Module-2

WMC
By
Dr.K.L.Sudha,
Professor, DSCE

Contents:
Multiple Access and the Cellular Principle: Introduction, FDM, TDM, Packet Radio ALOHA, Carrier Sense
Multiple Access, Packet Reservation Multiple Access Comparison of the Methods. Basic principles of CDMA,
OFDMA.
Principles of Cellular Networks: Reuse Distance Cell shape, Cell Planning with Hexagonal Cells, Methods for
Increasing Capacity, Adjacent Channel Interface, Information Theory of Multi-User Channels
Multiple Access:
• A wireless communications system uses a certain frequency band that is
assigned to this specific service. Spectrum is thus a scarce resource, and
one that cannot be easily extended.
• For this reason, a wireless system must make provisions to allow the
simultaneous communication of as many users as possible within that
band.
• The problem of letting multiple users communicate simultaneously can be
through Multiple access.
• Different MA methods are
• FDMA
• TDMA
• CDMA
• OFDMA
• SDMA
 FDMA is the oldest, and conceptually most simple, multi access method.
 Each user is assigned a frequency (sub)band – i.e., a (usually contiguous) part of the available
spectrum.
 The assignment of frequency bands is usually done during call setup, and retained during the
whole call.
 FDMA is usually combined with the Frequency Domain Duplexing (FDD) , so that two
frequency bands (with a fixed duplex distance) are assigned to each user: one for downlink
(BS-to-MS) and one for uplink (MS-to-BS) communication.
Advantages & disadvantages of FDMA
Advantages
• Pure FDMA is conceptually very simple, and has some advantages for implementation:
• The transmitter (TX) and receiver (RX) require little digital signal processing. However, this is not so
important in practice anymore, as the costs for digital processing are continuously decreasing.
• (Temporal ) synchronization is simple. Once synchronization has been established during the call setup, it is
easy to maintain it by means of a simple tracking algorithm, as transmission occurs continuously.

However, pure FDMA also has significant disadvantages, especially when used for speech communications.
• These problems arise from spectral efficiency considerations, as well as from sensitivity to multipath effects
• Frequency synchronization and stability are difficult: for speech communications, each frequency sub-band
is quite narrow (typically between 5 and 30 kHz). Local oscillators thus must be very accurate and stable. Low
spectral efficiency
• Sensitivity to fading:fading is flat in practically all environments. This has the advantage that no equalization
is required; the drawback is that there is no frequency diversity.
• Sensitivity to random Frequency Modulation (FM): due to the narrow bandwidth, the system is sensitive to
random FM
• Intermodulation: the BS needs to transmit multiple speech channels, each of which is active the whole time.
Typically, a BS uses 20–100 frequency channels. Separate amplifiers in these ranges make BS costlier.
Applications of FDMA
FDMA is mostly used for the following applications:
• Analog communications systems: here, FDMA is the only practicable
multiple access method.
• Combination of FDMA with other multiple access methods: the spectrum
allocated for a service (or a network operator) is divided into larger sub-
bands, each of which is used for serving a group of users. Within this
group, multiple access is done by means of another multiple access
method – e.g., TDMA or CDMA. Most current wireless systems use FDMA
in that way.
• High-data-rate systems: the disadvantages of FDMA are mostly relevant if
each user requires only a small bandwidth – e.g., 20 kHz. The situation can
be different for wireless Local Area Networks (LANs), where a single user
requires a bandwidth on the order of 20 MHz, and only a few frequency
channels are available.
• For TDMA, different users transmit not at different
frequencies but rather at different times.
• A time unit is subdivided into N timeslots of fixed
duration, and each user is assigned one such timeslot.
During the assigned timeslot, the user can transmit
with a high data rate (as it can use the whole system
bandwidth); subsequently, it remains silent for the
next N − 1 times-lots, when other users take their
turn.
• This process is then repeated periodically. At first
glance,this approach has the same performance as
FDMA: a user transmits only during 1/N of the
available time, but then occupies N times the
bandwidth.
