TOPIC 4

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

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 Specific Learning Outcomes

 Explain the basic concepts of a Differential Amplifier Supplementary Notes

 Describe the basic op-amp and its characteristics

 Open loop op-amp circuits
 Describe the concept of negative feedback
 Identify the closed loop amplifier circuits
 Analyse negative feedback circuits

Reference :
1. Floyd T. L. Electronic Devices: Conventional Current Flow Version (9th Edition)

2. Robert T. Paynter. Introductory Electronic Devices and Circuits: Conventional Flow

Version, (7th Edition)

2
 Supplementary Notes

4.1 Introduction To Operational Amplifier

 Discrete components are referred to those components housed in individual
packages; that is, one package - one components. Examples are diodes and
transistors.
 Integrated Circuit (IC) is referred to a single package that contains any number of
active components (eg. Diode, BJT, JFET) and/or passive components (eg.
capacitors, resistors), all constructed on a single piece of silicon.
 Operational amplifiers (op-amp) are one of the most versatile and widely
used of all linear IC’s.

 Early operational amplifiers were used primarily to perform mathematical

operations (+ , - ,  , etc), hence the term operational.

 Today’s op-amps are referred to a high-gain dc amplifier that has high

input impedance and low output impedance.

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 Symbol And Terminals

 The standard op-amp symbol is shown in Figure 1.

 It has two input terminals, the inverting input (-) and the non-inverting input (+),
and one output terminal.

Inverting +V
Input –
Output
Non-
inverting
+
Input
-V
Figure 1 Op-amp Symbol
• The typical op-amp operates with two dc power supply inputs, labelled +V (positive supply)
and –V (negative supply).
• Usually these dc voltage terminals are left off the schematic symbol for simplicity.

4
 Simple Op-amp Arrangement Supplementary Notes

 An op-amp typically consists of two or more differential amplifier stages.

Figure 2 shows two differential amplifier stages and an emitter-follower
connected to form a very simple op-amp. Both differential stages together
provide a high voltage gain and a high CMRR. The emitter follower will
achieve a relatively low output impedance.
+V

_ – Emitter-follower
vd Diff-amp 1 Diff-amp 2
+ +
Vout

-V

Figure 2
5
 Basic Differential Amplifier Circuit Supplementary Notes

 It has two inputs and two outputs.

 A basic differential amplifier circuit and its symbol are
shown below: VCC
Note: Q1 and Q2 are
assumed to be
RC1 RC2 perfectly matched vi1 – vo1
vo1 vo2 (ideally)

vi1 vi2 vi2 + vo2

Q1 Q2
IE1 IE2
IRE Differential Amp
RE symbol
-VEE

Differential Amp Circuit

When two identical signals (common-mode signals) such as noise appear at the
two inputs simultaneously they cancel, resulting in a zero output voltage. This
action is called common-mode rejection.
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 Supplementary Notes
The Ideal Op-amp
 The ideal op-amp has infinite open loop voltage gain (Aol) and infinite
bandwidth.

 Also, it has an infinite input impedance (Zin) and has

 zero output impedance (Zout). These characteristics are illustrated below:

__

__ + Vout
vd Zin =  Aol vin

Zout = 00
out =

+ Aol = 

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 The Practical Op-Amp Supplementary Notes

As an ideal device cannot be made, the practical op-amp has

characteristics close to but not equal to ideal values.
A practical op-amp has
 very high voltage gain (Aol),
 very high input impedance (Zin), and
 very low output impedance (Zout), as illustrated below:

__

Zin <  Vout

__ +
vd Aolvin
Zout >0

+ Aol < 

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 4.2 Important Op-amp Parameters

Open Loop Voltage Gain (Aol)

Input/Output Voltage Polarity

Output Saturation Voltage (Vsat)

Slew Rate (SR)

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 Open Loop Voltage Gain (Aol)
 Open-loop configuration of an Op-amp is the condition
when there is no feedback path from output to input.
 In this case, the voltage gain of the Op amp is called the
open-loop gain, Aol.
 An ideal op-amp has an infinite Aol.
 A good practical op-amp has a very high Aol , typically
50,000 to 200,000.

