Hydroelectric Power Plants

Hydrology:

Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement and properties
of the waters of the earth and their relationship with the environment within each phase of the
hydrologic cycle. The water cycle, or hydrologic cycle, is a continuous process by which water is
purified by evaporation and transported from the earth's surface (including the oceans) to
the atmosphere and back to the land and oceans. All of the physical, chemical and biological
processes involving water as it travels its various paths in the atmosphere, over and beneath the
earth's surface and through growing plants, are of interest to those who study the hydrologic cycle.

Hydrologic cycle : The water cycle shows the continuous movement of water within the Earth
and atmosphere. It is a complex system that includes many different processes. Liquid water
evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the form
of rain and snow. Water in different phases moves through the atmosphere (transportation). Liquid
water flows across land (runoff), into the ground (infiltration and percolation), and through the
ground (groundwater). Groundwater moves into plants (plant uptake) and evaporates from plants
into the atmosphere (transpiration). Solid ice and snow can turn directly into gas (sublimation).
The opposite can also take place when water vapor becomes solid (deposition)

Runoff,: Runoff, in hydrology, quantity of water discharged in surface streams. Runoff includes
not only the waters that travel over the land surface and through channels to reach a stream but
also interflow, the water that infiltrates the soil surface and travels by means of gravity toward
a stream channel (always above the main groundwater level) and eventually empties into the
channel.

It is that portion of precipitation which makes its way towards streams, lakes or oceans .

R=P-E

R= Runoff P=Precipitation and E=Evaporation

Stream flow: Stream flow, or channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams, rivers, and
other channels, and is a major element of the water cycle. It is one component of the runoff of
water from the land to waterbodies, the other component being surface runoff.

Hydrograph: A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus time past a
specific point in a river, channel, or conduit carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed
in cubic meters or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs). It can also refer to a graph showing the
volume of water reaching a particular outfall, or location in a sewerage network. Graphs are
commonly used in the design of sewerage, more specifically, the design of surface water sewerage
systems and combined sewers.
Flow duration Curve: Flow duration curve is a plot of discharge versus percentage of time for
which the discharge is available. It is obtained from hydrograph data. The flow or discharge can
be expressed as cubic meters per second, per week or other unit of time.

If the head at which the flow is available is known, the discharge can be calculated in terms of
the kilowatts power (P) using following equation, P=(0.736/75)*Qphη kW
The flow duration curve becomes the load duration curve for hydroelectric plant and thus it is
possible to know the total power available at the site. The maximum and minimum conditions of
flow can also be obtained by the flow duration curve where minimum flow condition decides the
maximum capacity of plant that can be improved by increasing the storage capacity. Figure shows
that flow duration curves are of no use where the time sequence of the flow is of importance such
as in the study of floods.

Mass Curve:
It is a plot of cumulative volume of water that can be stored from a stream flow versus time in
days, weeks or months. It shows a mass curve, Maximum intercept between line AB and mass
curve is known as reservoir capacity. The unit used for storage is either cubic metre or day-second-
metre. A day-second-metre is the flow at the rate of 1m3/sec for one day and equal to
60*60*24=86400 m3.

The capacity of plant is based on the storage capacity, which can be modified by storage for the
same mass curve, The water stored in dams is called pondage and water stored in upstream
reservoir is called storage.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Plants:
Hydroelectric power plants offer many distinct advantages over other power plants.

These advantages can be summarised as under:

1. No fuel is required by such plants as water is the source of energy. Hence operating costs
are low and there are no problems of handling and storage of fuel and disposal of ash.
2. The plant is highly reliable and it is cheapest in operation and maintenance.
3. The plant can be run up and synchronized in a few minutes.
4. The load can be varied quickly and the rapidly changing load demands can be met without
any difficulty.
5. Very accurate governing is possible with water turbines so such power plants have
constant speed and hence constant frequency.
6. There are no standby losses in such plants.
7. Such plants are robust and have got longer life (around 50 years).
8. The efficiency of such plants does not fall with the age.
9. It is very neat and clean plant because no smoke or ash is produced.
10. Highly skilled engineers are required only at the time of construction but later on only a
few experienced persons will be required.
11. Such plants, in addition to generation of electric power, also serve other purposes such as
irrigation, flood control and navigation.
12. Hydroelectric plants are usually located in remote areas where land is available at cheaper
rates.

