Surveying
Preliminary information and basic methods and calculations
Dr Eng. Ireneusz Wyczalek
Department of geomatics
PUT.POZNAN.PL
SURVEYING - BASICS
Surveying is the science and art of making all essential measurements to
determine the relative position of points and/or physical and cultural details
above, on, or beneath the surface of the Earth, and to depict them in a usable
form, or to establish the position of points and/or details.
It is the art of:
measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects,
measuring angles between lines,
determining the direction of lines, and
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements.
Along with the actual survey measurements are the mathematical
calculations. Distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and
volumes are thus determined from the data of the survey.
Survey data is portrayed graphically by the construction of maps, profiles,
cross sections, and diagrams.
Types of Surveys
Geodetic Surveying: The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape
of the Earth. These surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas.
Plane Surveying: The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the Earth is
considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard
to horizontal distances and directions.
Operations in Surveying:
Control Survey: Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points.
Boundary Survey: Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and to establish the
position of these lines on the ground.
Topographic Survey: Made to gather data to produce a topographic map showing the
configuration of the terrain and the location of natural and man-made objects.
Hydrographic Survey: The survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of navigation, water
supply.
Mining Survey: Made to control, locate and map underground and surface works related to
mining operations.
Construction Survey: Made to lay out, locate and monitor public and private engineering works.
Route Survey: Refers to control, topographic, and construction surveys necessary for the location
and construction of highways, railroads, canals, transmission lines, and pipelines.
Photogrammetric Survey: Made to utilize the principles of aerial photogrammetry, in which
measurements made on photographs are used to determine the positions of photographed objects.
Building Surveying
Building surveying emerged as a profession in the United Kingdom by a group
of technically minded General Practice Surveyors. Building surveying is a
recognized profession in Britain, Australia and Hong Kong. There are still many
countries (e.g. Poland) where it is not widely recognized as a profession.
Services that building surveyors undertake are broad but can include:
Construction design and building works
Project management and monitoring
Property Legislation advice
Insurance assessment and claims assistance
Defect investigation and maintenance advice
Building surveys and measured surveys
Handling planning applications
Building inspection to ensure compliance with building regulations
Pre-acquisition surveys
Negotiating dilapidations (e.g. ruin) claims.
Building Surveying
Building surveyors also advise on many aspects of construction including:
design,
maintenance,
repair,
refurbishment (e.g. reparation),
restoration and preservation of buildings and monuments.
Clients of a building surveyor can be the government agencies, businesses and
individuals.
Surveyors work closely with architects, planners, homeowners and tenants
groups. Building surveyors may also be called to act as an expert witnesses.
In Poland most of above depicted works do ordinary surveyors, but they should
have special permission.
The range of measurements
Types of Measurements:
• Horizontal angles (O-A-B)
• Horizontal distances (A-B)
• Vertical angles (O-A-C)
• Vertical distances (A-C)
• Slope distances (O-D)
Surveying equipment
The basic (classic) tools used in planar surveying are:
a tape measure for determining shorter distances, and
a theodolite, set on a tripod, to measure angles (horizontal and vertical),
combined with the process of triangulation.
To determine height or elevation differences a level is in use.
Techniques for measuring distances
Historically, distances were measured using a variety of means, such as with
chains having links of a known length,
or measuring tapes made of steel or invar.
To measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes were pulled taut
according to temperature, to reduce sagging and slack.
Now distances are measured using Electronic Distance Meter Devices – EDM-s.
Techniques for measuring angles
Historically, horizontal angles were measured using a compass,
which would provide a magnetic bearing, from which
deflections could be measured. This type of instrument was
later improved, with more carefully scribed discs providing better angular
resolution, as well as through mounting telescopes with reticles for more-
precise sighting atop the disc. Additionally, levels and calibrated circles
allowing measurement of vertical angles were added, along with verniers for
measurement to a fraction of a degree.
THEODOLITE
An optical instrument consisting of a small mounted
telescope rotatable in horizontal and vertical planes,
used to measure angles in surveying and navigation.
A theodolite is mounted on a tripod by means of
a forced centering plate or tribrach, containing three
thumbscrews for rapid leveling.
Theodolite
Construction
A way of light inside the theodolite:
Theodolite
Electronic theodolites
Spectra Precision® DET-2 Construction Theodolite
Pentax ETH 100 Series Theodolite
Total Station
A more modern instrument is a total station, which is a theodolite with an
electronic distance measurement device (EDM). Since their introduction, total
stations have made the technological shift from being optical-mechanical
devices to being fully electronic with an onship computer and software as well
as humans. Total stations require a reflector or prism (used to return the light
pulses used for distancing) to return distance. A total station can also be used for
leveling when set to the horizontal plane.
Electronic Reflectorless Total Station 56-CST305R
Height measurements
The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter — basically a
barometer — using air pressure as an indication of height. But surveying
requires greater precision.
To do this a variety of means, such as precise levels have been developed. With
precise leveling, a series of measurements between two points are taken using
an instrument and a measuring staff. Differentials in height between the
measurements are added and subtracted in a series to derive the net difference
in elevation between the two endpoints of the series.
Significant Figures
• Faultless of measured data
• Number of significant figures
Numerical Value Significant Figures Decimal Numbers
49.00 2 2
1600.00 2 or 4 2
.1284 4 4
0.21 2 2
00.000213 3 6
129.85 5 2
1.10 2 or 3 2
10,000.0001 9 4
25.00 mm/km infinite
• Significant figures in addition and subtraction (less Decimal Numbers)
• Significant figures in multiplication and division (less Significant Figures)
• Problems relating to significant figures in surveying
Basics of Error Theory
• Errors in measurements:
1. Error(E) = Measured Value - True Value
• Sources of error in making measurements:
1. Natural error
2. Instrumental error
3. Personal error
• Types of errors:
1. Gross errors (blunders, mistakes) – need to be eliminated
2. Systematic errors – should be corrected
3. Random errors – are adjusted
• Precision and accuracy:
Errors of singular observations
Measurement Most Probable Value
1. 56° 23' 45"
2. 56° 23' 46" • Mean
3. 56° 23' 45" Measures of Precision
4. 56° 23' 43" • Residual(r) = measurement - most probable value
5. 56° 23' 44"
6. 56° 23' 45" • Histogram
7. 56° 23' 48" • Standard deviation (standard error)
8. 56° 23' 45" • 50%, 90% and 95% errors:
9. 56° 23' 44"
10. 56° 23' 46" Probable error (E50) = ±0.6745 (SD)
11. 56° 23' 47" 90% Error (E90) = ±1.6449 (SD)
12. 56° 23' 44" 95% Error (E95) = ±1.9599 (SD)
Where:
SD = Standard deviation
Measures of Accuracy
• Standard error of the mean:
Questions
1. What is Topographic surveying (or Photogrammetric survey)?
2. How you can call survey works concerning laing out, location and monitoring
public and private engineering works?
3. Types of Measurements:
4. Techniques for measuring distances:
5. What we should do to measure horizontal distances?
6. Techniques for measuring horizontal (or vertical) angles?
7. Parts of theodolite
8. What is Total Station
9. Rule of geometric leveling
10. Significant figures in addition and subtraction
11. Significant figures in multiplication and division
12. Types of errors
13. Precision v-s accuracy
14. Measures of Precision
15. Standard deviation
16. 50%, 90% and 95% errors
17. Standard error of the mean