Some important practical differences between FDMA & TDMA are:
• Users occupy a larger bandwidth in TDMA. This allows them to exploit the frequency diversity
available within the bandwidth allocated to the system; furthermore, the sensitivity to random
FM is reduced. On the flipside, equalizers are required to combat Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
for most operating environments; this increases the effort needed for digital signal processing.
• Temporal guard intervals are required in TDMA. There has to be sufficient guard time to
compensate for the runtime of the signal between the MS and BS. It is possible that one MS is far
away from the BS, while the one that transmits in the subsequent timeslot is very close to the BS
and thus has negligible runtime. As the signals from the two users must not overlap at the BS, the
second MS must not transmit during the time it takes the first signal to propagate to the BS. Note,
however, that there is no need for frequency guard bands, as each user completely fills up the
assigned band.
• Each timeslot might require a new synchronization and channel estimation, as transmission is not
continuous. Optimization of timeslot duration is a challenging task. If it is too short, then a large
percentage of the time is used for synchronization and channel estimates (in GSM, 17% of a
timeslot are used for this purpose). If the timeslot is too long, transmission delays become too
long (which users find annoying especially for speech communications), and the channel starts to
change during one timeslot.
• For interference-limited systems, TDMA has a major advantage: during its period of inactivity, the
MS can “listen” to transmission on other timeslots. This is especially useful for the preparation of
handovers from one BS to another, when the MS has to find out whether a neighboring BS would
offer better quality, and has communications channels available
Application
• TDMA is used in the worldwide cellular standard GSM (Chapter 24) as
well as the cord-less standard DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telecommunication) and in a modified form – in the fourth-
generation cellular standards 3GPP-LTE and WiMAX
• TDMA is often combined with FDMA, e.g., in GSM. In contrast, pure
FDMA is used mainly in analog cellular and cordless systems.
Packet Radio
Packet radio shows two main differences from TDMA and FDMA:

1. Each packet has to fight for its own resources. The most common
methods for resource allocation are ALOHA systems, Carrier Sense
Multiple Access (CSMA), and packet reservation (polling).
2. Each packet can be routed to the RX in different ways – i.e., via
different relay stations. This aspect does not play a major role in
cellular systems, where connection can only be to the closest BS,
but it does play an important role in wireless ad hoc and sensor
networks, where each wireless device can act as a relay for
information originating from another wireless device.
ALOHA
• The first wireless packet radio system was the ALOHA system of the
University of Hawaii.
• For an ALOHA system, each user sends packets to the BS whenever the
data source makes them available.
• A TX does not take into consideration whether other users are already
transmitting. Now, the situation can arise that several users want to
transmit information simultaneously.
• When two TXs transmit packets at the same time, at least one of these
packets suffers so much interference that it becomes unusable, and has to
be retransmitted.
• Such collisions thus decrease the effective data rate of the system.
Therefore, an ALOHA system becomes inefficient when the load is large,
and thus the probability of collisions becomes large.
• If the starting time of packet transmission is chosen completely at random
by the TX, then the system is called a pure or un slotted ALOHA system.
• TX can determine (sense) whether the channel is currently occupied by another
user (carrier). This knowledge can be used to increase the efficiency of a packet-
switched system: if one user is transmitting, no other user is allowed to send a
signal. Such a method is called CSMA.
• It is more efficient than ALOHA, because a TX does not disturb other users that
are already on the air.
• The most important parameters of a CSMA system are detection delay and
propagation delay.
• Detection delay is a relative measure for how long it takes a TX to determine
whether the channel is currently occupied. It depends essentially on the
hardware of the system, but also on the desired false alarm probability and the
SNR.
• Propagation delay is the measure of how long a data packet takes to get from the
MS to the BS. It can happen that at time t1 , TX 1 determines that the channel is
free, and thus sends off a packet. At time t2 another TX senses the channel. If t2 −
t1 is shorter than the time it takes data packet A to get from TX 1 to TX 2, then TX
2 determines that the channel is free, and sends off data packet B. In such a case
a collision occurs.