However, the hydroelectric power plants have the following disadvantages also:
1. It requires large area.
2. Its construction cost is enormously high and takes a long time for erection (owing to
involvement of huge civil engineering works).
3. Long transmission lines are required as the plants are located in hilly areas which are quite
away from the load centre.
4. The output of such plants is never constant owing to vagaries of monsoons and their
dependence on the rate of water flow in a river. Long dry season may affect the power
supply.
5. The firm capacity of hydroelectric plants is low and so backup by steam plants is essential.
6. Hydroelectric power plant reservoir submerges huge areas, uproots large population and
creates social and other problems.

The following factors should be considered in the selection of site

for hydroelectric power plants:

1. Availability of Water:
Since in such power stations potential energy of waterfall or kinetic energy of flowing stream is
utilized for generation of electric power, therefore such stations should be built where there is
adequate water available at good head or huge quantity of water is flowing across a given point.
2. Water Storage:
During the dry seasons, the availability of water in the rivers decreases significantly. So, in order
to have a continuous supply of water during the dry seasons, dams and water reservoirs are
constructed. The study of the site’s geological and topographical conditions has to be done for the
construction of such structures. The site under the selection of construction of hydroelectric
plants should have a feasible geographical and geological condition.
3. Water Head:
The available water head is directly proportional to the potential energy. So, the more the head,
more will be the potential energy available and the more will be the generation of electricity. The
availability of water heads also has a considerable significance on the cost and economy of the
plant. With a high water head, a given hydroelectric power plant can be constructed with higher
generation capability and lower cost.
4. Distance from Load Centre:
Hydroelectric power plants are generally constructed in places far away from the load centers. So,
a high amount of cost is required to erect the transmission lines in order to transmit the power
from these generating stations to the load centers. The route of these transmission lines must be
selected in advance and wisely to reduce the transmission cost.
5. Accessibility of the Site:
For transportation of the goods, manpower required for the construction and operation of the
hydroelectric plant, the site should be accessible by road. The accessibility of the site will make
the transportation of machinery and required equipment easy.
6. Cost and type of land. The land for the construction of the plant should be available at a
reasonable price. Further, the bearing capacity of the ground should be adequate to withstand the
weight of heavy equipment to be installed
7. Transportation facilities. The site selected for a hydro-electric plant should be accessible by
rail and road so that necessary equipment and machinery could be easily transported.

General arrangement of hydel plant:

Components of a Hydropower Plant

Reservoir:
It is the basic requirement of a hydroelectric plant. Its purpose is to store water during excess flow
periods (i.e., rainy season) and supply the same during lean flow periods (i.e., dry season) and
thus it helps in supplying water to the turbines according to the load on the power plant.
A reservoir can be either natural or artificial. A natural reservoir is a lake in high mountains and
an artificial reservoir is made by constructing a dam across the river

Dam: The function of dam is not only to raise the water surface of the stream to create an artificial
head but also to provide the pondage, storage or the facility of diversion into conduits. A dam is
the most expensive and important part of a hydro-project. Dams are built of concrete or stone
masonry, earth or rock fill.

