EMB101: Lecture Notes

Lecture 1 {From Ancient Periods to Arrival of Islam (up to 1204): Locating Bengal}

Bengal - It was not a geographically defined region but represented a conceptual space oriented towards
the lands surrounding the rivers, particularly the Ganges, that flowed towards the Bay of Bengal.

Aryans - People from between Poland and Iraq invaded/ migrated to the subcontinent and took over,
mostly the northwestern parts of India. They dominated this region and formed the caste system
(Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and the Shudras). It took them 1000 years to take over Bengal, hence
the Aryan influence became feeble and they retained their pre-Aryan cultures even under their influence.
The gradual establishment of Aryan settlements in Bengal profoundly affected its culture.

Mauryans - They unified most parts of the Indian subcontinent. During this time, the Mauryans built the
Grand Trunk Road which facilitated trade and attracted people from around the globe. Emperor Asoka
played an important role by sponsoring Buddhism. He sent missionaries, bureaucrats, and trades in
various places with Buddhist artifacts & doctrine. This diplomatic move connected Bengal with other
regions of the subcontinent, especially south-east Asia.

Guptas - They were of Aryan descent but were also the first to give non-Aryans roles and agency. During
this period, India was under a strong benevolent centralized government that brought peace, wealth, and
prosperity for a considerable time. Bengal was an important province and enjoyed the benefits of being a
part of an all-Indian empire, in which efficient administration and political stability prevailed. The
imperial Gupta monarchs embraced Brahmanism but also patronized Buddhism and Jainism. The people
of the period enjoyed an environment of religious tolerance and the coexistence of religious beliefs. The
artistic excellence of the Gupta age is well known and has influenced the artistic tradition of Bengal.

Sasanka - The first independent ruler of Bengal and the first known king of Bengal to extend his control
over territories far beyond the geographical boundaries of the province. He attempted to establish a North
Indian empire and preserved the independence of the Gouda Empire against a very powerful adversary,
Harshavardhana. He came to occupy the throne of Gouda and ruled over a vast territory. He is depicted as
anti-Buddhist by historians who were great friends of his adversary, hence the sources are considered
unreliable. However, political reasons rather than religious enmity may have prompted the persecution of
Buddhists in certain areas.

Matsyanyayam - The condition of Bengal following the death of Shashanka was marked by anarchy and
lawlessness, for about a century. For more than a century (roughly 650-750 CE) there was political chaos
and the emergence of two new kings was witnessed neither of them succeeded in establishing a strong
rule in Bengal. In Sanskrit the term ‘matsyanyayam’ is explained, it gives rise to such disorder as implied
in the proverb of the fishes, the larger fish swallows the smaller one, for in the absence of a law enforcing
authority the strong will swallow the weak. Gopala, the founder of the Pala dynasty emerged as the ruler
out of this chaos and put an end to this state of lawlessness. Some argue that the people elected Gopala as
their king and some say the nation submitted to him in the interest of public welfare.

The Pala Dynasty - Dynasty founded by Gopala in the mid-8th century CE ruled Bengal for about 400
years. The history of the Pala rulers can be viewed in three different phases:
I. The Period of Ascendancy Under Dharmapala (7810821 CE) - during this period the Palas
were powerful enough to challenge the mastery of northern India. Dharmapala’s name stands out
in the annals of the Pala dynasty as a great conqueror, under whose leadership Bengal’s influence
came to be felt in northern India for some time. He was a devout Buddhist and a great patron of
Buddhism, he built multiple monasteries. He founded the Paharpur Bihar, the largest Buddist
monastery in the Indian subcontinent, it portrays scenes from the everyday life of the people in
Bengal in addition to the religious subjects. His son, Devpala consolidated their empire in Bihar
and northern and western Bengal.

II. Period of Stagnation (rejuvenated by Mahipala, the second founder of this dynasty) (995-1043
CE) - for more than 100 years the energy and vigor manifested during the reigns of Dharmapala
and Devapala were absent. There was hardly any expansion of the empire instead the Pala kings
were not powerful enough to check incursions from the outside and uprisings from the inside.
Mahipala brought back some vitality, he succeeded in regaining lost territories in northern and
western Bengal. However repeated invasions suggested weakness of the Pala kings, and a revolt
succeeded in northern Bengal under Divya the Kaibarta chief. The Kaibarta rebellion was
started by fishermen, lords, and chieftains joined them to rebel against the Pala dynasty and
weaken them.

