Steps for Research Process

UNIT 3 RESEARCH DESIGNS

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 Discuss the various research designs as powerful tools to study the cause
and effect relationships amongst variables in research.
 Explain the assumptions embodied in the design models.
 Choose the appropriate design model for a specific research problem.
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Functions and Goals of Research Design
3.3 Characteristics of a Good Design
3.4 Different Types of Research Designs
3.5 Exploratory Research Design
3.5.1 Techniques used for exploration
3.5.2 Characteristic of Exploratory research
3.6 Descriptive Research Design
3.7 Experimental Research Design
3.7.1 Lab-Experiment
3.7.2 The Field Experiment
3.8 Types of Experimental Designs
3.8.1 Quasi and True Experimental Designs
3.8.2 Simulation
3.8.3 Decision on Experimental designs
3.9 Summary
3.10 Self-Assessment exercises
3.11 Further Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The research design refers to a researcher’s roadmap, which they decide to follow
during their research journey to find their research question’s answer and validate
accurately, economically, and objectively as possible. The research design process
allows the researcher and writers to follow the instruction of their research work.
It tells the researcher what and how a distinctive method could be applied in
different phases of the research. By making a research design plan, researchers
are ready to decide and even ready to communicate with others or themselves
about their decisions regarding the proposed study design. How they will collect
information and select respondents, analyse the information, and communicate
to other their findings.
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Introduction to Research Research design means an overall framework or plan for the activities to be
Methodology
undertaken during the course of a research study. When particular research area
has been defined, research problem is defined, and the related literature in the
area has been reviewed, the next step is to construct the research design. It is
fundamental to the success of any scientific research. It involves decisions
regarding what, where, when, how much and by what means concerning a research
study. It constitutes a blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data. It serves as a framework for the study, guiding the collection and analysis
of data, research instrument to be utilized and the sampling plan to be followed.
According to Kerlinger: “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy
of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to
control variance.”
According to Kinner and Taylor: “A research design is the basic plan which
guides the data collection and analysis phase of the research project. It is the
framework which specifies the type of information to be collected, the source of
data and the data collection procedure.”
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is
the preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the
“research design”. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure”. In fact, the research design is the
conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design
includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis
and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.More explicitly, the
design decisions happen to be in respect of:
i) What is the study about?
ii) Why is the study being made?
iii) Where will the study be carried out?
iv) What type of data is required?
v) Where can the required data are found?
vi) What periods of time will the study include?
vii) What will be the sample design?
viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
ix) How will the data be analysed?
x) In what style will the report be prepared?

3.2 FUNCTIONS AND GOALS OF RESEARCH

DESIGN
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Just
40 as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint
(or what is commonly called the map of the house) well thought out and prepared Research Designs
by an expert architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance
of data collection and analysis for our research project.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping
in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money.
Preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in
it may upset the entire project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on
the reliability of the results arrived at and as such constitutes the firm foundation
of the entire edifice of the research work.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain:
(a) A clear statement of the research problem;
(b) Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
(c) The population to be studied; and
(d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DESIGN

From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research
design as under:
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to
the research problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done
under these two constraints.

3.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Different research design can be conveniently described if we categorize them as:
a) Research design in case of exploratory research studies
b) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies
c) Research design in case of Experimental research design
Activity 1
List out the characteristic of a good research design
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Introduction to Research
Methodology 3.5 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational
point of view.The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas
and insights. Exploration is suitable in cases where researchers have no clear
idea about upcoming problems they have met during the study.
Through this research, researchers will develop or clarify core study concepts,
establish priorities, and formulate operational definitions that will help them
improve their final research design. Sometimes researchers would like to do
some exploration related to the study areas because the study area might be
vague or new. They need to learn/identify the corresponding areas, new dilemmas,
and new essential variables. Apart from that, researchers doing exploratory studies
related to the proposed study area might know the practical feasibility. Despite
its larger scope, still researchers and managers give less importance due to higher
time taken, non-representative, subjectiveness, non-systematic design. As such
the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study.In built
flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly
defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory
studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering
relevant data.