Trash rack: It is used in hydro-electric power plant to filter the water before it flows towards
turbine. The unwanted impurities (e.g. fish, plastics etc.) present in the stored water are avoided
to flow towards turbine

Spill Way: There are times when the river flow exceeds the storage capacity of the reservoir. Such
a situation arises during heavy rainfall in the catchment area. In order to discharge the surplus
water from the storage reservoir into the river on the down-stream side of the dam, spillways are
used.
Penstock: Penstocks are open or closed conduits which carry water to the turbines. They are
generally made of reinforced concrete or steel. Concrete penstocks are suitable for low heads (<
30 m) as greater pressure causes rapid deterioration of concrete. The steel penstocks can be
designed for any head; the thickness of the penstock increases with the head or
working pressure
Surge tank: It is a device which is connected in between dam & power house. It is of vertical type,
at the time of starting of hydro-electric power plant, near power house valve is closed. Then water
flows from dam towards turbine & filled the surge tank, after that valve is open either manually
or automatically, water flow towards turbine when valves are open & turbine or prime mover starts
to rotate. This sequence is follow to avoid or to prevent the turbines against water hammer effect.
Draft Tubes:
An airtight pipe of suitable diameter attached to the runner outlet and conducting water down
from the wheel and discharging it under the surface of the water in the tailrace is known as draft
tube.
Tailrace:
The water after having done its useful work in the turbine is discharged to the tailrace which may
lead it to the same stream or to another one. The design and size of tailrace should be such that
water has a free exit and the jet of water, after it leaves the turbine, has unimpeded passage.
Prime Mover or Turbine: In hydroelectric power plants, water turbines are used as prime movers
and their function is to convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy which is further
utilised to drive the alternators generating electrical energy.

Classification of Hydroelectric Power Plants

According to Quantity y of water available

(a) Run-off river power plants without pondage
(b) Run-off river power plants with pondage.
(c) Reservoir power plants.

a. Run-Off Power Plants without Pondage:

Some hydro power plants are so located that the water is taken from the river directly, and no
pondage or storage is possible. Such plants are called the run-off river power plants without
pondage. Such plants can use water only as and when available; In such plants there is no control
on flow of water. During high flow and low load periods, water is wasted and during the lean flow
periods the plant capacity is very low. As such these plants have a very little firm capacity. At such
places, the water is mainly used for irrigation or navigation and power generation is only
incidental. Such plants can be built at a considerably low cost but the head available and the
amount of power generated are usually very low.

b. Run-Off River Power Plants with Pondage:

The usefulness of run-off river power plants is increased by pondage. Pondage refers to storage at
the plant which makes it possible to cope, hour to hour, with fluctuations of load throughout a
week or some longer period depending on the size of pondage. With enough pondage, the firm
capacity of the power plant is increased.

Such type of power plants can be used on parts of the load curve as required, within certain
limitations and is more useful than a plant without pondage. Such power plants are comparatively
more reliable and its generating capacity is less dependent on available rate of flow of water. Such
power plants can serve as base load or peak load power plants depending on the flow of stream.

During high flow periods these plants may be used as base load and during lean flow periods these
plants may be used to supply peak loads only. When providing pondage, tailrace condition should
be such that floods do not raise the tailrace water level, thus reducing the head on the plant and
impairing its effectiveness.
c. Reservoir Power Plants:

When water is stored in a big reservoir behind a dam, it is possible to control the flow of water and
use it most effectively. Storage increases the firm capacity of the plant and it can be used efficiently
throughout the year. Such a plant can be used as a base load or as a peak load plant as per
requirement. It can also be used on any portion of the load curve in a grid system. Most of the
hydroelectric power plants everywhere in the world are of this type.

According to availability of water head the hydroelectric power plants are classified into:
(a) Low Head
(b) Medium Head and
(c) High Head Power Plants.

Though there is no definite line of demarcation for low, medium and high heads but the head
below 30 metres is considered low head, the head above 30 metres and below 300 metres is
considered as medium head and above 300 metres is considered as high head.