III. Period of Decline and Disintegration (halted briefly by the vigorous rule of Rampala)
(1082-1124 CE) - the Pala empire did not last long after Rampala’s death, its final collapse came
with the rise of the Sens. Rampala succeeded in restoring authority in northern Bengal but his
successors were too weak to check the gradual decline. The long Buddhist rule of the Pala
generated an environment of religious tolerance and the atmosphere of Hindu-Buddist amity and
coexistence in noticeable. They also avoided the caste system but did not completely uproot those
who maintained it, of Aryan descent. The terracotta art of Bengla also reached a high-water mark
during this period.
Caste system
Brahmans —> the priestly class
Ksatriyas -—> the political and military groups
Vaishas —---> in charge of trade, agriculture, and commerce
Sudras —----> service groups
The Sena Dynasty - towards the end of the 12th century CE, Vijayasena founded the Sena empire.
During the decline of the Palas, he rose to prominence and ousted them from northern and western
Bengal, he attempted to expand into northern Bihar as well, the Palas ruled southern Bihar until the
Muslim occupation. It can be said it was only under the rule of the Senas that the whole of Bengal came
under a single rule. The Sena rulers were Hindu and this period is considered to be a period of Hindu
revivalism, social order with caste rigidity was established, hence the Senas were solely comprised of
Aryans. The Sena period is also significant because of the development of Sanskrit literature in Bengal.
The Senas held sway over Bengal for more than a century, however, the invasion of Muhammad
Bakhtiyar Khalji put an end to Sena rule in parts of western and northern Bengal in 1204. Lakshamana
Sena had to fall back to southeastern Bengal, where his two sons ruled for some time after his death.
Khalji was a general who came to Bengal from the Delhi Sultanate with 18 horsemen and started a
surprise attack at the time of Lakshamana Sena, he took over and started a new dynasty that was loyal to
the Sultanate, this marked the beginning of the medieval period.

“… in this complex world of multiple and transforming religious identities a new creed, Islam, entered in
two separate waves. In first, reached coastal Bangladesh as a by-product of seaborne trade (the silk
route) between the eighth and twelfth centuries”. Secondly, “in the early thirteenth century Islam also
reached Bangladesh by land route, this time as the religion of powerful invaders.”

Lecture 2 {Origin of Bengal Sultanate to the Battle of Polashi}

Backdrop Of Muslim Rule in Bengal - Formation of Bengal Delta was an ongoing process from the
very ancient period, rivers gave Bengal a geographic advantage and made it more difficult to conquer and
easier for the people to revolt. Bengal was a province of Delhi up to 1338 and used to be known as the
city of rebellion due to its frequent revolt against Delhi Sultans. Bengal, a floodplain land, became the
hub for new settlement and human migration—the combination of various races, religions, cultures, and
customs. North-Indian dominance was not a religious factor but rather was a part of the expansion of
imperialism (happened in Morya rule, Gupta rule, Pala rule, Sena rule, even during the Muslim period).
The conversion of religion was rarely/not done by force. Ancient/medieval kingdoms/regional powers
rarely attacked the people of other religions, they rather attacked the kings of the same belief or other
beliefs for the expansion of the kingdom. For instance, after the death of Bokhtiar Khilji in 1206, there
was a clash even amongst the disciples of Bokhtiar for regional power.

4 Theories of Islamization:

1. Religion by Sword - [critisism] If there was mass forcible conversion, then the growth of the
Muslim population was supposed to be more in the Sultanate period, but during five hundred
years of Muslim rule, the Hindu population remained much higher than Muslims. Even it
continued till the mid-British era.

2. Religion by Immigration - [criticism] A large number of immigrants came from Arab, Persia and
other countries but the number does not seem to be higher than mass conversion because most of
the immigrants settled down in the city areas

3. Religion by Patronization - This happened in many cases, many upper-caste Hindus also accepted
Islam. [criticism] Similar counter-arguments of the 1st one because there was less possibility of
being patronized from the periphery where conversion mostly happened.

4. Religion by Social Liberation - Getting rid of the domination of the upper-class Hindu/caste
system. Partially true but it also did not influence the mass conversion. If that was the case, then
Eastern Bengal and Western Punjab were supposed to have less conversion than the upper
Gangetic area. In reality, those orthodox Hindu areas had fewer conversions In the ancient or
medieval era, Islam mostly emerged as a religion of monotheism against polytheism instead of
fraternity against the caste system.
● Therefore, Islamization happened due to immigration and mass conversion influenced by various
reasons. Sufis, Saints, and Ulemas played the most important role in the mass conversion process
Conversion happened from Buddhists, and both from upper and lower-class Hindus. It took
nearly a millennium to form the majority of Muslims in Bengal or today's Bangladesh.

Root Of Islam in Bengal - Though the Muslim conquest took place in 1204, the people of Bengal came
in contact with Muslim people and Islam at least in the 8th century. Therefore, at least a slow pace of
conversion and naturalization was already going on. It was after Muhammad Ghori established a sultanate
in Delhi and laid a base for the expansion of Muslim rule that Khalji led an expedition into Bengal from
his base in southern Bihar. Only 18 of his horsemen could keep pace with him by the time he reached
Nadia, where Lakhsaman Sen was staying. They were taken as horse dealers from North India and not
stopped by city guards. He went straight to the palace and killed the security forces, the king fled by boat
to his capital of Vikrampur in East Bengal. Khalji’s main army soon joined and captured Nadia after a
siege of several days. In his efforts to establish a Muslim society, Khalji constructed mosques, madrasas,
and khanqahs (shelters for sufis and saints). He led an expedition into Tibet that ended disastrously, the
expedition shattered him mentally and physically. He either died of a consuming fever or was killed by
his general, Ali Mardan Khalji in 1206 CE. With the arrival of new rulers and religion, the stage was set
for the Bengal Sultanate to emerge which lasted for more than three centuries.