• This description makes it clear that detection delay and propagation delay should
be much smaller than packet duration.
 Packet reservation
Packet reservation in packet radio is a technique used to improve the efficiency of wireless communication by reducing collisions
and ensuring reliable transmission. It is particularly useful in networks where multiple users share the same channel.
Key Concepts of Packet Reservation in Packet Radio
• Reservation-Based Access: A node reserves a portion of the channel for its transmission instead of contending for access every
time. This reduces the chances of collisions compared to pure ALOHA or CSMA-based Types of Packet Reservation Techniques
• Dynamic Time Division Multiple Access (D-TDMA): A node reserves time slots dynamically based on demand.
• Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA): A hybrid of TDMA and ALOHA, where a node reserves slots if it successfully sends a
packet.
• Reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA): A modified version of ALOHA where successful transmissions reserve future slots.
Advantages of Packet Reservation:
• Reduces Collisions: Since packets are sent in reserved slots, contention is minimized.
• Improves Throughput: More efficient than pure random access schemes like ALOHA.
• Supports Real-Time Applications: Useful for applications requiring Quality of Service (QoS), such as voice and video transmission.
Challenges and Limitations
• Overhead: Reservation requests and acknowledgments add control overhead.
• Latency: Reservation delays may increase end-to-end latency.
• Scalability: Managing reservations in large networks can be complex.
Packet reservation is widely used in satellite networks, military communications, and cellular systems to ensure efficient and
reliable data transmission.
 Polling
• In Packet Reservation, Polling is a controlled access method where a central
controller (or base station) sequentially invites nodes (or terminals) to
transmit their data. It ensures that only one node transmits at a time,
reducing collisions and improving channel efficiency.
• Types of Polling in Packet Reservation
• Round-Robin Polling: The controller polls each node in a fixed sequence.
Suitable for networks with uniform traffic loads.
• Priority-Based Polling: Nodes with higher priority (e.g., emergency data or
voice traffic) are polled first. Used in QoS-sensitive applications.
• Demand-Based Polling: Only nodes that previously indicated they have
data to send are polled. Reduces overhead by skipping idle nodes.
Polling is commonly used in wireless LANs, satellite communication, and
military networks where controlled access is crucial.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• The origins of CDMA can also be traced to military communications research,
especially the development of the Direct Sequence–Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)
• Each user is assigned a different spreading code, which determines the wideband
signal that is multiplied by the information symbols. Thus, many users can
transmit simultaneously in a wide band.
• At the receiver, the desired signal is
obtained by correlating the received
signal with the spreading signal of the
desired user.
• Other users thus become wideband
interferers; after passing through the de-
spreader, the amount of interference
power seen by the detector is equal to
the Cross Correlation Function (CCF)
between the spreading sequence of the
interfering user and the spreading
sequence of the desired user.
• The choice of spreading sequences is an essential factor for the quality of a
CDMA system. Sequences have to have good ACFs and a small cross
correlation.
• One possible choice is m-sequences; with a shift register of length Nreg , it
is possible to generate 2Nreg − 1 sequences that have max ACF and
ACF /CCF = MC . Alternative sequences include Gold and Kasami sequences
• CDMA requires accurate power control. If ACF /CCF has a finite value, the
receiver cannot suppress interfering users perfectly. When the received
interference power becomes much larger than the power from the desired
transmitter, it exceeds the interference suppression capability of the de-
spreading receiver. Thus, each MS has to adjust its power in such a way
that the powers of all the signals arriving at the BS are approximately the
same.
• Experience has shown that power control has to be accurate within about
±1 dB in order to fully exploit the theoretical capacity of CDMA systems.
• CDMA system assumed a flat-fading channel. This assumption is violated
under all practical circumstances.
• The basic nature of a CDMA system is to spread the signal over a large
bandwidth; thus, it can be anticipated that the transfer function of the
channel exhibits variations over this bandwidth.