(a) Low Head Hydroelectric Power Plants:

A hydel plant with a water head of less than 50 meters is termed a low head plant. In such plants,
a small dam is constructed across a river to obtain the necessary water head.
The excess water is allowed to flow over the dam, while the water head is made use to run a
hydraulic turbine. Francis or Kaplan turbine is used to generate Power

(b) Medium Head Hydroelectric Power Plants:

A hydel plant with a water head of in the range of 30 to 100 is termed as medium head plant Plant
In these power plants, the river water is usually tapped off to a forebay on one bank of the river
as in case of a low head plant. From the forebay the water is led to the turbines through penstocks.
The forebay provided at the beginning of penstock serves as a water reservoir for such power
plants. In these plants, water is usually carried in open channel from main reservoir to the forebay
and then to the turbines through the penstock. The forebay itself serves as the surge tank in this
case. In these plants horizontal shaft Francis, propeller or Kaplan turbines are used. The
arrangement is shown

(c) High Head Hydroelectric Power Plants:

A hydel plant with a water head of more than 300 meters is termed a high head plant A pressure
tunnel is constructed between reservoirs to valve house at the start of penstock to carry water
from reservoir to valve house.
Surge tank (a tank open from the top) is built just before the valve house so that the severity of
water hammer effect on penstock can be reduced in case of sudden closing of fixed gates of the
water turbine. Surge tank also serves as a ready reservoir from which the turbine can draw water
temporarily when there is sudden increase in demand

.For heads above 500 m Pelton wheels are used while for lower heads Francis turbines are
employed. The generators used are of high speed and small diameter. Penstocks are of large length
and comparatively smaller cross section.

According to the load supplied hydroelectric power stations may be classified into:
(a) Base Load,
(b) Peak Load, and
(c) Pumped Storage Plants for the Peak Load.

(a) Base Load Plants:

The plants, which can take up load on the base portion of the load curve of the power system, are
called the base load power plants. Such plants are usually of large capacity. Since such plants are
kept running practically on block load (i.e., the load that is practically constant), load factor of
such plants is therefore high. Run-off river plants without pondage and reservoir plants are used
as base load plants.

Plants having large storage can best be used as base load plants and particularly in rainy seasons,
when the water level of the reservoir will be raised by rain water. For a plant to be used as base
load plant, the unit cost of energy generated by the plant should be low.

(b) Peak Load Plants:

Plants used to supply the peak load of the system corresponding to the load at the top portion of
the load curve are called the peak load plants. Runoff river plants with pondage can be employed
as peak load plants. If the pondage is enough, a large portion of the load can be supplied by such
a plant if and when required. Reservoir plants can of course be used as peak load plants also

(c) Pumped Storage Plants for the Peak Load:

This is a unique design of peak load plant in which the plant pumps back all or a portion of its
water supply during low load period. The usual construction is a tail water pond and a head water
pond connected through a penstock. The generating pumping plant is at the lower end. The plant
utilises some of the surplus energy generated by the base load plant to pump the water from the
tail water pond into the head water pond during off-peak hours.During peak load period this water
is used to generate power by allowing it to flow from the head water pond through the water turbine
of this plant to the tail water pond. Thus the same water is used again and again and extra water
is required only to take care of evaporation and seepage. The capacity of the pond should be such
that the plant can supply peak load for 4 to 10 hours. In the older plants, there used to be separate
motor driven pumps and turbine driven generators. The improvement was the pump and turbine
on the same shaft with electrical element acting as either generator or motor.

During peak hours the turbine drives the generator and the plant generates electrical energy
while during off-peak hours the generator operates as a motor and drives the turbine which now
works as a pump raising the water from the tail water pond to the head water pond. The power
for driving the generator as a motor is taken from the system. This arrangement reduces the capital
cost of the plant and improves the operating efficiency and thus results in economical operation.

Underground Hydro Power Plant:

An underground hydro power plant is one in which whole of the generating equipment is placed
in an underground chamber. An underground layout of hydro power plant may be favoured due
to technical and economic considerations.

The underground layout of hydro power plant have the advantages of better rocking bearing
properties, greater security in war time, lower maintenance costs, shorter conduit lengths and
therefore smaller surge tanks, minimum problem of land acquisition, easier design of tailrace
tunnel in comparison to design of headrace pressure tunnel, no interference of surface topography
in planning, design and location of the principal works, lower initial cost in some cases, no risk of
avalanches and land slips, that may cause difficulties in site selection in steep and rugged
countryside, no risk of forest fire hazard, protection to the staff as well as to plant against severe
winter climate, no effect of bad weather on the progress of construction work, and maintenance of
temperature control inside the plant with adequate control of ventilation irrespective of outside
weather conditions.

