MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Dayananda Sagar University

School of Engineering
Innovation Campus, Kudlu Gate, Hosur Road, Bengaluru
Department of Electronics and communication Engineering
Subject Name: WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are a specialized type of sensor network that consists of
spatially distributed autonomous sensors to monitor physical or environmental conditions and
to cooperatively pass their data through the network to a main location. These networks are
often used in various applications, ranging from environmental monitoring and industrial
control to healthcare and military systems.

Figure: Schematic of Wireless Sensor Networks

1. Components:
 Sensors: These are small, low-cost devices that are capable of sensing various
environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, light, pressure, or even
specific chemicals.
 Wireless Communication: The sensors in a WSN communicate with each other
wirelessly. This communication is typically achieved using radio frequency (RF)
signals (20 kHz to around 300 GHz.).
 Data Processing Unit: Each sensor node is equipped with a processing unit that can
perform basic computations on the collected data before transmitting it.

2. Characteristics:
 Distributed: WSNs consist of a large number of spatially distributed sensor nodes,
which collaborate to achieve a common goal.
 Autonomous: Sensor nodes are often self-powered and capable of making decisions
autonomously, without direct human intervention.
 Dynamic Topology: The network topology in WSNs can change dynamically due to
node mobility, failure, or energy constraints.

3. Applications:
 Environmental Monitoring: WSNs are used to monitor and collect data on
environmental parameters such as air quality, soil moisture, and water quality.

1
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

 Industrial Control: WSNs help in monitoring and controlling industrial processes,

ensuring optimal performance and efficiency.
 Healthcare: In healthcare, WSNs can be employed for patient monitoring, tracking
medical equipment, and managing inventory in hospitals.
 Military Applications: WSNs play a crucial role in military operations for
surveillance, reconnaissance, and battlefield monitoring.
4. Challenges:
 Energy Efficiency: Sensor nodes are often powered by batteries, and energy
efficiency is a critical concern due to the limited power capacity of these devices.
 Data Security: As WSNs collect sensitive data, ensuring the security and privacy of
transmitted information is a significant challenge.
 Node Deployment and Localization: Strategically deploying sensor nodes and
accurately determining their location in a given area are important for the
effectiveness of a WSN.
5. Communication Protocols:
WSNs use various communication protocols such as Zigbee, Bluetooth, and LoRa to
establish reliable and efficient communication among sensor nodes.
6. Future Trends:
 Integration with IoT: WSNs are becoming an integral part of the Internet of Things
(IoT), enabling seamless connectivity and communication between physical devices.
 Advances in Energy Harvesting: Researchers are exploring new methods to harvest
energy from the environment, allowing sensor nodes to operate for extended periods
without the need for frequent battery replacements.

1.1 Sensor network applications

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) find applications in various fields due to their ability to
collect data from the physical world and transmit it wirelessly.
1. Environmental Monitoring:
WSNs are extensively used for monitoring environmental parameters such as temperature,
humidity, air quality, and pollution levels.
Applications include climate monitoring, ecological studies, and tracking changes in natural
habitats.
2. Industrial Automation and Control:
WSNs play a crucial role in industrial settings for monitoring and controlling processes.
Applications include monitoring machinery, detecting faults, optimizing energy usage, and
ensuring workplace safety.
3. Healthcare:
In healthcare, WSNs are employed for patient monitoring, especially in critical care units.

2
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

WSNs can track vital signs, detect anomalies, and transmit real-time health data to medical
professionals for remote monitoring.
4. Smart Agriculture:
WSNs assist in precision agriculture by monitoring soil conditions, humidity, temperature,
and crop health.
Farmers can make data-driven decisions to optimize irrigation, fertilization, and pest control.
5. Structural Health Monitoring:

WSNs are used to monitor the health and integrity of structures such as bridges, dams, and
buildings.
Sensors can detect vibrations, temperature changes, and structural deformations, providing
early warning signs of potential issues.
6. Home Automation:
WSNs contribute to the development of smart homes by enabling the monitoring and control
of various household devices.
Applications include home security, energy management, and automation of lighting and
appliances.
7. Wildlife Tracking and Conservation:
WSNs are used in wildlife studies to monitor the behavior and movements of animals.
Conservationists use sensor networks to track endangered species, study migration patterns,
and protect natural habitats.
8. Military and Surveillance:
WSNs play a crucial role in military applications for surveillance, reconnaissance, and border
monitoring.
Sensor nodes can be deployed in remote areas to gather intelligence and detect unauthorized
activities.
9. Smart Cities:
WSNs contribute to the development of smart cities by monitoring traffic flow, air quality,
and waste management.
Applications include smart parking systems, intelligent transportation, and efficient resource
utilization.
10. Emergency Response and Disaster Management:
WSNs help in disaster management by providing real-time data on environmental conditions
during natural disasters.

