Week 11-13 Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature

Related literature
 composed of discussions of facts and principles
 usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, etc.
Related studies
 researches, inquiries or investigations already conducted
 usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, etc.
Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies
1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. The social, economic,
scientific, and technological changes are rapidly developing, so the findings several years
ago may be of little value today because of the fast changing lifestyle of the people.
2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely
or subtly one sided, either political or religious, etc. which may lead to distorted
generalizations.
3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some
bearing or similarity to the research problem at hand should be reviewed.
4. Surveyed materials must have been based on genuinely original and true facts
or data to make them valid and reliable. For the purposes of evaluating credibility and
usefulness of resources you it is advisable to use the library and internet resources. Since
many students depend on the internet, clear evaluative criteria must be observed. Some
internet sources are easily alterable where anyone can construct and publish a web site.
On the other hand, some print materials found in the library can be self-published as well.
The best way to find the most reliable perspectives for your research is to search and
compare diverse types of sources.
5. Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many. They must only be sufficient
enough to give insight into the research problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation. The number may also depend on the availability of related materials.
Type of Sources
 Static
o only published once, although they may be redeveloped as other editions
o Examples: books, paintings, films and basic html coded web sites.
 Syndicated
o released over time under the same general title.
o Examples: periodicals (magazine and journals), television shows, blogs and
podcasts.
 Dynamic
o never permanently published in a final form
o If there are repeat performances or publications, they are different every time.
o Examples: play and other live performances, wiki publications; and field research
(observations, interviews, and surveys).
Standard Styles of Related Literature
A well-written research paper is not only backed up with relevant literature but also correct,
complete and proper citation of its sources. Researcher must respect the intellectual property
and effort of other researchers or writers by acknowledging their works in correct format.
There are three reasons to cite the materials you use (Lipson, 2011):
 1. To give credit to others’ work and ideas whether you agree with them or not. When you
use their words, you must give them credit by using both quotation marks and citation.
2. To show readers the materials on which you base your analysis, your narrative or your
conclusion.
3. To guide readers to the materials
you have used so that they can
examine it for themselves. Their
interest might be to confirm your
work, to challenge it, or simply to
explore it further.

Synthesizing the Relevant

Literature
Specific guidelines to produce a coherent related literature
1. Organize the surveyed information in terms of importance by determining the highly
relevant to the least essential points.
2. Classify and identify the appropriate categories, relationship, similarities, of both local and
international studies.
3. Present the literature according to chronological or logical order, from the most recent to
the earliest time of development.
4. Analyze their respective content, facts, findings, methods, concepts and implications. Cite
properly all relevant literature into a meaningful whole.
5. Summarize and/or paraphrase through synthesizing the information Do not simply narrate
or report the studies over the years; do not simply trace the development or reiterate the
writer’s ideas. Instead, summarize by indicating the implication of the literature to one’s
problem.
6. Avoid misinterpretation or distortion of the writer’s original meaning by direct quotation.
7. Apply in-text citation for paraphrased or quoted sources. Refer to the citation style chart
presented earlier.
8. Synthesize into holistic body of content or in one relevant discussion

1. Introduction
 should identify the topic, its significance, and the thesis statement
 If your literature review is part of a larger work, explain the importance of the
review to your research questions.
 engage in a dialogue with the literature; do not just provide a summary

2. Body
 discuss and assess the research according to specific organizational principles
 Most of the paragraphs here should discuss more than one source
 Avoid addressing your sources alphabetically

Organizational Description
Principles
A. Chronology  used to explain historical changes or perspectives
 written according to the dates of the studies or findings
B. Theme  used to explain ideas according to their respective
premise
 Issues are classified based on their closest relevance to
 the research topic
C. Sector  used to connect the 5 Course Module research topic to
different backgrounds
 Interdisciplinary discussion becomes more
comprehensive through this principle
D. Development of ideas  used to discuss the stages of ideas that are developing
in the research topic or inquiry
 illustrates the development of ideas like a snowball
E. Combination of all  used as per the discretion and analysis of the researcher
 Some research topics need the combination of all of
these principles to organize the related literature