However, underground hydro power plants have some shortcomings also such as increased cost
of construction of power house and accessories, excessive cost of lighting, special ventilation and
air-conditioning, additional cost of underground location of transformers and switchgears, costly
tailrace tunnels and additional surge chambers.

There are two types of layouts for underground power plants viz., head development and tail
development. In first case, the plant is situated near the intake and has a long tailrace tunnel. So
the advantages of lower cost of intake structure and possibility of quicker control of turbines are
available in the former case. In the second case, the plant is located at the end of a long pressure
tunnel and has a short tailrace. The decision is influenced by the topography and character of the
rock.
Small Hydroelectric Power Plants:
Mini hydro plants of capacity around 101-2,000 kW and micro hydro plants of capacity up to 100
kW fall under this category. Such plants operate under heads of a few metres. Such plants are
becoming more and more popular due to rising fuel cost of thermal plants on one side and long
construction period and heavy cost of civil works for large hydroelectric power plants on the other
side. Small hydro power plants are simple in operation, reliable, need minimal maintenance and
more effective than large plants in saving fuel.

In mini hydro and micro hydro schemes, the civil works are simple, and can be built with the local
labour in a very short period. High equipment cost was the only hindrance in the development of
small hydro power plants. But now due to newly developed ranges of hydroelectric units and their
availability in market in standardized packaged units easily adoptable to different site conditions
this problem has also been solved.

Global installed capacity of small hydro is about 47,000 MW against the estimated potential of
200,000 MW. India has a history of more than 100 years in small hydro. An estimated potential
of 15,000 MW of small hydro exists in India. However, nearly 5,000 MW have been actually
identified through more than 2,000 sites in 13 states of India and most of the sites are located in
Himalayan region.

Water Turbines:
Water turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water into mechanical
energy. The principal types of water turbines are :(i) Impulse turbines (ii) Reaction turbines

i) Impulse turbines. Such turbines are used for high heads. In an impulse turbine, the entire
pressure of water is converted into kinetic energy in a nozzle and the velocity of the jet drives the
wheel. The example of this type of turbine is the Pelton wheel

ii) Reaction turbines:. Reaction turbines are used for low and medium heads. In a reaction
turbine, water enters the runner partly with pressure energy and partly with velocity head.
The important types of reaction turbines are : (a) Francis turbines (b) Kaplan turbines

Pelton Wheel:

Casing: The Pelton wheel casing prevents the splashing of water and it will provide a discharge of
water from the nozzle to the tailrace. The casing surrounding the wheel has no hydraulic function
to perform, unlike the reaction turbine where the casing plays an important hydraulic function.

Spear: Needle Spear will control the water flow and it moves insides the nozzle and provides
smooth flow so there can be very less energy loss. When the nozzle is completely closed by moving
the spear in the forward direction the amount of water striking the runner is reduced is zero but
the runner due to inertia continues revolving for a long time.
Break Nozzle: To stop the runner to rest in a short time a breaking jet is provided which directs
the water on the bucket. this is called breaking jet.

Runner or Rotor: A Pelton wheel has a runner that rotates and has kinetic energy, at the
periphery of the runner equally spaced hemispherical or double ellipsoidal buckets.All the
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy before it strikes jet hits the rotor blades

Working Principle: Water is coming from the storage reservoir through a penstock to the Inlet of
the nozzle which is the inlet of the turbine so the hydraulic energy of the water is mainly converted
into kinetic energy.The water releases in the form of a jet from the nozzle and strikes on the vanes
for a very small time duration. Since a very high force is exerted on the vanes by the jet of water
for a very small time duration so these turbines are known as Impulse turbines.Bucket changes
the direction of run/flow of water jet and momentum transfer takes place.All events happen in
open air i.e at atmospheric pressure. The nozzle is used to convert the head available with water
into a dynamic head and the water comes out from the nozzle in the form of a jet.As the jet strikes
over the runner vane, it will apply a large magnitude force for a small amount of time over the
runner called Pelton force the Pelton force will rotate the runner.