3
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Emergency responders can use this information for better decision-making and coordination
of rescue operations.
11. Sports and Fitness Monitoring:
WSNs are used in sports science to monitor athletes' performance, track movements, and
collect biometric data.
Fitness enthusiasts can also use sensor networks for personalized health monitoring and
training.

1.2 Habitat Monitoring

Habitat monitoring is a crucial application of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) that
involves the deployment of sensor nodes in natural environments to monitor and collect data
on various ecological parameters. This application is particularly important for
environmental researchers, conservationists, and wildlife management.

Figure: Habitat Monitoring Architecture

1. Biodiversity Monitoring:
 WSNs can be deployed in forests, wetlands, or other ecosystems to monitor and track
biodiversity.
 Sensor nodes can capture data on the presence and behavior of various plant and
animal species, helping researchers understand and manage ecosystems.

2. Climate and Weather Monitoring:

 WSNs are employed to collect data on environmental conditions such as temperature,

humidity, rainfall, and wind speed.
 This data is essential for studying climate patterns, understanding weather variations,
and predicting the impact of climate change on habitats.

4
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

3. Soil Monitoring:
Sensor nodes equipped with soil moisture sensors can monitor the moisture levels in the soil.
This information is crucial for agricultural applications, as well as for understanding the
impact of soil conditions on plant and animal life.
4. Water Quality Monitoring:
WSNs can be deployed in rivers, lakes, and other water bodies to monitor water quality.
Sensors can measure parameters like pH levels, dissolved oxygen, and pollutant
concentrations, providing valuable data for water resource management and conservation.
5. Wildlife Tracking:
Sensor nodes equipped with GPS or other tracking technologies can be attached to wildlife to
monitor their movements and migration patterns.
This helps in studying animal behavior, identifying critical habitats, and implementing
conservation measures.
6. Fire Detection and Prevention:
WSNs can be used to detect signs of wildfires in forested areas.
Sensors can monitor temperature, smoke levels, and humidity, providing early warnings to
authorities and facilitating rapid response to prevent or control wildfires.
7. Invasive Species Monitoring:
WSNs assist in detecting and monitoring invasive plant and animal species that can disrupt
native ecosystems.
Early detection allows for timely intervention and management strategies to mitigate the
impact of invasive species.
8. Habitat Restoration:
WSNs can be used to monitor the success of habitat restoration projects.
Sensors can track the growth of native plant species, monitor changes in soil quality, and
assess the overall health of restored habitats.
9. Noise and Pollution Monitoring:
WSNs can monitor anthropogenic impacts such as noise and pollution levels in natural
habitats.
This information is valuable for understanding the impact of human activities on ecosystems
and implementing measures to minimize disturbance.

5
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

1.3 Tracking chemical plumes

Figure: Example of Tracking chemical plumes

The above figure shows the development of a wireless chemical sensor network (WCSN) and
an environmental sensing chamber (ESC) within which this WCSN was tested. The WCSN
used in this work takes advantage of recent advances in low power wireless
communication platforms and novel light emitting diode (LED) based chemical sensing
techniques. Plumes of acetic acid were employed for testing and were detected by LED based
colorimetric acid responsive chemical sensors. Wireless sensor nodes were positioned in
fixed locations within the chamber and responses to plumes of acetic acid were monitored.
Preliminary test data show that sensor response time and magnitude are related to sensor
position and plume profile, and by operating the sensors collectively in a WCSN it was
possible to track chemical plumes in real-time as they moved through the chamber. We
envisage that it will be possible to use chemical sensors arranged in a WCSN such as this to
map and predict chemical plume dynamics.
Tracking chemical plumes is a critical application of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs),
particularly in scenarios where there's a need to monitor the dispersion of hazardous or
potentially harmful substances in the environment.