3. Conclusion
 provide a summary of the findings
 Explain what your analysis of the material leads you to conclude
Ethical Standards in Writing the Review of Related Literature (RRL)
Generally, researchers are expected to be honest and responsible in reporting their research
findings. They must avoid misrepresent, misinform, mislead, and/or intentionally misinterpret the
content of their related literature.
Research Misconduct
According to the Office of Research Integrity (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services), research misconduct means Fabrication, Falsification, or Plagiarism (FFP) in
proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results.
a. Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
b. Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or
omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the
research record.
c. Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words
without giving appropriate credit
 Self-plagiarism is copying of part of the internet has increased the use of
own previous published study by a copy and paste method of writing by
scientist/expert/researcher/writer young authors.
without appropriate citation. It is not  Any statement that contains a fact that
tolerable in academic writing because is not universally known or contains
authors are supposed to mention factual details should be referenced.
closely related previous work in  Scientific misconduct (fabrication and
appropriate manner. falsification of data) is now beginning
 The work already published by an to be considered similar to other
author becomes a property of scientific criminal offences and often committed
medical literature in actual sense and by the same offender.
cannot be duplicated.
 The use of sentence/s from published
medical literature with minor
modification in word structure without
attribution is also plagiarism.
 Using published photos or images
without written permission is also
considered as plagiarism. Easy
availability of private computers and
Blog is a web site where entries are published over time and usually organized chronologically
(Miller-Cochran& Rodrigo, 2014).
Podcasts are audio files that are published in installments. They operate almost like an audio
version of a magazine or blog (Miller-Cochran& Rodrigo, 2014).
Wikis are software applications that allow users to create and edit pages easily, often in a
collaborative environment. Not all wikis are public, and not all wikis that can be viewed online are
open for editing by the general public
Week 14-15 Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
Data
 what researchers are searching for
 They are subjected to analysis, statistical procedures, and interpretation
 reveal unsatisfactory conditions that need to be improved
 The application of newly discovered facts and principles to remedy unsatisfactory
conditions becomes the basis of human progress and the improvement of the quality of
human life (Calderon & Gonzales, 2008).
Qualitative Research Design
research design
 research plan similar to a blue print which serves as a guide in conducting a study
 overall strategy that a researcher chooses to incorporate the different components his/her
study
 written in a coherent and logical way
Qualitative research designs consist of many components and can be based on basic design
 Clear focus on the research questions
 Manageable in resources and time
 Clear in decisions about sampling and particular use of methods
 Well-linked to the theoretical background and based on the research perspective of the
study
 Reflective to the aims of generalization and the audiences of the study
 Sensitive, flexible, and adaptive to conditions in the field
 Open to new insights from the start or during the progress of the research.
Five Approaches of Qualitative Research Design according to Creswell (2013)
1. Narrative Research
 begins with the experiences as expressed in lived and told stories of individuals
 The procedures for implementing this research consist of focusing on studying one
or two individuals, gathering data through the collection of their stories, reporting
individual experiences, and chronologically ordering the meaning of those
experiences
 Types of Narratives
o Biographical study is when the researcher writes and records the
experiences of another person’s life.
o Autoethnography is written and recorded by the individuals who are
subject of the study (Ellis; Muncey, in Creswell, 2013). It contains the
personal story of the author as well as the larger cultural meaning for the
individual’s story.
 o A life history portrays an individual’s entire life, while a personal experience
story is a narrative study of an individual’s personal experience found in
single or multiple episodes, private situations, or communal folklore (Denzin,
in Creswell, 2013).
o An oral history consists of gathering personal reflections of events and their
causes and effects from one individual to several individuals (Plummer, in
Creswell, 2013).
2. Phenomenological Research
 common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a
phenomenon
 The researcher then collects data from the persons who have experienced the
phenomenon
3. Grounded Theory Research
 move beyond description and to generate or discover a theory
 “unified theoretical explanation” (Corbin & Strauss, in Creswell, 2013)
 The researcher generates a general explanation (a theory) of a process, and action,
or an interaction shaped by the views of a large number of participants
4. Ethnographic Research
 focuses on an entire culture sharing group
 involves many people who interact over time
 “The researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values,
behaviors, beliefs and language of a culture sharing group (Harris, in Creswell,
2013).”
5. Action Research
 seeks action to improve practice and study the effects of the action that was taken
 Solutions are sought to address problems in a particular setting
 the implementation of solutions occurs as an actual part of the research process
 There is no delay in implementation of the solutions
The Sample and Sampling Procedures
Sample
 a representative of the population
 the characteristics of the sample are characteristics of the population
 the data is obtained from the sample only, but are applied to the entire population
 members of the sample are identified as respondents, participants or subjects who
will meet the criteria for subject selection and will provide necessary data or information
(Casela & Cuevas, 2010).
Study population
 entire group of elements that you would like to study
 a group of individuals but it can also be composed of a larger units
 entirely defined by the researcher, based on the study objectives
Sampling frame
 list of all elements in a study population
 always defined by your study population
 often not easy to obtain in field research
Sampling unit
 the thing (person, place, event, etc.) that is selected for inclusion in the study
  If you are sampling high school students, your sampling unit would be one

