system

12. What is the process by which plants make their own food

using sunlight?

- Answer: Photosynthesis

13. Which molecule carries genetic information in cells?

- Answer: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

291
14. What is the name of the smallest unit of life?

- Answer: Cell

15. Which gas do plants absorb during photosynthesis?

- Answer: Carbon dioxide (CO2)

16. Question: What is the study of interactions between

organisms and their environment?

- Answer: Ecology

17. Which type of blood cell is responsible for carrying

oxygen?

292
 - Answer: Red blood cell (erythrocyte)

18. What is the process by which organisms release energy

from food?

- Answer: Cellular respiration

19. What is the function of white blood cells in the immune

system?

- Answer: Defend against infections

20. Which structure connects muscles to bones?

- Answer: Tendon

293
21. What is the name of the female reproductive cell in

humans?

- Answer: Egg (or ovum)

22. Which organ in the respiratory system exchanges oxygen

and carbon dioxide?

- Answer: Lungs

23. What is the process by which food is broken down into

simpler substances?

- Answer: Digestion

294
24. Which part of the brain controls balance and

coordination?

- Answer: Cerebellum

25. What is the main function of the kidneys in the excretory

system?

- Answer: Filter waste from blood

26. Which vitamin is synthesized by the skin in response to

sunlight?

- Answer: Vitamin D

295
27. Question: What is the study of heredity and variation in

organisms?

- Answer: Genetics

28. Question: Which type of joints allow for the widest range

of movement?

- Answer: Synovial joints

29. Question: What is the name of the pigment that gives

plants their green color?

- Answer: Chlorophyll

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30. Question: Which part of the human brain is responsible

for higher thinking and reasoning?

- Answer: Cerebrum

31. What is the role of the Golgi apparatus in eukaryotic cells?

- Answer: The Golgi apparatus is responsible for modifying,

sorting, and packaging proteins for secretion.

32. Define homeostasis and provide an example.

- Answer: Homeostasis is the ability of an organism or cell

to maintain internal stability in response to changing external

297
conditions. An example is the regulation of body temperature

in mammals.

33. Describe the process of meiosis and its significance.

- Answer: Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces

gametes (sperm and eggs) with half the chromosome number

of the parent cell. It is essential for sexual reproduction and

genetic diversity.

34. What is the difference between transcription and

translation in molecular biology?

298
 - Answer: Transcription is the process of synthesizing mRNA

from a DNA template, while translation is the process of

protein synthesis using mRNA as a template on ribosomes.

35. Explain the concept of natural selection proposed by

Charles Darwin.

- Answer: Natural selection is the process by which

organisms better adapted to their environment tend to

survive and reproduce more successfully, leading to

evolutionary changes in populations over time.

36. What is the function of the endocrine system in

vertebrates?

299
 - Answer: The endocrine system regulates bodily functions

through the secretion of hormones into the bloodstream,

which act as chemical messengers to target tissues.

37. Discuss the structure and function of mitochondria in

eukaryotic cells.

- Answer: Mitochondria are double-membrane-bound

organelles that produce ATP through cellular respiration.

They are often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the cell.

38. Define biotechnology and provide an example of its

application.

300
 - Answer: Biotechnology involves the use of biological

systems, organisms, or derivatives to develop products or

processes. An example is genetic engineering to produce

insulin using recombinant DNA technology.

39. Question: What is the role of DNA polymerase in DNA

replication?

- Answer: DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands

during replication by adding nucleotides to the growing DNA

chain according to the template strand.

40. Question: Describe the structure and function of

ribosomes in protein synthesis.

301
 - Answer: Ribosomes are cellular structures composed of

RNA and proteins that facilitate protein synthesis (translation)

by reading mRNA and assembling amino acids into

polypeptide chains.

41. What is the role of the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) in

cellular respiration?

- Answer: The Krebs cycle completes the oxidation of

glucose-derived molecules, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2

for use in oxidative phosphorylation.

42. Describe the process of osmosis and its importance in

cellular biology.

302
 - Answer: Osmosis is the passive movement of water

molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an

area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute

concentration. It helps maintain cell shape and regulate

internal environments.

43. Explain the difference between innate and adaptive

immunity.

- Answer: Innate immunity is nonspecific and provides

immediate defense against pathogens, while adaptive

immunity is specific and involves the recognition of specific

antigens, leading to a targeted immune response.

303
44. Discuss the structure and function of neurotransmitters in

neuronal signaling.

- Answer: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that

transmit signals across synapses between neurons. They play

a crucial role in neuronal communication and the regulation

of physiological processes.

45. What is the significance of the nitrogen cycle in

ecosystems?

- Answer: The nitrogen cycle involves the conversion of

nitrogen between various chemical forms (e.g., nitrogen

fixation, nitrification, denitrification) and is essential for the

304
availability of nitrogen to living organisms, including plants

and bacteria.

46. Describe the process of DNA replication and the enzymes

involved.

- Answer: DNA replication is the process by which DNA is

duplicated prior to cell division. Enzymes such as DNA

helicase, DNA polymerase, and DNA ligase are involved in

unwinding the DNA helix, synthesizing new strands, and

sealing gaps in the newly synthesized DNA.

47. What are stem cells, and how do they differ from

differentiated cells?