• Assume an ideal spreading sequence . The de-spreader output then
exhibits multiple peaks: more precisely, one for each Multi Path
Component (MPC) that can be resolved by the receiver – i.e., spaced at
least TC apart.
• Each of the peaks contains information about the transmit signal. Thus, all
peaks should be used in the detection process: just using the largest
correlation peak would mean that we discard a lot of the arriving signal.
• A receiver that can use multiple correlation peaks is the so-called Rake
receiver, which collects (“rakes up”) the energy from different MPCs.
Rake Receiver
• Rake receiver consists of a bank of correlators.
• Each correlator is sampled at a different time (with delay τ ), and thus
collects energy from the MPC with delay τ . The sample values from the
correlators are then weighted and combined.
• Alternatively, we can interpret the Rake receiver as a tapped delay line,
whose outputs are weighted and added up. The tap delays, as well as the
tap weights, are adjustable, and matched to the channel.
• Note that the taps are usually spaced at least one chip duration apart, but
there is no requirement for the taps to be spaced at regular intervals.
• The combination of the receiver filter and the Rake receiver constitutes a
filter that is matched to the receive signal. The receive filter is matched to
the transmit signal, while the Rake receiver is matched to the channel.
• the receiver adds up the (weighted) signal from the different Rake fingers
in a coherent way. They provide delay diversity (frequency diversity). A
Rake receiver is thus a diversity receiver.
 Synchronization
• Synchronization is one of the most important practical problems of a
CDMA system.
• Mathematically speaking, synchronization is an estimation problem in
which we determine the optimum sampling time out of an infinitely large
ensemble of possible values – i.e., the continuous time.
• Implementation is facilitated by splitting the problem into two partial
problems:
• Acquisition: a first step determines in which time interval (of duration TC or
TC/2) the optimum sampling time lies. This is a hypothesis-testing problem:
we test a finite number of hypotheses, each of which assumes that the
sampling time is in a certain interval. The hypotheses can be tested in
parallel or serially.
• Tracking: as soon as this interval has been determined, a control loop can
be used to fine-tune the sampling time to its exact value.
 PN Sequences
Shift register based sequences of finite length
M-sequence
Gold sequence
Kasami sequence
Walsh Hadamard codes –orthogonal codes
Prime based sequences
Advantages of CDMA over Other MA
• Better Spectral Efficiency: CDMA utilizes spread spectrum techniques, allowing more
users to share the bandwidth efficiently compared to TDMA and FDMA.
• Resistance to Interference and Noise: Since CDMA uses pseudo-random codes to
separate users, it is highly resistant to narrowband interference and jamming.
• Increased Security: CDMA signals appear as noise to unauthorized users, making it
harder to intercept and decode compared to FDMA and TDMA.
• Soft Handoff Capability: Unlike TDMA and FDMA, which use hard handoffs
(disconnecting from one cell before connecting to another), CDMA enables seamless
soft handoff, improving call quality.
• Better Capacity: CDMA systems handle more users per MHz of bandwidth compared to
TDMA and FDMA, reducing congestion issues.
• Robust Against Multipath Fading: CDMA takes advantage of rake receivers to extract
multipath signals constructively, unlike TDMA and FDMA, which suffer more from fading
effects.
• Dynamic Resource Allocation: In TDMA and FDMA, each user gets a fixed slot or
frequency, even if they are not transmitting. CDMA dynamically allocates resources
based on demand, improving efficiency.
Disadvantages of CDMA over Other MAs
• Near-Far Problem: Stronger signals from nearby users can overpower weaker
signals from distant users, requiring power control mechanisms to maintain
fairness.
• More Complex Synchronization: CDMA requires precise synchronization of
pseudo-random codes, which makes the system design more complex compared
to TDMA and FDMA.
• Increased Power Consumption: Continuous transmission in CDMA consumes
more power, making it less battery-efficient for mobile devices compared to
TDMA.