Bengal Sultanate - The period after Muhammad Bakhtiyar's death in 1206 CE was marked by confusion
and a disputed succession. His companions competed with one another at Lakhnauti. This internal dispute
allowed the rulers of Delhi to exert influence in Bengal. The rivalry between two close associates of
Bakhtiyar, Ali Mardan Khatji and Shiran Khalji continued until Shiran was killed.
Timeline
- Husamuddin Iwaz Khalji (1208 - 1210 CE)
- Qutbuddi Aibak
- Ali Mardan/ Sultan Alauddin (- 1212)
- Husamuddin Iwaz Khalji/ Sultan Ghyasuddin Iwaz Khaiji (1212 - 1227)
- Nasiruddin Mahmud
- Ghiyasuddin Balban through his son Bogra Khan (1281 - 1291)
- Bogra Khan’s son Rokunuddin Kaikaus/ Sikanduar-us-Sani (1291 - 1300)
- Shamsuddin Firoz Shah (1300 - 1320)
- Ghiyasuddin Bahadur
- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
- Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
- Alauddin Ali Shah ( - 1342)
- Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah (1338 - 1350)

Iliyas Shahi Dynasty (1342 - 1487) - under his rule (by 1352 CE) the three regions of Bengal were
united for the first time under an independent sultanate. Initially ruled Lakhnauti, later conquered Satgaon
and Sonargaon. Pandua, a city of Maldah district, was the capital. He united Bengal and titled himself
Shah-E-Bangala or Sultan-E-Bangal. He was able to win over the local people, gave a distinct character to
his administration, and thus earned the title of Shah-i-Bangalah (Sultanate of Bengal). He displayed
matchless foresight in maintaining friendly relations with the rulers of Delhi and thus was able to
strengthen the foundation of the independent sultanate of Bengal. He maintained peace all over his
territory. He was a pious ruler and highly respected the Sufis and saints. He built a beautiful mosque in
honor of Alaul Haq, the famous saint of his time.
Iliyas Shah's son Sikandar Shah succeeded him as Sultan. He was recognized as an independent ruler and
became a great patron of architecture, he also seems to have taken a role as a religious leader, as indicated
by his use of the title Imam-ul-Azarn (the chief leader). During his 33-year rule, he maintained the unity
of his territory and firmly ruled the whole country. Sikandar Shah was succeeded by his son Ghiyasuddin
Azam Shah.
Ilyas Shahi rulers firmly established Muslim rule in Bengal, and at the same time their independent status
forced them to pursue an enlightened and liberal policy to gain the support of the local people. Their
appointment of non-Muslims to high positions, veneration of vernacular languages, and patronage of local
scholars gave a distinct character to Iliyas Shahi rule. Apart from the development of art and architecture,
their promotion of religion and the Muslim culture led to the expansion of Islam in the rural areas of
Bengal.

Habshi Rule (1487 - 1493) - The Habshi rule lasted for six years from 1487 to 1493. Their rule
constituted one of the darkest periods. Bengal's history, it was marked by conspiracies, rebellions, murder,
and the seizing of power.

Syed Hussain/ Alauddin Husain Shah (1493 - 1538) - It is known that Hussain Shah's family originated
from Arabia and settled in Murshidabad (West Bengal). His time is known as the ‘Golden Age of Bengal’.
He conquered Assam, Kamrup, Teppera, Jajnagar, and Chittagong. Gaur/Lakhnauti, a city of Maldah
district, was the capital. He and his successors promoted the participation of local Hindu people in the
administration. His Private secretary Rupa Goswami and several ministers were Hindu, specially the
followers of Vaishnavism. During his time there was religious tolerance and pluralism. He wanted to
bring the Hindus and Muslims closer. Thus the glories of Husain Shahi Bengal included territorial
expansion, administrative stability, and the development of the economy, literature, religion, and
architecture. Monoshamongal was written by Vijoy Gupta and Maha Bharat was translated into Bengali,
they both patronized the development of Vaishnavism and appointed Vaishnavis and liberal Hindus in
their court.

The Mughal Rule - The period of Muslim rule is divided into two phases: Sultanate and Mughal.
Sultanate rule ended on 12 July 1576, when in the battle of Rajmahal the last Afghan sultan Daud Khan
Karrani was defeated by Khan Jahan, a general of the Mughal emperor Akbar.

Mughal Emperors

1. Babar (1483-1531) - First Mughal emperor from Afghanistan, but came of Turkish descent with
Mongolian features. He was obsessed with mangoes!!!

2. Humayun (1508-1556) - Tried to occupy Bengal but failed.

3. Akbar (1542-1605) - Emperor Akbar was one of the greatest rulers in Asia He was a patron of
arts, culture, and education, he practiced pluralism in the society and administration, and religious
tolerance. The period of Muslim rule is divided into two phases: Sultanate and Mughal. Sultanate
 rule ended on 12 July 1576, when in the battle of Rajmahal the last Afghan sultan Daud Khan
Karrani was defeated by Khan Jahan, a general of the Mughal emperor Akbar. On the eve of the
Mughal conquest Bengal was occupied by a large number: of independent, semi-independent
Bhuiyans, Rajas, and Afghan chiefs. The great enemies of the Mughals were the Bara Bhuiyans,
who resisted the Mughal advance into Bengal for several decades. The chief of the Bara Bhuiyans
was Isa Khan during Akbar's reign and Musa Khan during Jahangir’s. Akbar conquered parts of
Bengal in 1576, he sent his disciple Raja Mansingh to invade Bengal.