Francis Turbine:

Spiral Casing
Spiral casing is the inlet medium of water to the turbine. The water flowing from the reservoir or
dam is made to pass through this pipe with high pressure. The blades of the turbines are circularly
placed, which mean the water striking the turbines blades should flow in the circular axis for
efficient striking. So the spiral casing is used, but due to circular movement of the water, it looses
its pressure. To maintain the same pressure the diameter of the casing is gradually reduced, so
as to maintain the pressure uniform, thus uniform momentum or velocity striking the runner
blades.

Stay Vanes
Stay vanes and guide vanes guides the water to the runner blades. Stay vanes remain stationary
at their position and reduces the swirling of water due to radial flow, as it enters the runner blades.
Thus making turbine more efficient.

Guide Vanes
Guide vanes are not stationary, they change their angle as per the requirement to control the angle
of striking of water to turbine blades to increase the efficiency. They also regulate the flow rate of
water into the runner blades thus controlling the power output of a turbine according to the load
on the turbine.
Runner Blades
The performance and efficiency of the turbine is dependent on the design of the runner blades. In
a Francis turbine, runner blades are divided into 2 parts. The lower half is made in the shape of
small bucket so that it uses the impulse action of water to rotate the turbine. The upper part of
the blades use the reaction force of water flowing through it. These two forces together makes the
runner to rotate.

Draft Tube
The pressure at the exit of the runner of Reaction Turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually
increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of turbine to the tail race. This tube of
increasing area is called Draft Tube. One end of the tube is connected to the outlet of runner while
the other end is sub-merged below the level of water in the tail-race.

Working Principle : The water is allowed to enter the spiral casing of the turbine, which lead the
water through the stay vanes and guide vanes. The spiral case is kept in decreasing diameter so
as to maintain the flow pressure. The stay vanes being stationary at their place, removes the swirls
from the water, which are generated due to flow through spiral casing and tries it to make the flow
of water more linear to be deflected by adjustable guide vanes. The angle of guide vanes decides
the angle of attack of water at the runner blades thus make sure the output of the turbine. The
runner blades are stationary and can-not pitch or change their angle so it’s all about the guide
vanes which controls the power output of a turbine. The performance and efficiency of the turbine
is dependent on the design of the runner blades. In a Francis turbine, runner blades are divided
into 2 parts. The lower half is made in the shape of small bucket so that it uses the impulse action
of water to rotate the turbine. The upper part of the blades use the reaction force of water flowing
through it. Thus runner blades make use of both pressure energy and kinetic energy of water and
rotates the runner in most efficient way..

Kaplan Turbine:

Scroll Casing:
It is a spiral type of casing that has decreasing cross section area. The water from the penstocks
enters the scroll casing and then moves to the guide vanes where the water turns through 90° and
flows axially through the runner. It protects the runner, runner blades guide vanes and other
internal parts of the turbine from an external damage.

.
Guide Vane Mechanism
It is the only controlling part of the whole turbine, which opens and closes depending upon the
demand of power requirement. In case of more power output requirements, it opens wider to allow
more water to hit the blades of the rotor and when low power output requires it closes itself to
cease the flow of water. If guide vanes is absent than the turbine can not work efficiently and its
efficiency decreases.

Draft Tube
The pressure at the exit of the runner of Reaction Turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually
increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of turbine to the tail race. This tube of
increasing area is called Draft Tube. One end of the tube is connected to the outlet of runner while
the other end is sub-merged below the level of water in the tail-race.