1. Deployment of Chemical Sensors:

6
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Sensor nodes equipped with chemical sensors are strategically deployed in the area of
interest.
These sensors can be designed to detect specific chemicals or a range of substances
depending on the application.
2. Real-Time Monitoring:
Chemical sensors continuously monitor the air or water for the presence of target substances.
Real-time data collection allows for immediate detection of chemical plumes as they
disperse.
3. Wireless Communication:
Sensor nodes communicate wirelessly with each other and possibly with a central base
station.
The nodes form a network to relay information, allowing for the tracking of chemical plumes
over a wide area.
4. Data Fusion and Analysis:
Collected data from multiple sensor nodes are often fused and analyzed to create a
comprehensive understanding of the chemical plume's characteristics.
Algorithms can be employed to analyze the data and estimate the source, direction, and
concentration of the chemical release.
5. Localization Techniques:
Using techniques such as triangulation or trilateration, the network can estimate the location
of the chemical source.
This information helps emergency responders or authorities to quickly respond to the source
of the release.
6. Integration with Environmental Parameters:
In addition to chemical sensors, the WSN may include other environmental sensors (e.g.,
temperature, humidity, wind speed) to provide context for the dispersion of the chemical
plume.
Integrating such data enhances the understanding of how environmental conditions influence
the plume's movement.
7. Early Warning Systems:
The WSN can be integrated into an early warning system to alert authorities and nearby
communities about the presence of hazardous chemicals.
Rapid response to such events is crucial for minimizing potential harm and implementing
emergency measures.
8. Adaptive Sampling:

7
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

WSNs can be designed to adaptively sample more frequently in areas where higher
concentrations of the chemical plume are detected.
This ensures that the network allocates resources efficiently, focusing on areas of greater
concern.
9. Scalability:
Depending on the size of the area to be monitored, WSNs can be easily scaled up by
deploying additional sensor nodes.
This scalability allows for effective coverage of large regions, such as industrial complexes or
urban areas.
10. Integration with Autonomous Vehicles:

In some applications, autonomous vehicles equipped with chemical sensors can be part of the
WSN, providing mobility for targeted sampling and tracking of chemical plumes.

1.4 Smart transportation

Smart transportation refers to the integration of modern technologies and data-driven
solutions to enhance the efficiency, safety, and sustainability of transportation systems.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) play a significant role in enabling smart transportation
applications.

Figure: Smart Transportation

As technology continues to evolve, our society is becoming enriched with more intelligent
devices that help us perform our daily activities more efficiently and effectively. One of the

8
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

most significant technological advancements of our time is the Internet of Things (IoT),
which interconnects various smart devices (such as smart mobiles, intelligent refrigerators,
smartwatches, smart fire alarms, smart door locks, and many more) allowing them to
communicate with each other and exchange data seamlessly. We now use IoT technology to
carry out our daily activities, for example, transportation. In particular, the field of smart
transportation has intrigued researchers due to its potential to revolutionize the way we move
people and goods. IoT provides drivers in a smart city with many benefits, including traffic
management, improved logistics, efficient parking systems, and enhanced safety measures.
Smart transportation is the integration of all these benefits into applications for transportation
systems. However, as a way of further improving the benefits provided by smart
transportation, other technologies have been explored, such as machine learning, big data,
and distributed ledgers. Some examples of their application are the optimization of routes,
parking, street lighting, accident prevention, detection of abnormal traffic conditions, and
maintenance of roads.
1. Traffic Monitoring and Management:
WSNs can be deployed to collect real-time data on traffic conditions, vehicle movement, and
road usage.
Sensors placed on roads, intersections, and highways can provide information to optimize
traffic signal timings and improve overall traffic flow.
The data collected can be used to identify congestion, manage traffic signals dynamically,
and reroute vehicles to alleviate congestion.
2. Smart Parking Systems:
WSNs can be employed in parking lots to monitor the availability of parking spaces.
Sensors embedded in parking spaces can detect whether a spot is occupied or vacant,
allowing drivers to locate available parking spaces using mobile apps or digital signage.
3. Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) Communication:
WSNs facilitate communication between vehicles and infrastructure, enabling the exchange
of information for improved safety and efficiency.
Traffic lights and road signs equipped with sensors can communicate with vehicles to provide
real-time information about traffic conditions, road hazards, and optimal routes.
4. Environmental Monitoring:
WSNs can include environmental sensors to monitor air quality, noise levels, and other
environmental factors that impact transportation systems.
This data can be used to implement measures to reduce pollution, plan routes that minimize
environmental impact, and improve overall sustainability.
5. Fleet Management:
WSNs can be used to track and manage fleets of vehicles, optimizing routes, fuel efficiency,
and maintenance schedules.

9
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Sensors in vehicles can collect data on fuel consumption, engine health, and driver behavior
to improve overall fleet performance.
6. Road Safety and Incident Detection:
WSNs can contribute to enhancing road safety by detecting and alerting authorities to
accidents, road hazards, or abnormal traffic conditions.
Intelligent roadside sensors can quickly identify incidents, allowing for prompt response and
better management of emergency services.
7. Public Transportation Systems:
WSNs can be employed in public transportation systems to monitor the movement of buses,
trains, or other modes of transport.
Real-time data can be used to provide accurate arrival times, optimize schedules, and
improve the overall efficiency of public transportation services.