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 Input/Output Voltage Polarity
 The input stage of the Op-amp is a differential amplifier. Its
amplifies the difference between two input voltages v- and v+.
 The output (Vo) from the amplifier depends on
+V
– Gain of the amplifier
– The polarity relationship between v- and v+ v- –
dv Vo
– The values of the supply voltages, +V and –V v+ +
– The load resistance -V

At open loop condition, the following formula will hold

Vo = Aol (vd)
= Aol (v+ – v-)
where Aol is the open loop voltage gain of the op-amp

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 Input/Output Voltage Polarity

 Alternatively, the polarity relationship between v- and v+ will

determine whether the op-amp output voltage swings
towards +V or -V.
Inverting terminal
+V
+V
v- _
_ v-
_ +
Vd Vd
v+ + Vout -Vout
+ + v+
+
-V
-V

Non-inverting terminal

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 Input/Output Voltage Polarity
Example 1

 If DC voltages are applied to the input of op-amp:

_ +V
-4V

2V Since V_ < V+
+
-V Vout = +Voltage value

_ +V
2V

-4V Since V_ >V+

+
-V
Vout = -Voltage value

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 INPUT/OUTPUT VOLTAGE POLARITY
EXAMPLE 2

What is the polarity of the output?

+V +V
-1V 1V
_ _

? 1.1V
?
-1.1V +
+
-V -V

Answer :Negative (-ve) Answer:Positive (+ve)

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 Output Saturation Voltage
• When the output of the op-amp establishes a signal saturation condition, the signal
output voltages under these conditions are called output saturation voltages.
Sometimes they are also known as the output voltage swing.
• Since the open loop gain (Aol) is normally very high, therefore the output of an open-
loop op-amp is quite likely to be at its saturation conditions.
• Hence, for an open-loop op-amp circuit

Dual Power Supply Single Power Supply

Input Voltages
Condition

V+ > V− Vout = + Vsat Vout = +Vsat

V+ < V− Vout = − Vsat Vout = 0 V
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 Example 3: Output Saturation Voltage ( Open Loop)

The op-amp below has an open loop voltage gain (Aol) of 200,000 and maximum
output voltage swing (Vsat) = 15V . Calculate the Vout.

+V It is an open-loop op-amp circuit,

1V _
Vout V+ > V_ and AOl is very large,
2V + Hence, Vout = +Vsat = +15V
-V

Alternatively, using the formula

Vout = Aol(V+ −V_)
= 200,000 (2V-1V) = +200,000V
Since, Vout > +Vsat,

Hence, Vout = +Vsat = +15V

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 Example 4 : Output Saturation Voltage (Closed Loop)
For an op-amp circuit with Gain of 100.
Given the maximum output voltage swing (Vsat) of op-amp is 15V .

If input voltage (vin) to op-amp circuit is 2V

Vout = Gain x Vin = 100 (2V) = +200V

Since, Vout > +Vsat, Hence,

the output (Vout) is +Vsat = +15V

If input voltage (vin) to op-amp circuit is -3V

Vout = Gain x Vin = 100 (-3V) = -300V

Since, Vout > ‐Vsat, Hence,

the output (Vout) is -Vsat = -15V

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 Slew Rate (SR)

 The maximum rate of change of the output voltage of an

amplifier in response to a step input voltage is the slew rate
of an op-amp; i.e.:

Slew Rate = Vout / t (expressed in V/s)

(for Step input)

where Vout = +Vmax - (-Vmax)

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 Illustration Of Slew Rate

vin

0 t
_
Vout
vin vin + vout
0 t +Vmax
R
0 t
(a) Test Circuit (Voltage Follower) -Vmax
t

(b) Step input & resulting output

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 Slew Rate For Sine wave
 The slew rate tells how fast the output voltage can change when the op
amp is driven by a step input.
 A slew rate of 2V/s means that the output voltage can change by 2V
every microsecond.
 As frequency is related to time, the slew rate can be used to determine the
maximum operating frequency of the op-amp. For a sine-wave input, it is
governed by the following relationship:

Slew Rate = 2 |vo(pk)|fmax (for sinewave only)

where vo(pk) is the peak value of output voltage and fmax is the max.
operating frequency of op-amp

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 Example 5: Slew Rate

 Given that the slew rate of an op-amp is 20V/s. If the input signal(vin) is a 700 kHz
sine wave having an amplitude of 1 Vpp, is it possible to obtain an undistorted output
from the circuit? Assume the voltage gain of the op-amp circuit is 10.