305
 - Answer: Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the

potential to develop into various specialized cell types. They

differ from differentiated cells in that they have the ability to

self-renew and differentiate into specific cell lineages.

48. Discuss the role of hormones in regulating physiological

processes in multicellular organisms.

- Answer: Hormones are chemical messengers produced by

endocrine glands that regulate growth, development,

metabolism, and reproduction by interacting with target cells

or tissues.

306
49. Explain the process of transcription and translation in

gene expression.

- Answer: Transcription involves the synthesis of mRNA

from a DNA template, while translation is the process of

protein synthesis using mRNA as a template on ribosomes.

Together, they control gene expression and protein

production.

50. What is the role of feedback mechanisms in maintaining

homeostasis?

- Answer: Feedback mechanisms regulate physiological

processes by detecting deviations from a set point and

initiating responses to restore balance. Negative feedback

307
inhibits processes to maintain stability, while positive

feedback amplifies responses to achieve specific outcomes.

51. Describe the concept of natural selection and its role in

evolutionary theory.

- Answer: Natural selection is the process by which

organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive

and reproduce, leading to changes in the genetic makeup of

populations over time. It is a key mechanism of evolution

proposed by Charles Darwin.

52. Explain the difference between convergent and divergent

evolution.

308
 - Answer: Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated

species develop similar traits due to similar environmental

pressures, whereas divergent evolution occurs when closely

related species evolve different traits in response to different

environmental conditions.

53. What is speciation, and how does it contribute to

biodiversity?

- Answer: Speciation is the process by which new species

arise from existing ones. It contributes to biodiversity by

increasing the variety of life forms and ecological niches in

ecosystems.

309
54. Discuss the role of mutations in driving evolutionary

change.

- Answer: Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that

can lead to genetic variation within populations. They serve as

raw material for natural selection and other evolutionary

mechanisms by introducing new traits and adaptations.

55. How does sexual selection influence the evolution of

secondary sexual characteristics?

- Answer: Sexual selection is a form of natural selection that

favors traits that increase an organism's reproductive success.

It can lead to the development of elaborate secondary sexual

310
characteristics, such as colorful plumage or elaborate

courtship displays, to attract mates.

56. Describe the concept of coevolution and provide an

example.

- Answer: Coevolution occurs when two or more species

influence each other's evolution through reciprocal

adaptations. An example is the coevolution of flowering

plants and their pollinators, where specialized floral traits and

behaviors evolve in tandem with pollinator characteristics.

57. Explain the significance of adaptive radiation in

evolutionary biology.

311
 - Answer: Adaptive radiation is the rapid diversification of a

lineage into multiple new species adapted to different

ecological niches. It leads to the formation of diverse species

from a common ancestor and is often associated with the

colonization of new habitats or availability of ecological

opportunities.

58. Discuss the role of genetic drift in small populations and

its impact on evolutionary trajectories.

- Answer: Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of allele

frequencies in small populations due to chance events. It can

lead to genetic divergence and loss of genetic variation,

particularly in isolated populations.

312
59. What is the molecular basis of evolutionary relationships

among species?

- Answer: Molecular phylogenetics uses genetic data (e.g.,

DNA sequences) to reconstruct evolutionary relationships and

trace the divergence of species over time. It provides insights

into the patterns and processes of evolution at the molecular

level.

60. How does evolutionary theory explain the development of

antibiotic resistance in bacteria?

- Answer: Evolutionary theory predicts that exposure to

antibiotics creates selective pressure favoring resistant

313
bacterial strains. Mutations or horizontal gene transfer can

confer resistance, leading to the evolution of antibiotic-

resistant bacteria.

61. What are nucleic acids, and what role do they play in

cellular processes?

- Answer: Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and

transmit genetic information. They include DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) and play

essential roles in protein synthesis, gene expression, and

heredity.

62. Describe the structure of a nucleotide, including its

components.

314
 - Answer: A nucleotide consists of three components: a

nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine in

DNA; adenine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil in RNA), a pentose

sugar (deoxyribose in DNA; ribose in RNA), and a phosphate

group.

63. Explain the process of DNA replication, including the roles

of DNA polymerase and other enzymes.

- Answer: DNA replication is the process by which DNA is

copied to produce two identical DNA molecules. DNA

polymerase catalyzes the synthesis of new DNA strands using

existing strands as templates, along with other enzymes that

unwind the DNA helix and join nucleotides.

315
64. Discuss the differences between DNA and RNA in terms of

structure and function.

- Answer: DNA is a double-stranded helical molecule with

deoxyribose sugar and thymine base, responsible for storing

genetic information. RNA is usually single-stranded with

ribose sugar and uracil base, involved in various cellular

processes, including protein synthesis.

65. What is the central dogma of molecular biology, and how

does it relate to nucleic acids?

- Answer: The central dogma states that genetic

information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. This process

316
involves transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to

protein), mediated by nucleic acids and their interactions with

cellular machinery.

66. Explain the role of tRNA (transfer RNA) in protein

synthesis.

- Answer: tRNA molecules transport specific amino acids to

ribosomes during protein synthesis. Each tRNA molecule

carries an anticodon that pairs with a complementary codon

on mRNA, ensuring the accurate incorporation of amino acids

into growing polypeptide chains.

317
67. What is RNA splicing, and why is it important in eukaryotic

gene expression?