Data Collection Procedure in Qualitative Description

Research
1. Observation  The researcher records the events that
he/she has seen
 He/She focuses on respondents to
capture a particular aspect of their
behavior
 He/She may or may not directly
participate in the activities of the
research investigation.
 He/She may or may not have any
background
2. Interview  The researcher asks a set of
wellconstructed questions and may
even make follow up questions to
gather the necessary data.
 He/She establishes rapport in a face-to-
face interview to yield highest response
rate.
 He/She resorts to telephone interview
when less time and less expenses are
being considered
3. Documentary Analysis  The researcher uses existing or
available information such as health
records or reports and other documents
of organization or institution
4. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)  The researcher obtains in-depth
information on concepts, perceptions,
and ideas of a group
 He/She facilitates the group members
discussing the topic among themselves
5. Visual Data  They refer to the recording, analysis
and communication of social life
through photographs, films, and videos
 most useful when observing spaces,
places, the environment, and objects.
Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
Data analysis is another challenging part of any research. The researcher should be systematic
so he/she will not be daunted by the bulk of data he/she gathered. Although some computer
software can also do the analysis of the research data, it is still necessary for the researcher to
interpret and describe the results.
Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic Approaches (Grbich, 2013)
1. Iterative/hermeneutic approach involves seeking meaning and developing interpretive
explanation through the process of feedback. This involves a series of actions: defining the
question, going out of the field, examining the data collected, adjusting the
question/sampling approach/design aspect/data collection tools in light of emerging issues
and current literature, subjecting this data to a critically reflective process of data analysis to
determine “what is going on” in order to build up a picture of data and going back to the field
to find out more. These processes are repeated until the accumulated findings indicate that
nothing new is likely to emerge and that the research question has been answered.
2. Subjective approach is focused on the researcher, and what takes place within his/her own
thoughts and actions in specified context. The researcher needs to maintain a detailed and
critically reflective diary record and be prepared to subject himself/herself to regular periods
of debriefing with a supervisor or colleague. When the researcher’s experiences are the sole
or partial target of the target, he/she occupies a dual role – that of a researcher and
researched.
3. Investigative semiotic approach involves the uncovering information relating to
languages within cultural contexts. The understanding of signs and symbols is central to this
approach, in particular their mythical strength, and the embedded power of particular
discourse which the researcher need to disentangle the reveal the original elements as well
as to identify arguments that have been marginalized.
4. Enumerative approach involves listing or classifying of items by percentages, frequencies,
ranked order, or whatever is useful to the research question. This approach involves the
researcher in the production of “objective” accounts of the content of the verbal, written or
visual texts, the development of codes and categories often prior to analysis, and the
definition and measurement of units of analysis. Flow charts, logical reasoning processes, the
seeking of links between antecedents and outcomes through identification of ordered
(ranked) word frequency, key words in context, and incidence counting.
Stages of Interview/ Observational Data for Analysis (Grbich, 2013)
 Transcription of data. It involves getting the dialogue or narrative of the devices on
which the researcher has recorded it and into a document so there is a clear researcher
defined column for notes, as seen below
 Preliminary data analysis. It is an ongoing process that is undertaken every time data
is collected. It involves a simple process of checking and tracking the data to see what is
coming out of it, identifying areas that require follow up and actively questioning where
the information collected is leading/ should lead the researcher. It is a process of
engagement with the text, not so much to critique it or to summarize what is emerging
from it, but more to gain a deeper understanding of the values and meanings which lie
therein
 Face sheets. This is a cover sheet that is attached to the front of the data transcription
and identifies the study question, time and place of interview/observation and summarizes
the main outcomes for the preliminary analysis.
Week 16 Finding Answers through Data Collection
Observation
 research method that enables researchers to systematically observe and record people’s
behavior, actions and interactions
 also allows researchers to obtain a detailed description of social settings or event
Key Points in Conducting Observations (Ritchie, et.al, 2013)
 Observational approaches are particularly useful for addressing research questions
which seek to understand phenomena in their natural context and which go beyond
participants’ accounts. This may include research focusing on behaviors (which may be
subconsciously enacted or which individuals might be uncomfortable verbalizing),
complex social interactions, and how people engage with physical space or activities.
 Observed data are inherently subjective. What is observed may be influenced by the
presence of the researcher, and they make active choices about their level of involvement
in the observed setting. Researchers are very directly involved in data generation through
decisions about what to observe and what and how to record. Their own experience of the
observed interaction is an important part the dataset, something that stimulates further
analysis and adds to the richness of observation as method.
 Observation is used as a single qualitative method rather than in longer term
ethnographic studies and is more commonly used in multi-method designs. Here, it
may be the central method or may be used to inform the design and later stages of
research, provide greater understanding of the phenomenon being studied, to verify other
findings or to provide additional explanation.
 Careful decisions are needed about what to observe, where, when and how often, even
the familiarization with the cites is crucial here. A range of different features is likely to be
observed such as the way physical space is organized, who is present, what they do, and
how they interact with others.
Participant observation
 qualitative method with roots in traditional ethnographic research, whose objective is to
help researchers learn the perspectives held by study populations (Mack, et.al (2005))
General Categories of Information in Participant Observation (Mack, et.al,2005)