Ans: • Since the frequency of the

vin = 1Vpp, and Gain = 10, signal is 700 kHz, which is
greater than fmax of the op amp
vo(pp) = 1 Vpp x 10 = 10 Vpp (637 kHz), then the output will be
distorted.
 vo(pk) = 5 Vpk

Slew Rate = 2 vo(pk) fmax • It is therefore not possible to

obtain an undistorted output.
fmax = SR

2Vo ( pk )

20V
 6
 637 kHz
(1 10 )(2  5V)

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 Self- Practice Exercise

 Refer to http//www.national.com for the data sheet of the op-amp LM741,

determine the following parameters of LM741 under the conditions that: :
 VS =  15 V, RL >= 2 k, RS <= 10 k,

Aol = _______________

Vsat = _______________

Slew Rate = _______________

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 Review Quiz 4.1 (answers)
1) Which of the following statements is true?
(A) Op-amps are high-gain dc amplifiers.
(B) Op-amps have extremely high input impedance.
(C) Op-amps have extremely low output impedance.
(D) All of the above. [ D ]

2) For an open-loop op-amp, given Vsat = 15V, open-loop gain (Avol) = 200000.
If v+ = 2V and v- = 1V, the output (Vout) is equal __15__V
If v- =-3V and v+ = -4V , the output (Vout) is equal __-15__V

3) The maximum output voltage swing of an op-amp is

(A) Vsat (B) Avol x Vin (C) V(supply) [ A ]

4) An op-amp has a slew rate of 0.2V/µs. If the peak output voltage is 15V, what is
the maximum operating frequency of the circuit if the input signal is a sine wave?
(2.12 kHz)

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4.3 Open Loop Operational Amplifier

Vout
-
Vout +Vsat
Vin +

-Vsat
Vout = Aol (v+ - v- ) = Aol (Vin )

If Vout = +Ve value, and Vout > Vsat,

Then Vout = + Vsat (ie : Vout clamp at +Vsat value)

If Vout = ‐Ve value, and Vout > ‐Vsat,

Then Vout = ‐ Vsat (ie : Vout clamp at ‐Vsat value)

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Open Loop Operational Amplifier

vout
vin
- +Vsat

-Vsat
Open-loop Inverting Amplifier

Vout
- +Vsat
vin
+
-Vsat

Open-loop Non-Inverting Amplifier

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 Op Amp As Comparator Circuits
 The operation amplifier is configured in open-loop when it
is used as an comparator.

 A comparator is a circuit that compares two input voltages

and produces an output in either of two states indicating
the greater than or less than relationship of the inputs.

 Because of the high open-loop voltage gain (AOl), a very

small difference voltage between the two inputs drives the
amplifier into saturation, causing the output voltage to go
to its limit ( +VSAT or –VSAT).

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 EXAMPLE 6: COMPARATOR CIRCUIT

Determine the output voltages of the following op-amps by

assuming that the open circuit voltage gain (Aol) is 100000 and the
saturation voltages are 14V.

vout = Aol (vd) = Aol (v+ - v- ) vout = Aol (vd) = Aol (v+ - v- )
= 100000(3-4) = 100000(4-3)
= -100000V = 100000V
Since |vout| > |-vsat| Since |vout| > |+vsat|

 vout = -Vsat = ‐14V  vout = +Vsat = +14V

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 EXAMPLE 7: COMPARATOR CIRCUIT

For the op-amp below, the open circuit voltage gain (Aol) is 200000 and the saturation
voltages are 9V.
If VA>VB, Vout= +Vsat = 9V

LED is forward biased and lights up

Vout  VLED
IR 3 
R3

R3 is the current limiting resistor for LED If VA<VB, Vout= -Vsat = -9 V

LED is reverse biased and does not light up

IR3 = 0 A

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 Self-practice
For the op‐amp below, it is given that Aol = 200,000 and Vsat = ±9 V. The forward bias voltage of the
LED, VLED = 2 V.
a. State the values of I+ and I‐ .

b. Calculate the value of Vref. [3.33V]

c. If Vin is 4V,
i. Calculate the value of Vout1 and Vout2. [9V, 8.3V]
ii. will the LED light up?

d. If Vin is 3V,
i. Calculate the value of Vout1 and Vout2.[‐9V, 0V]
ii. will the LED light up?