• Higher Implementation Cost: Due to the need for advanced signal processing
(e.g., spread spectrum techniques, rake receivers, and power control), CDMA-
based systems are costlier to deploy.
• Self-Interference (MAI - Multiple Access Interference): In CDMA, users share the
same frequency spectrum, leading to mutual interference, which requires
complex error correction and decoding.
• Code Management Issues: Unique spreading codes must be assigned carefully to
avoid code collisions and ensure proper separation between users.
 OFDMA(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• OFDMA is a multi-user version of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM), used in modern wireless communication systems such as 4G LTE, 5G,
and Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax). It allows multiple users to simultaneously share the same
channel by dividing it into smaller subcarriers. Each user is assigned a subset of
these subcarriers, improving efficiency and reducing interference.
• OFDM, is a modulation format that allows the transmission of high data rates for
a single user; it is not (as sometimes erroneously stated) a multiple access format.
• In order to realize multiple access, it can be combined with various multiple
access methods.
• TDMA: each user occupies the whole system bandwidth, and different users are
served at different times. At a minimum, one user transmits for one symbol
duration, but it is also possible that one user transmits/ receives multiple symbols
before the system switches to the next user.
• Packet radio: in this mode, every user transmits complete data packets, where
the modulation format for each packet is OFDM. The access of the users to the
channel is regulated by the packet access techniques like Aloha, and CSMA. This
approach is used in IEEE 802.11
• In OFDM, the frequency axis is divided into subcarriers, and the
symbol duration on each subcarrier is an OFDM symbol; the basic
time-frequency unit is also often called a resource element.
• OFDMA now assigns different resource elements to different users.
General OFDMA has no specific restrictions on how the assignment of
resource elements can be done. Note that it is possible to assign
multiple noncontiguous, resource elements to one user.
• OFDM is used for Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Video
Broadcasting (DVB), and wireless Local Area Networks (LANs) (IEEE
802.11a, IEEE 802.11g).
• It will also be used in fourth- generation cellular systems, including
Third Generation Partnership Project-Long-Term Evolution (3GPP-LTE )
and WiMAX.
Key Concepts
• Orthogonality: Subcarriers in OFDMA are orthogonal, meaning they do not
interfere with each other. This allows efficient spectral utilization.
• Subcarrier Allocation: The total bandwidth is divided into subcarriers, and
these are dynamically assigned to users based on channel conditions, data
rate requirements, and priority.
• Time-Frequency Resource Allocation: OFDMA enables flexible allocation in
both time and frequency domains, making it superior for diverse user
demands.
• Cyclic Prefix (CP):To combat Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) due to
multipath propagation, a cyclic prefix is used, where the end portion of the
OFDM symbol is copied to the beginning.
• Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC):OFDMA supports modulation
schemes (e.g., QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 256-QAM), allowing adaptation
based on the user's channel conditions.
Principle of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
• OFDM splits a high-rate data stream into N parallel streams, which are then
transmitted by modulating N distinct carriers (henceforth called subcarriers
or tones).
• Symbol duration on each subcarrier thus becomes larger by a factor of N.
In order for the receiver to be able to separate signals carried by different
subcarriers, they have to be orthogonal.
• Les us assume that the subcarriers be at the frequencies fn = nW/N, where
n is an integer, and W the total available bandwidth; in the most simple
case, W = N/Ts .
• Due to the rectangular shape of pulses in the time domain, the spectrum of
each modulated carrier has a sin(x)/x shape. The spectra of different
modulated carriers overlap, but each carrier is in the spectral nulls of all
other carriers.
• Therefore, as long as the receiver does the appropriate demodulation
(multiplying by exp(−j 2πfn t) and integrating over symbol duration), the
data streams of any two subcarriers will not interfere.
Carrier spacing In FDMA and OFDMA
Implementation of Transceivers
OFDMA
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) assigns different subcarriers to different
users. There are essentially three ways of assigning the subcarriers to different users :
• Assigning adjacent subcarriers to one user
• Assigning regularly spaced subcarriers to one user
• Assigning randomly spaced subcarriers to one user
Advantages of OFDMA
• High Spectral Efficiency: Better utilization of available bandwidth compared
to TDMA and FDMA.