Category Inclusions Notes for Researchers

Appearance Clothing, age, gender, Anything that might indicate
physical appearance membership in groups or in
subpopulations of interest to
the study, such as profession,
social status, socioeconomic
class, religion, or ethnicity
Verbal behavior and Who speaks to whom and for Gender, age, ethnicity, and
 interactions how long; who initiates profession of speakers;
interaction; languages or dynamics of interaction
dialects spoken; tone of voice
Clothing, age, gender,
physical appearance
Physical behavior and What people do, who does How people use their bodies
gestures what, who interacts with and voices to communicate
whom, who is not interacting different emotions; what
individuals’ behaviors indicate
about their feelings toward
one another, their social rank,
or their profession
Personal space How close people stand to What individuals’ preferences
one another concerning personal space
suggest about their
relationships
Human traffic People who enter, leave, and Where people enter and exit;
spend time at the observation how long they stay; who they
site are (ethnicity, age, gender);
whether they are alone or
accompanied; number of
people
People who stand out Identification of people who The characteristics of these
receive a lot of attention from individuals; what
others differentiates them from
others; whether people
consult them or they
approach other people;
whether they seem to be
strangers or well known by
others present

Interview is another way of collecting data that can be conducted online or on the telephone.
Face-to-face interviewing is proven to provide a more valid data because physical cues of
body language or facial expression could be a pointer for probing.
In-depth interview - is a one-on-one method of data collection that involves an interviewer and
an interviewee discussing specific topics in depth
- may be described as a conversation with a purpose
In-depth interview may be conducted to identify (Hennink, et.al.,2011):
 How people make decisions  The personal story or biography of a
 People’s own beliefs and perceptions participant
 The motivation for certain behavior  In-depth information on sensitive
 The meaning people attach to issues
experiences  The context surrounding people’s lives
 People’s feelings and emotions
Principles in Formulating Questions (Ritchie, et.al, 2013)
1. Open Questions.
 These are standard tool of in-depth interview.
  They put the onus (responsibility) on the participant to supply the content of the
answer, in contrast to dichotomous or closed questions that require yes/ no answer
or a single word or phrase
2. Non Leading Questions.
 It can also be important to watch for your own responses as a researcher, to what
you have heard, trying to make sure that reaction does not influence the way you
formulate a question, and aiming to ask questions that are phrased in an open, non-
judgmental manner.
 Researchers should be alert to how their responses may influence the research
interaction or inadvertently lead the interview in a helpful way.
 This influence can be introduced by physical responses such as sharp intake of
breath, laughter, a look of surprise or skepticism, just as much as by verbal
responses in the way questions or responses are phrased or worded.
3. Asking Clear Questions.
 The most effective questions are short and clear, leaving the interviewee with no
uncertainty about the sort of information being sought.
 Double questions should be avoided. Example: How did you hear about the service
and what made you decide to use it?
 Avoid questions that are too abstract or theorized.
 The interviewer must be sensitive to the language and terminology used by people,
and to reflect it back to them – without going too far as to parody or lose
authenticity
4. Asking Mapping Questions.
 A series of follow up questions should be asked in response to the answer given.
 These questions allow the interviewee to address the key dimensions of the topic as
it pertains to them, and provide the structure and framework of the interview.
 The researcher needs to decide how to structure the interview to explore each of
these key dimensions.
Stages of the Interview(Ritchie, et.al, 2013)

Stage 1 : Arrival and  Establish an initial rapport

Introductions  Host the interaction by taking responsibility for making it
friendly and positive
Stage 2: Introducing the  Seeking informed consent: aims, objectives, voluntary,
Research confidential 5 Course Module
 Scope of the interview: but the participant is in control of what
they disclose
 No right and wrong answers, hearing their perspective in their
own words
Stage 3: Beginning the  Contextual background information: for reference in interview
interview and to set the tone
Stage 4: During the  Breadth and depth of coverage
interview
Stage 5: Ending the  Give some advance notice
interview  End on a positive note: suggestions and recommendations
Stage 6: After the interview  Thank for participation: value of their contribution
 How the information will be treated and used
 Be prepared to stay to help the change of mode back to the
everyday
 Listen out for “doorstep” data – final reflections or new