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 Summary Open Loop Op-Amp Circuit

 No signal path is provided from the output of a circuit back

to the input
 Gain = Aol
 Vout = Aol (V+ - V-)
 Usually use as a comparator,
 Vout is usually at (+) or (-) saturation voltage, depending
on the which input is larger.
If V+ > V-, Vout usually at +Vsat
If V+ < V-, Vout usually at -Vsat

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 4.4 Negative Feedback

 Negative feedback is one of the most useful concepts in

electronic circuits, particularly in op-amp application.

 What is Negative Feedback?

Negative Feedback is the process whereby a portion of the output
voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase inversion
(1800 out of phase).

 The feedback signal in turn reduces the overall gain of the

amplifier.

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 4.4.1 Negative Feedback

As illustrated below, the inverting input effectively makes the

feedback signal 1800 out of phase with the input signal:

Negative
Open loop
portion feedback
Amplifier (without
Feedback)
of the output path

vf _
Vout +Vsat
vin
-Vsat
vin +
Internal inversion makes vf
1800 out of phase with vin,
thus effectively reducing
the gain.

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 Why Use Negative Feedback

 Aol of an op-amp is very high (greater than 100,000).

Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-amp
into its saturated output states (ie. vout is at its saturation
voltage which is either +Vsat or -Vsat).
 Negative feedback reduces the voltage gain so that the op-
amp can be function as a linear amplifier and will not saturate
the output voltage.
 It also provides for control of the input and output impedances
and amplifier bandwidth.

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 Closed Loop Op-amp Circuits

 Op-amp is a very useful building block for various

electronic circuits. Some common op-amp circuits with
negative feedback (closed-loop op-amp) are introduced in
this section.
 For an ideal op-amp in –ve feedback configuration, the
following are good approximations:
since Zin  , implies zero current into the op-amp input terminal V+ & V-,
since open-loop gain (Aol)   implies |V+ – V-|  0V,
hence we can assume that

I-  0 and I+  0

V-  V+

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 Closed Loop Non-inverting Amplifier (With –Ve Feedback)

A non-inverting amplifier is as shown below.

• The input signal is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and

• The output is looped back to the inverting input through the

feedback circuit (closed loop) formed by Ri and Rf.

Rf

IRi IRf
Vf I- v- _

Ri Vout
v+
+
I+
+
Vin

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 Closed Loop Non-inverting Amplifier

v   V in
V f  v   v   V in ( assumption : v  v )
Vf
I Ri 
Ri

V out  V f
I Rf 
Rf

I Rf  I Ri  I   I Ri ( assumption : I  0)
Then
Vf V  Vf
 out
Ri Rf

V in V  V in
 out ( V f  V in )
Ri Rf Hence
V out R  Rf R
 i 1 f
V in x ( R f  R i )  V out xR V in Ri Ri
i

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 Closed Loop Non-inverting Amplifier

V out
A cl 
V
in

Rf
 1
Ri

 Acl is known as the closed-loop gain of the non-inverting

amplifier.
 Note that the closed-loop gain (Acl) is not dependent on the
op-amp’s open-loop gain (Aol) and it is determined by Ri
and Rf.

37
Example 8: Closed Loop Non-inverting Amplifier
For the non-inverting Amplifier shown below, determine its
voltage gain and its peak-to-peak output voltage.

38
EXAMPLE 8: CLOSED LOOP NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER SOLUTION

R RC
Acl  1 C 10 k
RA
10k
 1  21 -
500 RA
+
Vout
500
Vout RB
Acl  470
Vin
Vin
Vout ( pp )  A cl  Vin ( pp ) 0.5 Vpp

 21 0.5V  10.5V

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 Voltage Follower
 The voltage follower is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier where all of the output
voltage is fed back to the inverting inverting input by a straight connections, as shown
below:

Since v-  v+ ,

we have Vin = Vout,

therefore
Vout
Acl  1
Vin

The most important features of the voltage-follower are its very high input
impedance and its very low output impedance. It is commonly used as a
buffer amplifier for interfacing high-impedance sources and low-
impedance loads.