4. Jahangir (1569-1627) - His first few years saw little Mughal advance into Bengal, but with the
appointment of Islam Khan Chisti the situation completely changed. By the end of 1612, the
whole of Bengal except Chittagong was brought under the Mughal control. Mughal India was
wealthier than contemporary European states and Bengal had turned into one of the wealthiest
provinces of Mughal Empire.

5. Shah Jahan (1592-1666) - During the subahdari of Prince Shah Shuja, Bengal enjoyed peace for
20 years from 1639-1658, but when the emperor Shah |ahan fell ill the Mughal Empire plunged
into a civil war in which all four princes-Dara, Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad-took part.

6. Aurangzeb (1618-1707) - He was the last emperor to go to battle. He killed his father and all his
brothers, he did not let his sons go on military expeditions in fear that they would kill him like he
killed his father. The next great Mughal subahdar of Bengal was Shaista Khan. Shaista Khan was
kind and liberal; he spent on the welfare of the poor, indigent, and religious and built mosques,
bridges, and sarais. In his time the price of grain was extremely low, it was sold at 8 maunds per
rupee. He was gentle, amiable, and humane and is therefore described as a pattern of excellence.
In Bengal Murshid Quli Khan was the last great imperial officer, he was previously Hindu but
converted to Islam, and he was able to place himself at the head of every branch of
administration. He sent the imperial revenue regularly and thus kept the emperor and his ministers
happy. Murshid Quli Khan was the subahdar of Bengal and Orissa and the diwan of Bihar. It was
Murshid Quli Khan who transferred the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad. Bengal turned into a
quasi-independent entity during Murshid Quli Khan. During his time the first Europeans, the
Portuguese came to Bengal and started to militarise, at the same time the British also started
building forts in Calcutta. The decay of Mughal central authority after the death of Aurangajeb in
1707.
The Battle Of Polashi - The last Nawab of Bengal was Sirajuddaula, who soon found himself surrounded
by enemies. Among them were his family members, his aunt Ghasiti Begum, and the commander of his
army, Mir Jafar. Siraj asked the British East India Company not to give shelter to the fugitives, who were
his subjects and were under trial, but the English refused to hand over the criminals to the Nawab's
government. The English also committed other offenses against the Nawab and began the fortification of
Kolkata without permission. No government could tolerate such insolence, so Siraj came out of
Murshidabad and attacked Calcutta. The English were driven out and took shelter in ships out of the
Nawab's reach, but they came back with reinforcements from Madras. The Company secretly entered into
a pact with the Nawab's disaffected officials including Mir Jafar. According to the secret treaty the
English agreed to place Mir Jafar on the masnad by force, and in return, Mir Jafar agreed to grant
territorial, financial, and trade facilities to the English. Armed with the treaty, Robert Clive marched
against the and took his position at the plain of Plassey. The Nawab also came out with his army, but
when the Nawab's army was engaged in fierce battle and the English were about to be defeated, Mir Jafar
advised the Nawab to postpone the battle for the next day. While the Nawab ordered his army to cease
hostilities for the day, Mir Jafar sent secret information to Clive to launch a vigorous attack. The Nawab's
soldiers were taken aback. Many had already laid down their arms to rest; some who turned back could
not withstand the enemy attack. Thus the Nawab was defeated due to the treachery of Mir ]afar. He fled
but was brought back as a captive and later was beheaded. Robert Clive took Mir ]afar by the hand and
placed him on the Masnad of Murshidabad. There was hardly any change - one nawab made way for
another, as had happened many times before, but in practice, the English became the controller of affairs,
and step-by-step sovereignty passed to their hands.
Marked the beginning of British territorial expansion in the subcontinent. The British began to use
Bengal’s riches to gain power over the rest of India and other parts of Asia. their goal was to completely
change Bengal’s economy to earn more income for themselves and could also drain resources from
Bengal without having to pay any administrative costs themselves. They began many administrative and
economic experiments on the population of Bengal, of which some were successful while others were
disastrous (the Great Famine of 1770 [Bengali 1176])- chhiyattarer manbantar was an example of a
disastrous British experiment. One-third of Bengal’s population perished)

Lecture 3 {British India: Colonialism, Reform and Resistance }

Battle Of Bauxar (1764) - Eventually, Mir Jafar was dethroned by the British and replaced with his
son-in-law Mir Qasim, who sought out the help of the Mughal empire. Battle between British forces led
by Hector Munro and combined Mughal army forces of Emperor Shah Alam, Mir Qasim, and
Shuja-ud-Daula. Even though Hector Munro was outnumbered, the Mughal army was defeated due to
Munro’s discipline and effectiveness and the EIC’s superior arms, and this acted as the true basis for the
British conquest of both Bengal and India. Dewani (land tax) was transferred to the British East India
Company and this established the British legally in Bengal (the Dual System). The British East India
Company now had abundant resources for the expansion of trade and military abilities.

The Great Bengal Famine (1770) - The early introduction of a system of increased tax collection proved
to be calamitous in the uncertain natural condition of Bengal. It was applied rigidly despite a depletion of
people’s incomes as a result of drought and then floods in 1769-70. Together with unchecked profiteering
in the food-grain markets, this led to intense suffering and an epic famine that is still remembered as ‘The
Great Famine’. One-third of Bengal’s population, 7-10 million people dies from starvation. In 1770, the
monsoon season brought relief and the province reaped an abundant harvest. Millions of famished farmers
died in the struggle to live through the few weeks that separated them from the harvest, their last gaze
being probably fixed on the densely covered fields that would ripen only a little too late for them.