• Reduced Interference: Orthogonal subcarriers reduce intra-cell
interference, and advanced techniques mitigate inter-cell interference.
• Flexible Resource Allocation: Dynamically assigns subcarriers based on
traffic demand and channel conditions, improving overall efficiency.
• Low Latency: OFDMA enables faster data transmission by distributing data
over multiple subcarriers.
• Improved Performance in Multipath Environments: Rake receivers are not
required, and the cyclic prefix minimizes inter-symbol interference (ISI).
• Scalability for Different Applications: Suitable for low-power IoT devices,
high-speed 5G users, and enterprise networks.
Disadvantages
• High Computational Complexity: Requires Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) processing and adaptive algorithms, increasing processing
power demands.
• Sensitive to Carrier Frequency Offset (CFO):Any frequency
synchronization error can cause inter-carrier interference (ICI).
• Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) Issue: High PAPR requires
efficient power amplifiers, which increases power consumption in
mobile devices.
• Inter-Cell Interference (ICI): Neighboring cells may interfere, requiring
techniques like Fractional Frequency Reuse (FFR) for mitigation.
Applications of OFDMA
• 4G LTE & 5G Networks :Downlink: OFDMA enables multiple users to
share spectrum efficiently. Uplink (5G New Radio - NR): Uses DFT-
spread OFDMA (DFT-S-OFDM) to reduce PAPR.
• Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax):Uses OFDMA for improved efficiency, lower
latency, and better support for multiple users.
• IoT (Internet of Things):Efficient for low-power and high-density IoT
devices, improving network longevity and battery life.
• Satellite Communications: Used in satellite networks to improve
spectral efficiency and support multiple users in remote areas.
• Broadband Wireless (WiMAX - IEEE 802.16): Supports high-speed
data for long-range broadband access.
• Public Safety Networks: Used in mission-critical communication
systems due to its robustness in harsh environments.
Principles of Cellular Networks
• In a cellular system, the coverage area is divided into many small areas called “cells.”
• In each of these cells, there is one BS that provides coverage for this (and only this) cell area.
• Now, each frequency channel can be used in multiple cells. The question that naturally arises is:
can we use each frequency channel in each cell? Typically, the answer is “no.”
• Imagine the situation where user A is at the boundary of its assigned cell, so that distances from
the “useful” BS and from a neighboring BS are the same. If the neighboring BS transmits in the
same frequency channel (in order to communicate with user B in its own cell), then the SIR seen
by user A is C/I = 0 dB.
• The solution to this problem is to reuse a frequency channel not in every cell, but only in cells that
have a certain minimum distance from each other. The normalized distance between two cells
that can use the same frequency channels is called the reuse distance, D/R. This reuse distance
can be computed from link budgets.
• We can also define a cluster of cells that all use different frequencies; therefore, there can be no
co-channel interference within such a cluster. The number of cells in a cluster is called the cluster
size. The total coverage area is divided into such clusters.
• he cluster size also determines the capacity of the cellular system. An operator that has licenses
for 35 frequency channels, and uses cluster size 7, can support 5 simultaneous users in each cell.
• Maximization of capacity thus requires minimization of cluster size.
 Cell Shape
• What shapes do cells normally take
on?
• Let us first consider the idealized
situation where path loss depends
only on the distance from the BS, but
not the direction. The most natural
choice would be a disk (circle), as it
provides constant power at the cell
boundary.
• However, disks cannot fill a plane
without either gaps or overlaps.
Hexagons, on the other hand, have a
shape similar to a circle, and they can
fill up a plane.
• Hexagonal shape is acceptable
theoretically. Hexagons are usually
considered as the basic cell shape
assuming equal traffic density and
flat terrine. Both may not be true
practically.