informations
These are additional considerations in conducting an in-depth interview according to
Hennink, et.al., (2011):
 1. Get acquainted with the interviewee through small talk.
2. Establish rapport and create a safe, comfortable environment for the interviewee.
3. Pose questions in an open, unthreatening way and in a friendly colloquial manner.
4. Listen and respond to the interviewee by asking follow up questions and probing.
5. Show empathy towards the interviewee.
6. Motivate the interviewee to tell their story in detail.
7. Take note of the social context, and observe the environment of the interviewee.
8. Observe the body language and subtle reactions of the interviewee.
9. Be sincerely interested in hearing about the life of the interviewee.
10.Have respect for the beliefs and lifestyle of the interviewee.
Week 17 Analyzing the Meaning of the Data and Drawing Conclusions
Content analysis
 usually refers to analyzing text rather than observation field notes
 refers to any qualitative data reduction and sense-making effort that takes a volume of
qualitative material
Patterns are the basis for themes. The core meanings found through content analysis are
patterns and themes. The process of searching for patterns and themes may be distinguished
as pattern analysis and theme analysis, respectively. The term pattern refers to a descriptive
finding while a theme takes a more categorical or topical form, interpreting the meaning of the
pattern: FEAR
Techniques for Discovering Themes in Texts (Ryan & Bernard, 2003)
1. Word repetitions.
 Word repetitions, key-indigenous terms, and keywords-in-contexts (KWIC) all draw
on a simple observation—if you want to understand what people are talking about,
look at the words they use.
 analyzed formally and informally
 informal mode, investigators simply read the text and note words or synonyms
that people use a lot
 formal analysis of word frequencies can be done by generating a list of all the
unique words in a text and counting the number of times each occurs
2. Indigenous category.
 Another way to find themes is to look for local terms that may sound unfamiliar or
are used in unfamiliar ways
 experience and expertise are often marked by specialized vocabulary
3. Key words in context (KWIC)
 are closely associated with indigenous categories
 based on a simple observation
 Each time they find a word, they make a copy of it and its immediate context
4. Compare and contrast.
 based on the idea that themes represent the ways in which texts are either similar
or different from each other
 They ask hypothetical questions
5. Social science queries
 Besides identifying indigenous themes—themes that characterize the experience of
informants—researchers are interested in understanding how textual data illuminate
questions of importance to social science
 Querying the text as a social scientist is a powerful technique because
investigators concentrate their efforts on searching for specific kinds of topics
 6. Searching for missing information
 investigators search for themes that are missing in 3 Course Module the text
 the most difficult
7. Metaphors and analogies.
 The observation that people often represent their thoughts, behaviors, and
experiences with analogies
 The object is to look for metaphors in rhetoric and deduce the schemas, or
underlying principles, that might produce patterns in those metaphors
8. Transitions
 to look for naturally occurring shifts in thematic content
 written texts, new paragraphs are often used by authors to indicate either subtle
or abrupt shifts in topics
 oral speech, pauses, change in tone, or particular phrases may indicate thematic
transitions
9. Connectors
 to look carefully at words and phrases that indicate relationships among things
10. Unmarked texts
 to examine any text that is not already associated with a theme
 requires multiple readings of a text
11. Pawing
 is highly recommended through texts and marking them up with different colored
highlighter pens
 you get a feel for the text by handling your data multiple times
12. Cutting and sorting
 useful for identifying subthemes
 based on a powerful trick most of us learned in kindergarten and requires paper and
scissors
Ways to Display Qualitative Data Findings (Yin, 2011)
A. Narrative data about the participants in a qualitative study. The narrative could
present the voices of the participants, who portray in real-world events, through the use of
use of extensively quoted material. They can be shorter or longer, and they can contain
limited or extensively quoted passages. Each will require different amounts of data; each
will require field records with different levels of detail.
B. Tabular, graphic and pictorial presentations. Some qualitative studies augment their
narratives with other modes of presentation that will appear as exhibits or figures,
including tables, graphics and pictures. Each alternative presents a distinctive opportunity
for displaying data, potentially making the data more understandable than when
constrained by narrative descriptions alone. The other modes also can create images in a
reader’s mind to make a study’s data more vivid.

