Unit 1 – Atomic Structure

Note guide - part 2

Madhu Haputhanthri
B.Sc. Hons (Chemistry sp), University of Colombo
Chemistry sp, Graduate Chemist, ICHEM

Mole

Radioactivity

• Following the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel, Ernest Rutherford showed that
radioactive materials produce 3 types of emissions
1. Alpha
2. Beta
3. Gamma

Behaviour of alpha (a), beta (b) and gamma (g) rays in an electric field

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 Rutherford’s gold foil experiment

• Scientists involved
1) Rutherford
2) Geiger
3) Marsden

Observations
- Majority of the particles penetrated the foil either unreflected or only with a slight deflection
- Few 𝛼 particles were scattered (or reflected) at a large angle
- Very few 𝛼 particles bounced back in the direction from which it came

In order to explain the observations, Rutherford came up with a new atomic model in which he claimed
that

• Most of the atom must be empty

Because the structure allows most of the α particles to pass through the gold foil with little or no
deflection
• He proposed that atom’s negative charges are all concentrated in the nucleus (a dense central core)
Because the direction of the α particles travelling directly towards the nucleus is completely reversed
due to the enormous repulsion and whenever an α particle comes closer to the nucleus it experiences
a large repulsion which results in a large deflection.

Rutherford’s atomic model

Neutron

• James Chadwick discovered the neutron

- Charge – 0
- Mass – 1.6749×10-24 g / 1.008665 u
- Relative mass – 1

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 Rutherford Bohr Model / Bohr Model

• Niels Bohr suggested that the atomic nucleus was surrounded by electrons moving in orbit
• He postulated that the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and electron must be equal to
centrifugal force in order for electron to remain in orbit

Bohr model

o Nucleons – particles found in the nucleus (including p & n)

o Nuclide – a nucleus of an atom that has specific number of protons and neutrons (all nucleons)

Atomic number and mass number

• Mosely found that the number of positive charges on nucleus increases in atoms by single electron
units
• The atoms of each element have a characteristic number of protons
• Atomic number –
• Mass number –

Isotopes

• J.J. Thompson and Francis William Aston discovered the first isotope using mass spectrometer
• ‘Atoms with identical atomic number but with different mass numbers are called isotopes’

The atomic mass scale

• Since atoms are amazingly small pieces of matter, it is convenient to use the unified atomic mass
unit (u) when dealing with such small masses
• u is defined as a mass of exactly 1/12th of a chemically unbound atom of the 12C isotope of carbon

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 Average atomic mass

• In nature, most elements occur as a mixture of isotopes. ∴ an average mass it obtained by summing
over the masses of its isotopes multiplied by their relative abundances

1) Naturally occurring carbon is composed of 98.93% 12C, 1.07% 13C and negligible amount of 14C. The
masses of 2 initial isotopes are 12 u and 13.0035 u respectively. Calculate the average atomic mass of
carbon
2) An element called ‘M’ has 2 isotopes with mass numbers 42 and 44. Isotope 42 has a relative abundance
of 20%. Find the average atomic mass of M.

Molar mass

• When the atomic mass/molecular mass is given in g mol-1 units, it is known as the molar mass of the
atom/molecule

Relative atomic mass

• It is the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element to 1/12th mass of a 12C atom

Ions

• In chemical reactions nuclei of atoms are unchanged, but some atoms gain or lose electrons readily in
chemical processes forming negative/positive ions

• In addition to the simple ions such as Na+, Cl- there are polyatomic ions as NH!" and SO#$
!

Electromagnetic radiation and wave like properties of matter

• Electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations of

electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light (2.99×108 m s-1) through a vacuum
• Oscillations of the 2 fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation

C = 𝛌𝛖

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 Quantization of energy

• Max Planck proposed that energy is quantized.

• Energy can either be released or absorbed by atoms only in discrete quantities of some minimum size.
He named it as ‘quantum’

𝐡𝐜
E = 𝐡𝛖 E= h = Planck constant (6.626×10-34 J s)
𝛌

1) The yellow light given off by a sodium vapour lamp has a wavelength of 589 nm. Calculate the 𝜐 of
this radiation

2) i. Calculate the energy of one photon of yellow light that has a 𝜆 of 589 nm
ii. Find the energy of one mole of photons

• In years following the development of Bohr’s model for the hydrogen atom, scientists established that
depending on experimental circumstances, radiation appears to have a wave like and particle like
(photon) character

De Broglie equation

• De Broglie suggested that an electron moving about the nucleus of an atom behaves like a wave and
therefore has a wavelength

$ $
𝜆= =
% &'

1) What is the De-Broglie wavelength of an electron travelling at a speed of 1.5×108 m s-1

Electronic energy level of atoms

• The ionization energy of an atom or ion is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
the ground state of the isolated gaseous atom or ion
• The greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron
• The ionization energies for a given element increases as successive electrons are removed. It is
because with each successive removal, an electron is being pulled from an increasingly more positive
ion, requiring increasingly more energy

Element I1 I2 I3 I4
Na 496 4562
Mg 738 1451 7733
Al 578 1817 2745 11577

- Successive values of ionization energies. -

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 • The sharp increase in ionization energy that occurs when an inner-shell electron is removed is a clear
evidence for the fact that electrons are in discrete energy levels

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