Received field strength in hilly terrain
 Cell Planning with Hexagonal Cells
• Consider the hexagon whose center is at the origin of the coordinate system. Proceed now i
hexagons in the y direction, turn 60◦ counterclockwise, and proceed k hexagons in that new
direction This gets us to the cell whose center has the following distance from the origin:
D = √3√(iR + cos(60◦)kR)2 + (sin(60◦)kR)2 ----1
D/R=√3(i2+ik+k2
Note that the distance between the centers of two adjacent hexagons is √3R, where R is the
distance from the center of a hexagon to its farthest corner. Also note that only integer values of i
and k are possible.
• The task of frequency planning is to find those values of i and k that make sure that the distance
from Eq.1 is larger than the required reuse distance. Of course there is an infinite manifold of
such pairs – large values of i and k certainly satisfy the condition. What we want to find, however,
is the pair of values that minimizes cluster size, and thus maximizes spectral efficiency, while still
satisfying the minimum reuse distance.
• Due to the hexagonal layout, the relationship between cluster size N and parameters i and k is
N = i2 + ik + k2, i, k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
• This also establishes that not all integers are possible cluster sizes. Cluster size can only take on
the numbers N = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21 . . .
• The relationship between reuse distance D/R and cluster size results D/R = √3N
 Cluster and minimum reuse distance

move i cells into one

Example Example direction, turn 60◦,
N = i2 + ik + k2, i, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . N = i2 + ik + k2, i, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . move another k cells to get
Assume i=2,j=3 Then N=22+2X3+32=19 Assume i=1,j=3 Then reuse cell
D/R= √3N =√57=7.55 N=1+1X3+9=13
D/R= √3N =√39=6.24
 Cell planning
• Cell planning has the following steps:
• starting from the specifications for the minimum transmission quality,
the link budget establishes the minimum distances between the
desired BS and interferer.
• The cluster size N is calculated using N = i2 + ik + k2,
• Note that it has to be the smallest integer numbers so that more
frequency reuse should be possible with lesser BW.
• Now to obtain nearest neighbors where same frequency can be used,
move i cells into one direction, turn 60◦, move another k cells.
 Methods for Increasing Capacity
1. Increasing the amount of spectrum used : this is the “brute force” method. It turns out
to be very expensive, as spectrum is a scarce resource, and usually auctioned off by
governments at very high prices. Furthermore, the total amount of spectrum assigned to
wireless systems can change only very slowly; changes in spectrum assignments have to be
approved by worldwide regulatory conferences, which often takes ten years or more.
2. More efficient modulation formats and coding: using modulation formats that require
less bandwidth (higher order modulation) and/or are more resistant to interference. The
former allows an increase in data rate for each user (or an increase in the number of users
in a cell while keeping the data rate per user constant). However, the possible benefits of
higher order modulation are limited: they are more sensitive to noise and interference, so
that the reuse distance might have to be increased. The use of interference-resistant
modulation allows a reduction in reuse distance. The introduction of near-capacity-
achieving codes – turbo codes and low-density parity check codes is another way of
achieving better immunity to interference, and thus increases system capacity.
3. Better source coding: depending on required speech quality, current speech coders
need data rates between 32 kbit/s and 4 kbit/s. Better models for the properties of speech
allow the data rate to be decreased without decreasing quality. Compression of data files
and music/video compression also allows more users to be served.
4. Discontinuous Voice Transmission DTX: exploits the fact that during a phone conversation each
participant talks only 50% of the time. A TDMA system can thus set up more calls than there are available
timeslots. During the call, the users that are actively talking at the moment are multiplexed onto the
available timeslots, while quiet users do not get assigned any radio resources.
5. Multiuser detection: this greatly reduces the effect of interference, and thus allows more users per cell for
CDMA systems or smaller reuse distances for FDMA systems.
6. Adaptive modulation and coding: employs the knowledge at the TX of the transmission channel, and
chooses the modulation format and coding rate that are “just right” for the current link situation. This
approach makes better use of available power, and, among other effects, reduces interference.