The 1773 Regulating Act - Under the Regulating Act, Warren Hastings was appointed the new Governor
General of Bengal. Hastings attempted to stop corruption among EIC traders. He also tried to stop local
EIC agents from abusing indigenous people. He moved the administrative center of Bengal from Nawab’s
court to Calcutta and created a stronghold and further expansion of EIC in India. Hastings was criminally
charged for corruption, accumulation of personal wealth, misdemeanors, and the tarnishing of the EIC
image in India in 1787 by the Parliament. Lord Cornwallis was then appointed Governor-General in 1786.

The Permanent Settlement Act - Introduced in 1790 and codified in 1793, it formed the nucleus of the
colonial system of control, it survived with modifications until 1950. Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in
1793- zamindars were given absolute ownership of land and would hand over a fixed amount of the
revenue collected from the land workers, on a fixed annual date at sunset (the Sunset Law), otherwise
have their land auctioned off, causing the peasants to lose even the most basic occupational rights on the
land they worked. Zamindars thus became more powerful and acted as “one of the most stable pillars of
British colonialism”. The expectation behind the Permanent Settlement Act was that zamindars would
reinvest in agriculture but that did not happen due to a lack of support from the BEIC, and also because
there were easier ways of getting rich, including squeezing the peasantry by illegally increasing rents
forcing tenants to pay contributions to events in the zamindar’s family. As the income grew the zamindars
distanced themselves from agriculture and tax collecting, turned themselves into rentiers, and shifted their
responsibilities to intermediaries. Soon the intermediaries appointed their own intermediaries,
encouraging a very hierarchical social structure. This act also denied the peasantry any ownership of the
land they cultivated so they came to be known as ‘raiyat’ or without such rights. The BEIC also exploited
Bengal using the population’s religious identities, Hindu zamindars were appointed where the peasantry
were Muslim and vice-versa. This created conflict later in the colonial rule between peasants and
landlords.

Lecture 4 {British India: 1757-1857, Colonialism, Reform and Resistance}

Anti-Feudal - Dealt with the feudal systems concerning the zamindars.

Anti-Colonial - Dealt with getting rid of the colonial system.

The movements had elements of both anti-feudal sentiments and religious sentiments as well, and the
process was accelerated by the siphoning off of Bengal’s wealth, such as the oppressive revenue
collection policies from ryots. The primary motive behind these resistance movements was the notion of
freeing the common people from colonial rule, and so they are deemed as somewhat ‘socialistic’ in
nature, as they involved not only religious freedom but also social and economic freedom. The earliest
movement was the Sannyasi Rebellion during Warren Hastings’ authority, immediately after which there
was the Fakir Rebellion.

1. The Fakir-Sannasi Resistance in western and northern Bengal (1760 - 1800)

Bands of armed Hindu sanyasis from Bihar and upper India broke into north Bengal and did a
‘systematic plundering’ of whatever they could get their hands on. They achieved a stronghold
after the famine of 1770 and carried out their raiding activities for several years before they left
Bengal. As the Permanent Settlement Act began to take a devastating turn both for zamindars and
more so for the ryots, the anger of the Bengal peasantry rose against both zamindars and colonial
rulers and took the form of several more peasant revolts.

2. Rebellion by Aga Mohammad Reza in Sylhet (1799)

3. Rebellion by the Chakmas in southern Chittagong (1777 - 1787)
4. The Pagalpanthi Rebellion in Mymensingh (1825 - 1833)
5. The Faraizi Uprising (1804 - 1857)
The Faraizi sect stemmed out of the Wahabi movement and was founded by Haji Shariatullah of
Faridpur, who brought the Muslim peasantry together against the zamindars and the British. The
straightforward message of equality in Islam moved the peasants and Shariatullah assumed both
religious and secular authority over his followers, proclaiming himself as a pir. The movement
started out with the simple message that God was the owner of all lands and so nobody had the
right to impose taxes on God’s land so he opposed all taxes imposed by Hindu zamindars. The
movement soon acquired a violent characteristic, leading to a serious riot in 1830 that took a
communal turn and required the help of British forces to settle it.

6. Titumir’s Rebellion in Jesore-Nadia (1830 - 1831)

This movement was a combination of Wahabi fundamentalism and anti-zamindar agitation among
ryots. It started in 1827 under Mir Nasir Ali, or Titu Mir, who wanted to incorporate the Wahabi
teachings of Syed Ahmad of Bareilly (1785-1831) into the anti-zamindar and anti-colonial
sensibility of the peasants. Most zamindars were Hindus, and the movement sought to restore
Muslim domination in the country and help peasants fight against the exploitation of zamindars.
While Hindu zamindars were the prime targets, some Muslim zamindars who refused to
participate in the movement were also attacked. The movement spread to the districts of 24
Parganas, Nadia and Faridpur. After Shariatullah’s death, his son, Muhammad Mohsin, more
popularly known as Dudu Miah, became the leader of the Faraizi sect, and divided East Bengal
into different zones, putting a khalifa in charge of each zone. He declared that all land belonged to
God, and called the zamindars usurpers to whom there was no requirement of paying any taxes.
He discouraged ryots from going to the government and told them to go to him for advice and
reassurance. Those who did not do so were punished and socially boycotted. Apart from
zamindars, Dudu Miah also targeted indigo planters, who ended up complaining to the
government against him, and he was arrested a couple of times. In 1846, he burned down the
indigo factory of Panchar and was arrested in 1847 and then again in 1857 before he died in 1860.
The Faraizi uprising continued for some time after his death before it finally dissolved.