Runner Blades

The heart of the component in kaplan turbine are its runner blades, as it the rotating part which
helps in production of electricity.Its shaft is connected to the shaft of the generator. The runner of
the this turbine has a large boss on which its blades are attached and the the blades of the runner
is adjustable to an optimum angle of attack for maximum power output. The blades of the Kaplan
turbine has twist along its length.

Working Procedure of Kaplan Turbine

The water coming from the pen-stock is made to enter the scroll casing. The scroll casing is made
in the required shape that the flow pressure is not lost. The guide vanes direct the water to the
runner blades. The vanes are adjustable and can adjust itself according to the requirement of flow
rate. The water takes a 90 degree turn, so the direction of the water is axial to that of runner
blades. The runner blades start to rotate as the water strikes due to reaction force of the water.
The runner blades has twist along its length in order to have always optimum angle of attack for
all cross section of blades to achieve greater efficiency. From the runner blades, the water enters
into the draft tube where its pressure energy and kinetic energy decreases. Kinetic energy is gets
converted into pressure energy results in increased pressure of the water. The rotation of the
turbine is used to rotate the shaft of generator for electricity production.

Characteristics of Turbine:
1. Head:
Reaction turbines of various types can be used for operating heads up to 500 m and Pelton
turbines are used for operating heads above 500 m.
2. Specific Speed: The specific speed value for a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar
turbine which would produce unit power (one kilowatt) under unit head (one meter).[6] The
specific speed of a turbine is given by the manufacturer (along with other ratings) and will
always refer to the point of maximum efficiency. This allows accurate calculations to be
made of the turbine's performance for a range of heads.
3. Turbine setting: A Pelton wheel is always set at a higher level than the highest tailrace
level (usually 2 m above) while a Francis turbine runner is placed at a level very near or
below the lowest tailrace level.
4. Runaway speed: This is the maximum speed at which a turbine wheel would run under
the worst operating conditions with all gates open so as to allow all possible water inflow
under maximum head. The generator coupled to the turbine must be capable of
withstanding the full runaway speed of turbine under permissible head.
5. Constant Speed Curves: In hydroelectric power plants, the turbines operate at constant
speed and, therefore, variables are operating head H and discharge Q. As the discharge and
head vary so as to keep the speed constant, the turbine output Pt is measured by brake
arrangement.
Following are the factors affecting selection of hydraulic turbines:
The general layout of the hydro power plant is determined by its type. For plants employing vertical
turbines, the most convenient and economical layout will be with turbines installed in a line
parallel to the length of the turbine house, as illustrated in Fig. The spacing between the machines
will depend upon the size of scroll case, width of flume, or by the overall diameters of the
alternators.
In case of turbines with horizontal shaft arrangement, the most suitable layout will be placement
of turbines at right angles to the length of turbine house. The horizontal machines can also be
placed parallel to the longitudinal axis of the turbine house. A repair bay should be provided at
one end of the turbine house near the workshop with ample space for dismantling and re- erection
of machines.

Plant Auxiliaries:
The auxiliaries essentially required for hydroelectric plant are governor, cranes, lubricating oil
pumps, air compressors, high pressure oil pumps for generator rotor jacking system, fans, cooling
water pumps, drainage and dewatering pumps, gate hoists, valves, battery charging units,
CO2 cylinders etc. These auxiliaries are generally electrically driven. Water may be used to cool
the bearings of the turbines and generators and the transformers and is circulated through water
pumps. Air compressors maintain a supply of air under pressure for operation of generator brakes
and other uses in the power station. Fans are required for ventilation of the turbine and switchgear
room or for cooling of transformers. Oil pumps handle transformer oil through the cleaning and
cooling system. Cranes are required to lift heavy parts or place them in position during repairs.
Water pumps are required for unwatering of turbine pits during repairs or inspection. Storage
batteries are required to supply low voltage dc power for switchgear control. These batteries are
constantly charged through a battery charging equipment using a rectifier or motor-generator set.
Carbon dioxide cylinders and other fire extinguishing equipment are required in case the fire
breaks out. The supply for the above auxiliaries is usually obtained from the station transformer
which is installed solely for this purpose.