7. Reduction of cell radius: this is an effective, but very expensive, way of increasing capacity, as a new BS
has to be built for each additional cell. For FDMA systems, it also means that the frequency planning for a
large area has to be redone.8 Furthermore, smaller cells also require more handovers for moving users,
which is complicated, and reduces spectral efficiency due to the large amount of signaling information that
has to be sent during a handover.
8. Use of sector cells: a hexagonal (or similarly shaped) cell can be divided into several (typically three)
sectors. Each sector is served by one sector antenna. Thus, the number of cells has tripled, as has the
number of BS antennas. However, the number of BS locations has remained the same, because the three
antennas are at the same location
9. Use of an overlay structure: an overlay structure combines cells with different size and
different traffic density. Therefore, some locations may be served by several BSs
simultaneously. An umbrella cell provides basic coverage for a large area. Within that coverage
area, multiple microcells are placed in areas of high traffic density. Within the coverage area of
the microcells, most users are served by the microcell BS, but fast-moving users are assigned to
the umbrella cell, in order to reduce the number of handovers between cells.
11. Fractional loading: this system uses a small reuse distance, but uses only a small
percentage of the available timeslots in each cell. This leads to approximately the same average
capacity as the “conventional” scheme with large reuse distance and full loading of each cell.
However, it has higher flexibility, as throughput can be made higher in some cells when
throughput in other cells is low.
12. Partial frequency reuse: in this scheme, the available spectrum is divided into N + 1
subbands. One subband is used in all the cell centers, while the other subbands are used at the
cell edges, employing a conventional frequency reuse (with cluster size N). The “cell edges”
must be large enough so that interference from one cell center to another is sufficiently weak.
We also note that the subbands need not all have the same bandwidth. Depending on the size
of the cell center, the sub band used in the center might be larger than the bands used at the
edges.
13. Multiple antennas: these can be used to enhance capacity via different scenarios:(a)
diversity increases the quality of the received signal, which can be exploited to increase
capacity – e.g., by use of higher order modulation formats, or reduction of the reuse
distance;(b) multiple-input multiple-output systems increase the capacity of each link;(c) space
division multiple access allows several users in the same frequency channel in the same cell to
be served.
 Question Bank-Module-2
1.What is the objective of multiple access methods? Name any 4 MA techniques.
2.How multiple users are accommodated in the same channel by FDMA? Mention few
applications where FDMA is used.
3.What are the main advantages and disadvantages of FDMA?
4.Bring out some practical differences between FDMA and TDMA.
5.How packet radio works? Explain 3 main resource allocation methods used in packet
radio?
6.Explain the working principles of ALOHA. How the performance is improved in slotted
ALOHA?
7.Explain the working principles of CSMA.
8.Make a comparison of different resource allocation techniques used in packet radio
giving performance curves.
9.What are the advantages and disadvantages of CDMA over other MA techniques?
10.If a CDMA system experiences multipath interference, how would you apply rake
receiver technology to improve signal reception?
11.Analyze the role of ACF in determining the suitability of different spreading codes for a CDMA
system. How does it impact interference rejection?
12.In a practical CDMA system, how does the CCF between spreading codes influence the system’s
capacity and user performance? Evaluate its effect on multi-user interference.
13.Given a network with multiple users, how would you allocate subcarriers in an OFDMA system to
maximize spectral efficiency?
14.Give implementation aspects of OFDM with block diagrams.
15.Mention few applications in which OFDMA is used.
16.Bring out advantages and disadvantages of OFDMA
17.Classify OFDMA based on assignment of subcarriers and discuss.
18. What is the necessity of dividing the region in to cells in cellular network? Why hexagonal cell is
preferred over circular cell?
19. Explain how you go for cell planning with hexagonal cells? Explain with reuse distance and
cluster concepts.
20. Calculate any 4 cluster size and reuse distance for these clusters.
21. Discuss all the methods which are used to increase capacity in cellular system
22. Calculate the length of Maximum length PN sequence with 5 bit shift register. How many PN
sequences can be generated with this sequence generator?