Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College,

Ghaziabad

Computer Networks
(BCS603)

UNIT 1
Introduction to Computer
Networks
1.2
DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between

two devices via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The effectiveness of a data communication system depends

on four fundamental characteristics :
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in
the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is
called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.
Figure 1. Five components of data communication
 Five components of data communication

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a

message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood
by a person who speaks only Japanese.
 Data Representation

1. Text: represent as a bit pattern.

2. Numbers: also represent as a bit pattern.
3. Audio: refers to the recording or
broadcasting of sound or music.
4. Video: refers to the recording or
broadcasting of a picture or movie.
Figure 2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided
among multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine
being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers
(usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
 NETWORK CRITERIA

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.

The most important of these are performance, reliability,
and security.
1. Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.

Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the
number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.
We often need more throughput and less delay.
 NETWORK CRITERIA

2. Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured
by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a
failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

3. Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.
Figure 3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
 Figure 4 Categories of topology

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
Figure 5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
 A fully connected mesh topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
Advantages:
1.dedicated links guarantees
2.mesh topology is robust.
3.privacy or security.
4.point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

Disadvantages:
1.amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
2.installation and reconnection are difficult.
3.the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors)
can accommodate.
4.the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.
Example: telephone regional offices
Cable Links: n(n-1)/2
Where 'n' is the number of devices
Example: 5 devices -> 5(5-1)/2 = 10 links
Figure 6 A star topology connecting four stations
 A star topology

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a
mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller
acts as an exchange.
Advantages:
less expensive than a mesh topology.
easy to install and reconfigure.
robustness.
fault identification and fault isolation easy.

Disadvantage:
the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down,
the whole system is dead.

Example: local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a
central hub.
► Cable Links: n
► Where 'n' is the number of devices
► Example: 5 devices -> 5 links
Figure 7 A bus topology connecting three stations

A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network.
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable
to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its
energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther
and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the
distance between those taps.
 Bus topology

Advantages:

1.ease of installation
2.Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of
various lengths. Uses less cabling.
3.In a star, all network devices in the same room require lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub.
In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through the entire facility.
Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the backbone.

Disadvantages:

1.difficult reconnection and fault isolation.

2.difficult to add new devices. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. Therefore,
require modification or replacement of the backbone.
3.fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side of the
problem.

Example: Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology

Cable Links: n-1
Where 'n' is the number of devices
Example: 5 devices -> 5-1 = 4 links
Figure 8 A ring topology connecting six stations

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection

with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring
in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each
device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them
along.
 Ring topology

Advantages:

1.Easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically
or logically).
2.To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The only constraints are media and
traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices).
3.Fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not
receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to
the problem and its location.

Disadvantages:
1.Unidirectional traffic.
2.In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This
weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.

Example: local-area network Token Ring.

Cable Links: n
Where 'n' is the number of devices
Example: 5 devices -> 5 links
Figure 9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

Network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star

topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus
topology.
Network Models

Computer networks are created by different

entities. Standards are needed so that these
heterogeneous networks can communicate with
one another. The two best-known standards are the
OSI model and the Internet model.
Categories of Networks

1. Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links
the devices in a single office, building, or campus.
Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of
technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a
printer in someone's home office; or it can extend
throughout a company and include audio and video
peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few
kilometers.

Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second

(Mbps) range. Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or
1000 Mbps.
Figure 10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
2. Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data,

image, audio and video information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent or even the whole world. A WAN can be as
complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up
line that connects a home computer to the Internet.

Example: switched WAN is X.25, ATM

Figure 11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
3. Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a

LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is
designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the
Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.

Example: telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL

line to the customer.
cable TV network that originally was designed for cable TV
Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
Figure 12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
Figure 13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet
PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

We define protocol, which is synonymous with rule.

We discuss standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

 PROTOCOLS

A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol

defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are:

1.Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the
first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address
of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
2.Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How
is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the
final destination of the message?
3.Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps
but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and some data will be lost.
Thank You….