40
 Review Quiz 4.2 (answers)

Refer to Figure Q4-2

1) How do you identify the configuration of the Figure Q4-2 is closed loop non-inverting amplifier ?
Non-inverting because the input (Vin) is apply to non-inverting
input (+) terminal of op-amp.
Closed loop because there is feedback component (R2) from R2 = 100K
output to negative input (-) terminal of op-amp.
R1 = 10K
2) Write the voltage gain formula. 
Vout

R Vin
+
Acl  1 2 R3

R1

R4
Figure Q4-2
3) Determine the voltage gain of the amplifier.
Acl = 11
4) State the phase relationship between the input (Vin) and output (Vout)
voltage.
In-phase

41
 Closed Loop Inverting Amplifier
(With –Ve Feedback))
 An op-amp connected as an inverting amplifier is as shown below.

 The input signal is applied through a series input resistor Ri to the inverting
input
 The output is fed back through Rf to the same input.

IRf Rf

IRi
I- v-
_
vout
Ri
v+
+
+
vin I+

42
 Closed Loop Inverting Amplifier

 Using KCL gives

IRi = IRf + I-
but I+  I-  0
hence we have IRi = IRf

v   v out
I Rf 
Rf
and
v in  v 
I Ri 
Ri

43
 Closed Loop Inverting Amplifier
but v-  v+ = 0V IRf Rf
… (see: note)
IRi
Vout I_ V_
I Rf  -
we have : Rf Ri Vout
V+
Vin +
Vin I+
I Ri 
Ri
And I Rf  I Ri

Since Vout Vin note:


Rf Ri (The inverting terminal of the op-amp
is known as virtual ground, virtual
Vout ground is a point that had the same
A cl 
therefore, we have: Vin potential as the ground but it is not
physically connected to the ground)
R f
A cl 
Ri
44
 Example 9: Closed Loop Inverting Amplifier
For the Inverting Amplifier shown below, determine its voltage
gain and its peak-to-peak output voltage.
RC
10 k

-
RA Vout
Vin +
0.5 Vpp 500
RB
470

45
EXAMPLE 9: CLOSED LOOP INVERTING AMPLIFIER SOLUTION

R C
A cl   RC
R A 10 k

10 K 
    20 -
Vout
500  Vin RA
500 +
0.5 Vpp
RB
470
V out
A cl 
V in

Vout(pp)  A cl  Vin (pp)

= 20 x 0.5V
= 10V

Since the gain Acl= negative 20, hence Vout is 180° out of phase with Vin
46
 Summing Amplifier
 It can be shown easily that for the summing amplifier circuit
shown below, V1 V2
Vout  R f (  )
R1 R2

Rf
R1 I1
V1 If
R2 I2
I-
V2 _
Vout
+

47
 Summing Amplifier
If Rf
V1  V_ R1 I1
I1  V1
R1
R2 I2 I-
_
V2  V_ V2
Vout
I2 
R2 +

V _  Vout
If 
Rf

I f  I _  I1  I 2 V_  Vout V1  V_ V 2  V_ V1 V 2
  Vout  R f   
Rf R1 R2 R1 R 2
Since I_= 0,
V_ = V+ = 0V 0  Vout V1  0 V 2  0
 
Hence Rf R1 R2
If = I1 + I2
Vout V1 V 2
 
Rf R1 R 2

48
 Amplifier – Lab Model
Application Of Summing Amplifier , Voltage Follower & Inverting Amplifier
-Lamp Brightness Control

Proximity Sensor 20kΩ 10kΩ

13kΩ -
One touch output: 01 - 20kΩ
-
+ +
2nd touch output: 10 +
27kΩ 6V
3rd touch output: 11
bul
4th touch output: 00
b

• The summing amplifier sum up the 10kΩ

voltage from the sensor outputs.
20kΩ
-
• The voltage follower acts as a +
6V
buffer to prevent loading.
bul
• Last stage inverting amplifier b
Click on the picture to play the video
invert the negative voltage to
positive voltage. 49
 Example 10: Closed Loop Circuit

R2 = 20k
R5= 10k

R1
_ _
R4 B
5K OP-1 _ OP-3 vout
+ A 1K OP-2 +
+ C
R3
4k R6
1k

Vin +
0.5Vp-p

Assume all op-amps are identical with Vsat=±15V and Open loop gain (AOL)=
200000
a) Identify the configuration of OP-1, OP-2 and OP-3.
b) Determine the peak to peak voltage at point A, B, C and Vout.