3.5.1 Techniques used for exploration

While researching something with little information may appear challenging,
various approaches may assist a researcher in determining the optimal study
design, data gathering methods, and subject selection. There are two methods
for conducting research: primary and secondary. A researcher can employ a variety
of methodologies under these two categories. Apart from that, two techniques
(qualitative and quantitative) are applicable for data gathering, but in adaptable
prospects, researchers will commonly follow the qualitative techniques. Once
researchers know the scope of qualitative research, they can easily adapt various
approaches for exploratory investigation. Some approaches are: -
 Researchers use depth interview techniques, mainly in an unstructured
way.
 Participant observation (what participants will do under the specific study
setting)
 Researchers capturing (audio, video, picture format) the group living
lifestyle considered current study.
 Case study techniques are used to understand a few conditions or events
in-depth.
 Documents analysis
 Expert interview is performed to retrieved important or in-depth study
subject’s information.
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3.5.2 Characteristic of Exploratory research Research Designs

 Exploratory research base study is commonly unstructured, open-ended,

high-time consuming and interactive in nature because research’s have
to collect all available information related to particular study.
 Researchers do the study commonly to know the answer of What contain
bases question (Example, what is the purposed/problem of the study?).
 Research will do exploratory research specific to proposed study area,
when there is a less existence of prior research as well as existing study
not enough to answer the problem precisely.
Activity 2
Give three examples of exploratory research designs
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3.6 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing
the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group. Most of the social
research comes under this category. Studies concerned with specific predictions,
with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation
are all examples of descriptive research studies.The researcher must be able to
define clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for
measuring it along with a clear cut definition of ‘population’ he wants to study.
Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information, the procedure to
be used must be carefully planned in this said study. The research design must
make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability,
with due concern for the economical completion of the research study. The design
in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why
is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering
data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what
time period should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
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Introduction to Research The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of
Methodology
research studies can be conveniently summarized in tabular form as under:
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research
Design Design

Overall design Flexible design Rigid design (design must

(design must provide opportunity make enough provision for
for considering different aspects protection against bias and
of the problem) must maximize reliability)

Sampling design Non-probability design (purposive Probability sampling design

or judgment sampling) (Random sampling)

Statistical design No pre-planned design for analysis Pre-planned design for

analysis

Observational Unstructured instruments for Structured or well thought

(data collection) collection of data out instruments for
design collection of data

Activity 3
Distinguish between exploratory and descriptive research designs
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3.7 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental studies are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not
only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about
causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of
research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments. Today,
the experimental designs are being used in researches relating to phenomena of
several disciplines.

In the form of research the marketer tries to determine if the manipulation of the
variable, called the independent variable, affects another variable, called the
dependent variable. If casual research is performed well marketers may be able
to use results for forecasting what might happen if the changes are made.

Experiments are much more effective than descriptive techniques in establishing

the casual relationships. First, the units to be studied are selected by the researcher
and each unit is assigned to the group determined by the researcher. The units do
not select their groups, thus avoiding the self-selection bias. Second, a necessary
consequence of the first, the researcher administers the predetermined treatment
or treatments to the units within each group.
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The use of a control group is almost mandatory in experimental designs. The Research Designs
inclusion of a control group permits a better isolation of the treatment component
through a proper design like a simple cross sectional design.
A major contribution that the statisticians have made to experimental design is
the development of randomization concept which enables the researcher to reduce
the effect of the uncontrolled variables on comparative measures of response to
the variables that are under the experimenter’s control. Randomization is a useful
device for ensuring on the average, that uncontrolled variables do not favour one
treatment versus others.
To establish a causal-affects relationship or to measure one variable’s effects
(independent variables) on other variables (dependent variables), we need to
control other factors/variables because it might be possible that other factors
also influence dependent variables. However, it might be hard to control other
covariates factors that may directly/indirectly manipulate the casual relation,
especially in dynamic environmental settings due to its non-static or naturally
flow events characteristic. Hence, experimental design commonly conducted in
two setting contexts (a) in artificial setting where experimental are conducted in
tight contrived environment also known as “Lab-Experiment”. (b) In a natural
setting experimental are conducted where activities occur on a regular basis,
also known as “Field Experiment”.