Three Modes for Displaying Qualitative Data

Type of Display Illustrative Examples
1. Word Tables and  Summary of findings, placed into a matrix of rows and columns
Lists  Chronology
 Aggregate characteristics of people studied or interviewed
 List of individual people in a study and their study characteristics
(not necessarily routine demographic characteristics)
2. Graphics  Geographic map; census tract map
 Spatial layout of a study area
 Hierarchical chart (e.g. organizational chart)
 Flowchart (e.g. sequence of events over a time line)
 Family trees and other schemes
 3. Pictures  Photographs
 Reproductions (e.g. of artwork or of others’ drawings or pictures)

C. Conversion of materials into slides. The findings of the research can become objects
presented to an audience once you exhibit them in slides. Relative to exhibits, slides need
to use larger typeface, be simpler in concept, and be more quickly understandable. A more
creative way of presenting abstract concepts, such as matrices or even lists, involves
embedding them within a geometric shape, such as pyramid. Again, slides remain a
supplementary tool; you and your performance still occupy the center stage
Week 18-19 Reporting and Sharing the Findings
Conclusion
 should clarify concepts defined within the scope of the study
 should explain the relationship of the variables under stud
 should answer all questions raised by the researcher
Drawing and Verifying Conclusions
Drawing conclusion - involves deciding what the identified themes and patterns mean and how
they help to answer the research questions
 Memoing happens when qualitative researchers begin write their initial conclusions
and observations, sometimes after every focus group, interview or observational event.
These conclusions are initially preliminary, subject to revision as the project proceeds.
Interim analyses may suggest new questions for future interviews and different types
of participants to sample.
 Verification involves checking and rechecking the data to ensure the initial
conclusions are realistic, supportable, and valid.
 Credibility is qualitative researchers’ term for trustworthiness and reliability. Reliability
in qualitative research is the degree of consistency with which the same researcher
assigns similar observations and interpretations at different times.
Guidelines in Writing the Conclusion (Calderon and Gonzales, 2008)
1. Conclusions should be logically written presenting the valid outgrowths of the findings.
Conclusions should have inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications,
interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations based on the findings.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of
the investigation in the order they are given under the statements of the problem.
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. However, no
conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, yet the study as
required by the specific questions.
5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated categorically.
They should be worded as if they are 100% true and correct. They should not give any hint
that the researcher has some doubts about their validity and reliability. The use of
quantifiers such as probably, perhaps, maybe, and the like should be avoided.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study.
7. Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the research paper.
They may be recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and they
should convey the same information as the statements recapitulated.
Formulating Recommendations Based on Conclusion
Recommendations
 suggestions for solution, improvement, revision, validating of existing practices and for
future or additional research on issues about daily life.
 They should be specific, realistic and achievable.
 They can identify the areas which need further research, which can be replicated or which
can be validated