7. The Santhal Rebellion (1855 - 1856)

This was the last of the civil disturbances. The Santhals living in the hills and valleys had no
complaints against the land assessment system but they harbored animosity against
moneylenders, landlords, and revenue agents, so they rose against them in rebellion under Sidho
and Kanu. An army of 30,000, armed with axes and poisoned arrows, formed and attacked
Bengalee babus and European bungalows. They murdered all government officials. The revolt
had far-reaching impacts and spread over the entire countryside and the greater part of Birbhum
district. Although the rebellion was inherently a peasant revolt, it came to be a powerful
anti-British uprising, which had to be suppressed with all might by the killing of Sidho and Kanu
 8. The Indigo Revolt (1855 -1856)

9. The Great Sepoy Mutiny (1857)

The Sepoy Mutiny, or Sepoy Rebellion, or also more significantly known as the First Indian
War of Independence, was a rebellion of Indian sepoys against the British East India Company.
It was more specific than all the other resistance movements that were happening all over Bengal.
Indian soldiers joined the EIC in hopes of better pay and in general in the hope of a chance to rise
in status. But they soon realized the British soldiers’ superiority over them and started to revolt.
The sepoys had a lot of complaints that they felt were not being addressed by the EIC, such as
unequal pay, not wanting to serve abroad, institutional racism, and, the most crucial of all, the
introduction of greased cartridges for Enfield rifles, which the sepoys suspected was made of
animal fats that their religion did not allow them to come in contact with. There were also other
resentments against the EIC throughout India besides those of the sepoys. The Mughal Empire
collapsed completely in 1857, and the British began to take over the independent princely states
whenever they felt like it, on top of extorting ‘protection money’ from some of the princes.
Ordinary people of princely states suffered as well, both because of the removal of their princes
and the Permanent Settlement Act. On top of that, local artisans suffered from competition with
EIC-imported goods. The sepoys were set off at first by the execution of one of their own,
Mangal Pandey, in March 1857. He was punished for wounding an EIC officer. But the final
outbreak came when the entire sepoy army of Pandey was flogged. The EIC was unprepared for
the rising, which saw the sepoys elect the retired Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II (1775-1862)
as their leader. Bahadur Shah Zafar in 1858, faced his trial in Delhi and departed for exile in
Rangoon. Then the rebellion spread all over India, and not only did sepoys participate, but also
landlords, merchants, and peasant farmers of both the Hindu and Muslim faiths.

The Bengal Renaissance Settled British rule, Pax Britannica, economic boom from the growth of
Calcutta as a major industrial hub, the introduction of English education, the influence of Western science
and philosophy, the revival of Sanskrit literature and philosophy, and the emergence of a new middle and
professional class (bhodroloks). The British monarchs took over the region in place of the EIC. It was
mostly an upper-class movement configuration, and so it did not touch the common people. Cultural
features remained largely elitist Hindu and consisted of only a small fraction of Muslims. Started with
Raja Rammohan Roy (1722-1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941).

Raja Rammohan Roy vehemently opposed the practice of sati and further pushed for equality in freedom
and speech throughout society. He also took into account the immense destruction the Permanent
Settlement had brought into the lives of peasants and wrote against it too. He founded the Brahmo Sabha
which was later turned into Brahmo Samaj by Rabindranath Tagore’s father. Vivekananda emerged as the
first socialist in Bengal. He was the main disciple of Ramakrishna. He was a true Vedantist and an
advocate against the caste system. He also gave women and education tremendous importance. Formation
of the British Indian Association in 1851.
Lecture 5 {British India: 1858-1911}

Crown Rule (1858) - The British Crown took over the rule of colonial India and abolished the East India
Company. Social engineering by the British came about to study the people they had colonized so they
could be manipulated better. This created new groups and a more rigid caste system. Castes became fixed
categories that were solely conferred by birth, this is known as the westernization of the caste. Within the
Muslim populations, Muslims with lineages outside Bengal were given more privileges. The British
introduced Western culture here to ensure the upper class remained loyal.

Muslim Revivalism - This movement focused on improving the social status of Indian Muslims through
European education, it gave them some control especially since upper-caste Hindus were still found to be
anti-colonial.

Aligarh Movement - Mohammedan Literary Society was founded by Nawab Abdul Latif in Kolkata in
1863 and an all India Muhammadan Education conference was held in 1886. This movement gave
Muslims scholarships and became the hub of education for them. Only the Muslim aristocratic class was
accepted here and they did not want to defy the British initially.

Darul Uloom Deoband - Another hub for educating Muslims but they were strongly anti-colonial. Since
they did not belong to aristocratic families they could afford to be more radical. Leaders were Ubaidullah
Sindhi, Mahmud Hasan Deobandi, Hussain Ahmad Madani.