3.7.1 Lab-Experiment
When research particularly interest to observe the effects of independent on
dependent variable or clearly measure the cause-effects relation between two
variables (Independent, dependent), that time they controlled the other variables
which might be possible to contained the study relation. Apart from that, some
extent independent variables manipulation also needs in order to determine the
degree of its causal effects. Laboratory setting is the best for manipulating and
controlling specifically to test the variables causal-effects. Hence, we use ‘Control’
and ‘Manipulation’ terms.
 Control
Supposed say, we postulate the two variables (X, Y) ‘causal-and-effects’ relation.
Where X and Y respectively treated as independent and dependent variables and
it is feasible that another variable, say A, will also impact the dependent variable
(Y). In that scenario, finding Y’s actual occur variation due to X is quite not
possible because we do not know the A variables actual effects on X. For example,
in web page creation context, a firm’s HR manager decide to give special training
for new haired employee. Specifically, to prove his/her VP (Vice-president) that
training programme would improve newly employee performance. However,
it’s quite possible that some of new employed performance are effective compared
to other due to previous experience. So, in order to find the truth programme
outcome, programme conductor must control the learner previous experience by
excluding those new employees who had previous experience in web page
creation.
 Manipulation of the Independent Variable
In order to examine the causal effects of an independent variable on a dependent
variable, certain manipulations need to be tried. Manipulation simply means that
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Introduction to Research we create different levels of the independent variable to assess the impact on the
Methodology
dependent variable. For example, we may want to test the theory that depth of
knowledge of various manufacturing technologies is caused by rotating the
employees on all the jobs on the production line and in the design department,
over a 4-week period. Then we can manipulate the independent variable, “rotation
of employees,” by rotating one group of production workers and exposing them
to all the systems during the 4-week period, rotating another group of workers
only partially during the 4 weeks (i.e., exposing them to only half of the
manufacturing technologies), and leaving the third group to continue to do what
they are currently doing, without any special rotation. By measuring the depth of
knowledge of these groups both before and after the manipulation (also known
as the “treatment”), it would be possible to assess the extent to which the treatment
caused the effect, after controlling the contaminating factors. If deep knowledge
is indeed caused by rotation and exposure, the results would show that the third
group had the lowest increase in depth of knowledge, the second group had
some significant increase, and the first group had the greatest gains!

3.7.2 The Field Experiment

A field experiment, as the name implies, is an experiment done in the natural
environment in which work goes on as usual, but treatments are given to one or
more groups. Thus in the field experiment, even though it may not be possible to
control all the nuisance variables because members cannot be either randomly
assigned to groups, or matched, the treatment can still be manipulated. Control
groups could also be set up in the field experiments. The experimental and control
groups in the field experiment could be made up of the people working at several
plants within a certain radius, or from the different shifts in the same plant, or in
some other way. If there are three different shifts in a production plant, for instance,
and the effects of the piece-rate system are to be studied, one of the shifts can be
used as the control group, and the two other shifts given two different treatments
or the same treatment— that is, different piece rates or the same piece rate. Any
cause-and-effect relationship found under these conditions would have wider
generalizability to other similar production settings, even though we may not be
sure to what extent the piece rates alone were the cause of the increase in
productivity, because some of the other confounding variables could not be
controlled.
 Internal Validity and External Validity
Internal validity refers to the confidence we place in the cause-and-effect
relationship. In other words, it addresses the question, “To what extent does the
research design permit us to say that the independent variable A causes a change
in the dependent variable B?” In research with high internal validity, we are
relatively better able to argue that the relationship is causal, whereas in studies
with low internal validity, causality cannot be inferred at all. In lab experiments
where cause-and-effect relationships are substantiated, internal validity can be
said to be high.
External validity refers to the extent of generalizability of the results of a causal
study to other settings, people, or events, and internal validity refers to the degree
of our confidence in the causal effects (i.e., that variable X cause variable Y). To
46 what extent would the results found in the lab setting be transferable or
generalizable to the actual organizational or field settings? In other words, if we Research Designs
do find a cause-and-effect relationship after conducting a lab experiment, can
we then confidently say that the same cause-and-effect relationship will also
hold true in the organizational setting?
Field experiments have more external validity (i.e., the results are more
generalizable to other similar organizational settings), but less internal validity
(i.e., we cannot be certain of the extent to which variable X alone causes variable
Y). Note that in the lab experiment, the reverse is true. The internal validity is
high but the external validity is rather low.
Activity 4
Define the terms control and manipulation.
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3.8 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

The different types of experimental designs and the extent to which internal
validity is met in each are discussed in this section.

3.8.1 Quasi and True Experimental Designs

Some studies expose an experimental group to a treatment and measure its effects.
Such an experimental design is the weakest of all designs, and it does not measure
the true cause-and-effect relationship. This is so because there is no comparison
between groups, nor any recording of the status of the dependent variable as it
was prior to the experimental treatment and how it changed after the treatment.
In the absence of such control, the study is of no scientific value in determining
cause-and-effect relationships. Hence, such a design is referred to as a quasi-
experimental design. The true-experimental designs, which include both the
treatment and control groups and record information both before and after the
experimental group is exposed to the treatment, are known as ex post facto
experimental designs.