Guidelines in Writing the Recommendations (Calderon and Gonzales, 2008)

1. Recommendations should not aim to solve or help solve problems discovered in the
investigation.
2. No recommendations should be made for a problem, or anything for that matter, that has
not been discovered or discussed in the study. Recommendations for things not discussed
in the study are irrelevant.
3. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice or system, or
even recommendation for its improvement. This is to ensure a continuous benefit being
accorded to the universe involved.
4. Recommendations should aim for the ideals but they must be feasible, practical, and
attainable. It is useless to recommend the impossible.
5. Recommendations should be logical and valid.
6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies, or offices who
or which are in a position to implement them.
7. There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in other places
to verify, amplify, or negate the findings of the study. This is necessary so that if the
findings are the same, generalizations of wider application can be formulated.
Listing References
References - include a complete list of all quoted and paraphrased works that the researcher
actually used in completing the study
Bibliography includes a complete list of all works related to the study, but are not directly
contained in the report.
Reference list allows readers to locate and use the sources you have cited.
Reference information must be complete and accurate by including the following information
in the reference entry: author’s name, year of publication, title of the work, and the publication
information
Presenting the Written Research Report
Final report - is the document that ultimately represents the research
- record of the research content, process, and analyses as reported by the
researcher
- serves as the scientific contribution a researcher make about what is known about
the social world
- It can also act as a catalyst for further research
 While the content will always be essentially the same for each audience, the emphasis on
specific points and the way in which they are expressed will be different depending on the
target audience.
 This report need not to be substantially different from drafts, except where participants
have indicated that change is necessary.
  It should begin with the restatement of the beginnings of the research project and end
with a summary section.
 The summary section provides a description and explanation of the new knowledge
discovered or the unique contribution that this research makes. Not too much detail is
needed here – simple answer the research questions, and draw the conclusion.
 The final report can suggest some potential directions for further research and possibly
what kind of policy or individual or group action might be recommended.
 The readers must be informed why this research counts and why is it important.

The Best Research Design

The simplicity of the design indicates measurability and attainability of the research in terms of
natural setting, willing participants, adequate time and cost
Parts of the Written Research Report
1. Title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale of the study, the population
involved, and the period when the data were gathered or will be gathered (Calderon &
Gonzales, 2008).
2. Introduction is a generalized discussion which should lead to actually stating and clearly
articulating the research problem. It provides a background that creates a favorable
impression about the study. The background establishes the problem by describing its
nature and narrating its development, occurrence or existence. It describes also the
setting where the problem is conceived. Lastly, it explains the rationale of the problem
(Casela and Cuevas, 2010).
3. Statement of the Problem is a direct, clear statement of the principal and sub-problems
to be investigated.
4. Significance of the Study classifies the people or organization who will who will receive
the full advantage of the research.
5. Scope and Delimitation emphasizes on the extent of the information to be discussed in
the study and the limits of the discussion.
6. Review of Related Literature is the foundation of proposed study for it guides the
researcher in pursuing his/her research venture (Calderon & Gonzales, 2008).
7. Methodology discusses the research design to be used, the sample and sampling
procedure, and the process of the data collection.
8. Presentation and Interpretation of Data illustrates the data in tabular or graphical
form with relative, objective and critical explanations.
9. Conclusion indicates the favorable or unfavorable research findings and
Recommendations possible research projects to confirm or verify results of the study
(Casela & Cuevas, 2010).
10.References list down all the sources used in the study particularly the title, author(s),
date and place of publication, arranged in a specific bibliographic entry format.