The Silk Letter Movement - This movement focused on anti-British activism by bringing Indians,
Ottomans, and Germans together. But the movement failed after a letter was intercepted at Punjab by the
British.

Indian Council Act - Sir Syed Ahmed Khan wrote a letter asking for political agency. A legislation was
passed but they could not still vote or make new policies. They could only recommend moves to the
British governors, were called viceroys. Formed the All India National Congress, which was the first
political party. Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India (1899-1905) enacted the ‘Partition of Bengal’ in 1905.
- Eastern province (East Bengal and Assam) with Muslim majority
- Western province (West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa) with Hindu majority
All Indian Muslim League was formed in December 1906. This AIME conference laid down the
foundation of Muslim League.
Swadeshi Movement - Started as an anti-partition movement. Boycotted the use of foreign goods and
promoted the use of local and indigenous goods. Started making products instead of importing from
Britain, creating self-reliance.

The Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) - From the Indian National Congress, moderates agreed and
extremists rejected. Muslim League welcomed the reform and offered cooperation.
1. Members of the Legislative Council at the Center was increased from 16 to 60
2. Provincial: Bengal, Madras and Bombay- 50, Other- 30
3. Separate electorate for Muslims
4. Majority: Centre- officials , Province- non-officials
5. Members: permitted to discuss budget, suggest amendments and can vote on them

Annulment of the Partition and its Impact:

- Negatively affected the unity of INC. Radicals were excluded
- Violent political reaction to partition created Hindu-Muslim communal tension
- Two fronts of anti-colonial nationalist politics. 1) Hindu nationalism 2) Muslim nationalism
Lecture 6 {British India: 1912-1947}

Khilafat Movement - Post WWI (Germans + Ottomans vs France + Britain) there was a vacuum in India.
Anti-colonial movements were brewing since the Ottoman Sultan was also the Islamic Khalifa. At the end
of the war, the Sultan lost his empire and power which started protests that wanted to reinstate the
Khalifa. Gandhi supported Khilafat to enlist Muslim support, he linked issues of Swaraj
(Self-Government) with the Khilafat demands at the Nagpur Congress Session (1920). The
non-cooperation plan adopted at the session aimed to resist British occupation.

Rowlatt Act - This act gave the police complete power to act out of suspicion only. This power was
abused, it drew fear and demotivated citizens from participating in political movements. This sparked
protests from both Muslims and the National Congress.

Jallianwallah Bagh Massacre - Happened in Punjab during a New Year’s Festival. The police locked the
main entrance and open fired for 15 minutes, killing 300-1000 people. This barbaric act was to silence
protests but instead, it ignited even more protests. Gandhi called for a non-cooperation movement across
the subcontinent.

Satyagraha (1919-1922) - Gandhi had returned from Britain where he studied law. He went to South
Africa and witnessed the apartheid, where he advocated for Indians. Upon his return to India, he was a top
leader of Congress. His main strategy was centered around peace and non-violence. After a long time,
Hindus and Muslims were encouraged to come together in a movement without violence. They boycotted
British products and refused to give service to them. However the police got involved, and they beat
people in a procession. This sparked violence among the people and they burnt down the police station,
killing 12 policemen. In 1922, Gandhi called off this movement when he realized it was going out of his
hands. This caused much debate among the people.

The Bengal Pact (1924) - This agreement aimed to resolve Hindu-Muslim differences. The person who
headed this pact was Chittaranjan Das. However, this pact was discarded in the Provincial Congress
Conference.
- Representation on a population basis with separate electorates.
- Local bodies’ representation; majority 60% and minority 40%.
- Govt. appointments; 55% for Muslims. Till it is attained, Muslims 80% and Hindus 20%.
- No resolution or enactment without the consent of 75% of elected members of the affected
community.
- Music was not allowed in front of the mosques.
- No legislation in respect of cow slaughtering for food the Council.

Government of India Act (1935) - Act passed by the British Parliament. Dr. Ahmed Kar was the leader
of the deprived lower caste Hindus since Congress only advocated for the upper class. Muslim league,
started by Nawab Salimullah was also made up of aristocrats.
- Abolition of diarchy at province, introduction at center.
- Indian Council was replaced by an advisory body.
- All India Federation with British India territories and princely states.
- Safeguards and protective instruments for minorities.
- Supremacy of British Parliament.
- Increase in the size of legislatures, an extension of the franchise, division of subjects into three
lists, and retention of the communal electorate.
- Separation of Burma from India
Krishak-Praja Party (KPP) - Formed when nationalists failed to address the welfare of poor peasants
(85% of the population) and during this time Muslim League’s popularity declined. They formed a
coalition with the Muslim League because their party was not big enough, combined they won the
election in 1937 and beat Congress. Their demands were the following:
- abolition of the zamindari system
- peasants’ absolute proprietorship of land
- reduction of land rent rate
- giving interest-free loans to peasants
- creating irrigation facilities; digging canals
- introduction of free primary education, etc.

Lahore Resolution - All India Muslim League held a conference on 22-24 March 1940 in Lahore. Sir
Sikandar Hayat Khan drafted the Lahore Resolution that was presented by A. K. Fazlul Huq. At the time,
Mohammad Ali Jinnah was the leader of the Muslim League. He proposed the ‘Theory of Two Nations’ -
sovereign states for Muslims because Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations and could not live
together in harmony. He proposed a separate constitution and government for Muslim regions. This was
the basis of Pakistan, which in theory would be a utopian society.