3.8.2 Simulation
An alternative to lab and field experimentation currently being used in business
research is simulation. Simulation uses a model-building technique to determine
the effects of changes, and computer-based simulations are becoming popular in
business research. A simulation can be thought of as an experiment conducted in
a specially created setting that very closely represents the natural environment
in which activities are usually carried on. In that sense, the simulation lies
somewhere between a lab and a field experiment, insofar as the environment is
artificially created but not far different from “reality.” Participants are exposed
to real-world experiences over a period of time, lasting anywhere from several
hours to several weeks, and they can be randomly assigned to different treatment 47
Introduction to Research groups. If managerial behaviour as a function of a specific treatment is to be
Methodology
studied, subjects will be asked to operate in an environment very much like an
office, with desks, chairs, cabinets, telephones, and the like. Members will be
randomly assigned the roles of directors, managers, clerks, and so on, and specific
stimuli will be presented to them. Thus, while the researcher would retain control
over the assignment and manipulation, the subjects would be left free to operate
as in a real office. In essence, some factors will be built into or incorporated in
the simulated system and others left free to vary (participants’ behaviour, within
the rules of the game). Data on the dependent variable can be obtained through
observation, videotaping, audio recording, interviews, or questionnaires.

3.8.3 Decision on Experimental designs

Before using experimental designs in research studies, it is essential to consider
whether they are necessary at all, and if so, at what level of sophistication. This
is because experimental designs call for special efforts and varying degrees of
interference with the natural flow of activities. Some questions that need to be
addressed in making these decisions, are the following:
 Is it really necessary to identify causal relationships, or would it suffice
if the correlates that account for the variance in the dependent variable
were known?
 If it is important to trace the causal relationships, which of the two,
internalvalidity or external validity, is needed more, or are both needed?
If only internal validity is important, a carefully designed lab experiment
would be the answer; if generalizability is the more important criterion,
then a field experiment would be called for; if both are equally important,
then a lab study should be first undertaken, followed by a field
experiment, if the results of the former warrant the latter.
 Is cost an important factor in the study? If so, would a less rather than
more sophisticated experimental design do?
These decision points are illustrated in the chart in Figure 3.1. Though managers
may not often be interested in cause-and-effect relationships, a good knowledge
of experimental designs could foster some pilot studies to be undertaken to
examine if factors such as bonus systems, piece rates, rest pauses, and so on lead
to positive outcomes such as better motivation, improved job performance, and
other favourable working conditions at the workplace. Marketing managers would
be able to use experimental designs to study the effects on sales of advertisements,
sales promotions, pricing, and the like. Awareness of the usefulness of simulation
as a research tool can also result in creative research endeavours in the
management area, as it currently does in the manufacturing side of businesses.

3.9 SUMMARY
This unit covered different types of research designs, with particular reference
to exploratory, descriptive and experimental research designs. The key
considerations for adopting a specific research design is discussed. The lab
and field experiments were discussed in detecting the cause-and-effect
48 relationships. Further, Issues of internal and external validity were discussed.
Also, decision on choosing the lab experiments or field experiments were Research Designs
examined.

3.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

a) A foreman thinks that the low efficiency of the machine tool operators is
directly linked to the high level of fumes emitted in the workshop. He would
like to prove this to his supervisor through a research study.
a) Would this be a causal or a correlational study? Why?
b) Is this an exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing study? Why?
c) What kind of a study would this be: field study, lab experiment, or field
experiment? Why?
b) Dr. Larry Norton of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center predicts that
cancer treatment will undergo major changes. Several drugs are being
developed to battle cancer without harming healthy tissues. It is a question
of discovering which of these drugs does the job best.
Design a study that would help find which drug would do the trick.
c) Is a field study totally out of the question if one is trying to establish cause-
and-effect relationships?
d) In what ways do lab experiments differ from field experiments?
e) Explain the concept of “trade-off between internal validity and external
validity.”
f) Comment on the following statement: “Because the external validity of lab
experiments is not usually high, they are useless for investigating cause and
effect relationships in organizations.”

3.11 FURTHER READINGS

Ranjit Kumar, “Research Methodology- A step-by-step Guide for Beginners”.
Sage Publishes, New Delhi.
Boyd, Westfall, and Stasch, “Marketing Research Text and Cases”. All India
Traveller Bookseller, New Delhi.
Uma Sekaran, Research Methods for Business – A skill building approach, Wiley
Publishers.
Brown, F.E. “Marketing Research, a structure for decision making”, Addison -
Wesley Publishing Company.
Kothari, C.R. “Research Methodology - Methods and Techniques”, Wiley Eastern
Ltd.
Stockton and Clark, “Introduction to Business and Economic Statistics” D.B.
Taraporevala Sons and Co. Private Limited, Bombay.

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Introduction to Research
Methodology

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