50
 EXAMPLE 10: CLOSED LOOP CIRCUIT SOLUTION

R2 = 20k
R5= 10k
R1
R4
_ B
OP-1 VA _
5K A OP-2
+
1K +

R3 R6
4k 1k
Vin R2
+ A c l1  1 
0.5Vp-p R1
20k
 1 5 I+ = I- = 0A
5k
V+ = I+ x R6 = 0V
VA ( pp )  A cl 1  Vin ( pp ) V+ = V-
 5  0.5Vpp  2.5Vpp VB=V-= 0V (virtual ground)

51
 EXAMPLE 10: CLOSED LOOP CIRCUIT SOLUTION

R5= 10k

R4
VA _ _
OP-2 OP-3 vout
1K + C +
C
R6
1k
Vout=VC= 25Vpp
R5 10 k 
A cl 2     10
R4 1k 
VC( pp)  Acl2  VA( pp)
= 10 x 2.5Vpp
= 25Vpp

52
 Review Quiz 4.3 (answers)

Refer to Figure Q4-3

1) How do you identify the configuration of the Figure Q4-3 is closed loop inverting amplifier ?
Inverting because the input (Vin) is applied to inverting input (-)
terminal of op-amp.
Closed loop because there is a feedback path from output to
negative input (-) terminal of op-amp.
R2 = 100K

2) Write the voltage gain formula. R1 = 10K

Vin 
R 2 Vout

A cl  +
R1 R3

R4
3) Determine the voltage gain of the amplifier. Figure Q4-3

Acl = -10
4) What is the phase relationship between the input (Vin) and output (Vout)
voltage.
180º out-of-phase

53
 Supplementary Notes
Gain Bandwidth Product (Gbw)

 An Op amp is a dc amplifier. That is, it will be able to

amplify ac signal as well as dc signal. Or we can say that
the low cut-off frequency of the Op amp (as dc amplifier) is
equal to zero.

 However, it will be subjected to a high cut-off frequency

due to the limitation of the Op amp. Such high cut-off
frequency is governed by the parameter of the Op amp,
named Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBW or UGB or funity).

 The unity-gain frequency (funity) is the product of the dc

gain (or low-frequency gain) and the 3dB frequency. It is
also called the Gain-Bandwidth product (GBW) or Unity-
Gain Bandwidth (UGB).
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 Supplementary Notes
Frequency Response Curve Of An Op-amp

AV (Vout/Vin) BW = fH – fL where fL= 0 Hz

AOL = fH
ACL3

ACL2

ACL1

Freqeuncy
1
0 fH3 fH2 fH1 f (unity) (Hz)

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 Formula For Gbw Supplementary Notes

 The gain-bandwidth product (GBW) of a particular Op amp

is constant and can be obtained from the spec sheet.

 The following formula is normally used with related to

GBW.

GBW = Aol x BWol = A cl x BWcl

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 GAIN BANDWIDTH PRODUCT Supplementary Notes

 Unity Gain Frequency (funity), which is sometimes known

as Unit Gain Bandwidth (UGB), is defined as the frequency
at which the gain of an op-amp is equal to 1 (or 0dB).
Hence, the value of Gain-Bandwidth product is equal to
that of funity or UGB.
ie:
Gain-Bandwidth Product

= AV1 x BW1 = AV2 x BW2

= 1 x funity = funity = constant*

Note: The gain stated in the above formula should not be in dB.

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 SELF EXERCISE

 Refer to http//www.national.com for the data sheet of the op-

amp LM741, determine the following parameters of LM741
under the conditions that: :
VS =  15 V, RL >= 2 k, RS <= 10 k,

GBW = _______________

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 LM393 Schmitt Trigger comparator Supplementary Notes

LM393 Voltage Comparator

The LM393 is a voltage comparator that has an +
open-collector output. When the inverting input
terminal is at a higher voltage level than the non-
inverting terminal, its output transistor will conduct
and output is shorted to ground. -

59
 LM393 Schmitt Trigger comparator Supplementary Notes

When the inverting input terminal is at a higher

voltage level than the non-inverting terminal, the
2V +
output transistor of LM393 will be turned on. This
means that the comparator’s output is like shorted to
ground.
5V -

LM393
V- > V+, Vout is 0V
When the non-inverting input terminal is at a higher
voltage level than the inverting terminal, the output
2V +
transistor of LM393 will be turned off. This means
that the comparator’s output is like an open switch.
0V -
V+ > V-, Vout is open LM393

60