After Lahore Resolution - WWII began, Allied forces (US + UK + France + Soviet Union) vs Axis
forces (Germany, Japan, Belgium). Nazis posed a threat to British colonies, Burma was already invaded
by the Japanese Imperial Army so airstrikes were very close to India. Indians were loyal to the Labour
Party even though Winston Churchill was not a fan of Indians. When the British realized they were at a
disadvantage, Sir Stafford Cripps was sent to Delhi to negotiate with Gandhi and Jinnah. He offered a
quasi-independent India; a constituent assembly and more seats in the Viceroy’s executive council and
emphasized not to pressure any part of the country to join an independent India. However, Gandhi pointed
out that they were not in a position to negotiate.

Quit India Movement - Cripp’s failed mission led to the ‘Quit India Movement” in 1942. This was led
by the Indian Congress, Gandhi declared the anti-British movement, Muslim League remained neutral
here. Mass arrests of leaders, but they were treated as political prisoners. Gandhi was placed under arrest
in a palace.

Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose - He was a leader of the Indian Congress, had differences with Gandhi in
political strategies, and followed the ideologies of CR Das. He believed that the British forces needed to
be removed forcefully so he went to Hitler with a proposal. He then arrived in Singapore in 1943, where
there were Indian prisoners of the Japanese Imperial Army. He recruited them and formed the Indian
National Army. INA gave hope for freedom and self-governing rights in India. He died in a plane crash
right after Pearl Harbour was bombed, there is a conspiracy surrounding his death as some claimed to
have sighted him after his death.

Bengal Famine of 1943 - This was a man-made famine. Natural disasters were aggravated by
administrative failure when rice export to Bengal from Japanese occupied Burma dried up and rice was
taken for the British army. Boats were confiscated by the British and inland waterways trade stopped,
market prices, widespread corruption, and shortages. Churchill did not take responsibility for this, he
claimed it happened because the people of Bengla “bred like rabbits”. The estimated casualty of this
famine was 3-3.8 million.

Simla Conference - Viceroy Lord Wavell called a conference at Simla on 25 June 1945. He aimed to
discuss the future of India with the British administration. He proposed independence, and an all-Indian
executive council to form an interim government but the viceroys and commanders of the army would
remain British, and there would be preserved seats for ‘Caste Hindus’ and Muslims. Congress tried to
negotiate further, and the Muslim League set a condition. Muslims could only be represented by the
Muslim League, and Jinnah did not budge from this condition. The conference failed to reach an
agreement.

Election of 1945-1946 - Gave more power and legitimacy to the Muslim League as they only won in
Muslim majority regions.

Cabinet Mission (1946) - The Labour Party proposed to transfer British power to a single Indian
administration, through a three-tier federation for India.
I. Central Government - power confined to foreign affairs and military
II. Provincial Grouping
III. Separate Provinces - holds all the other power
Primarily both the Muslim League and Congress agreed, but the National Congress, mainly Nehru wanted
a strong central rule and to remove the grouping of provinces. The Labor Party sided with Nehru which
the Muslim League, mainly Jinnah saw as a betrayal and withdrew his support. To oppose this Jinnah
called for direct action for the ‘Pakistan Project’.

Direct Action Day and the Great Calcutta Killings - The Muslim League announced a general strike on
16 August 1946. Widespread communal rioting between Muslims and Hindus, and an estimated 4,000
people lost their lives. Most casualties were on the muslim side, even though both sides engaged in mass
killings and rape. At the time Suhrawardy was the chief minister of Bengal. There were riots in Noakhali
with mostly hindu casualties. These events sowed the seeds for the eventual partition.

Proposal Of United Bengal - Muslim majority regions sided with Pakistandand Hindu majority regions
sided with India, an exception was Hydrabad, despite being Muslim majority itremained in India because
of its geography. With the first legislative referendum, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the Premier of the
province of Bengal, formally launched this idea, he proposed Bengal become a separate nation or stay
with Pakistan.. Sarat Chandra Bose proposed for a Sovereign Socialist Republic of Bengal. Most
provincial Congress and Hindu Mahasabha leaders wanted Bengal partition. The Direct Action Day
aggravated communal tension, people in Calcutta became insecure since majority of the population of
Bengal were Muslim and they were more likely to dominate. In the second legislative referundum East
Bengal voted for a United Bengal but West Bengal voted against. Sylhet was initially a part of Assam but
later was incorporated into East Paskistan, in the same way Sikkim was taken by India later.

Partition Plan & the Radcliffe Boundary Commission - Boundary Commission created in July 1947,
the commission was appointed by the British Government and was chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe to
recommend how to divide Bengal and Punjab between India and Pakistan. He had no knowledge of the
geography of the subcontinent sohe invited Nehru and Jinnah to sort out the border issue. The
India-Bangladesh Border is considered the most complicated in the world, as regions of India were inside
Bangladesh, inside which was parts of India again. This deprived citizens from services that were
provided by the state. This partition sparked mass migration, as people of certain religions were advised
to migrate to places that wouldbetter suit them. This created a refugee crisis which was violent and brutal.
Indian refugees crowd onto to trains as a result of the creation of two independent states, India and
Pakistan. Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindus fled to India in one of the largest transfers of population in
history.