1.5 Advantages of sensor networks

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) offer several advantages across various applications due
to their unique characteristics and capabilities. Some key advantages of sensor networks:
1. Cost-Effective Deployment:
Sensor nodes are typically small, low-cost devices, allowing for the deployment of large-
scale networks without incurring significant expenses.
2. Flexibility and Scalability:
WSNs can be easily scaled up or down by adding or removing sensor nodes, providing
flexibility to adapt to different environments and application requirements.
3. Wireless Communication:
The wireless nature of communication eliminates the need for a physical infrastructure,
making deployment and maintenance more convenient and cost-effective.
4. Real-Time Data Collection:
WSNs enable real-time monitoring and data collection, providing up-to-date information for
applications such as environmental monitoring, healthcare, and industrial automation.
5. Energy Efficiency:
Sensor nodes are designed to operate with low power consumption, extending the overall
lifetime of the network. This is crucial for applications where battery replacement is
challenging.
6. Distributed Processing:
Processing and computation can be distributed across sensor nodes, reducing the need for
centralized processing and improving system efficiency.
7. Adaptability to Harsh Environments:

10
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

WSNs can be deployed in diverse and challenging environments, including remote or hostile
locations, to gather data in situations where traditional wired systems may be impractical.
8. Self-Organization and Self-Healing:
WSNs can exhibit self-organizing behavior, allowing nodes to autonomously organize and
adapt to changes in the network topology. Additionally, they can self-heal by rerouting data
in case of node failures.
9. Wide Range of Applications:
WSNs find applications in various domains, including environmental monitoring, healthcare,
agriculture, smart cities, industrial automation, and more, showcasing their versatility and
adaptability.
10. Reduced Environmental Impact:
The deployment of WSNs for applications such as smart agriculture or environmental
monitoring can contribute to more sustainable practices by optimizing resource usage and
minimizing waste.
11. Data Fusion and Aggregation:
Sensor nodes can collaboratively process and aggregate data, reducing the amount of
redundant information sent to the central node and conserving energy.
12. Enhanced Accessibility:
WSNs enable the monitoring of remote or hard-to-reach locations, providing access to
valuable data that was previously difficult to obtain.

1.6.1 Energy Advantage

Because of the unique attenuation characteristics of radio-frequency (RF) signals, a multihop
RF network provides a significant energy saving over a single-hop network for the same
distance. Consider the following simple example of an N-hop network. Assume the overall
distance for transmission is Nr, where r is the one-hop distance. The minimum receiving
power at a node for a given transmission error rate is Preceive, and the power at a
transmission node is Psend. Then, the RF attenuation model near the ground is given by

Preceive ∝
Psend ,
α
r
where r is the transmission distance and α is the RF attenuation exponent. Due to multipath
and other interference effects, α is typically in the range of 2 to 5. Equivalently,

Psend ∝ r α Preceive.

Therefore, the power advantage of an N-hop transmission versus a single-hop transmission

over the same distance Nr is

11
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Figure: The power advantage of using a multihop RF communication over a distance of Nr.
Figure illustrates the power attenuation for the multihop and single-hop networks. A larger N
gives a larger power saving due to the consideration of RF energy alone.

1.6.2 Detection Advantage

Each sensor has a finite sensing range, determined by the noise floor at the sensor. A denser
sensor field improves the odds of detecting a signal source within the range. Once a signal
source is inside the sensing range of a sensor, further increasing the sensor density decreases
the average distance from a sensor to the signal source, hence improving the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR). Let us consider the acoustic sensing case in a two-dimensional plane, where the
acoustic

power received at a distance r is

which assumes an inverse distance squared attenuation. The SNR is given by

12
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Increasing the sensor density by a factor of k reduces the average distance to a target by a
factor of 1/ √k. Thus, the SNR advantage of the denser sensor network is

Therefore, an increase in sensor density by a factor of k improves the SNR at a sensor by 10

log k db.

1.6 Challenges for Wireless Sensor Networks

Figure: Challenges for Wireless Sensor Networks

1. Limited Energy Resources: Sensor nodes are often powered by batteries, and energy
constraints are a significant challenge. Developing energy-efficient protocols, low-
power hardware, and effective energy harvesting solutions are essential to extend the
operational lifetime of WSNs.
2. Scalability: As the number of sensor nodes increases, the complexity of managing
communication, coordination, and data processing also rises. Designing scalable
algorithms and protocols to handle large-scale deployments without sacrificing
efficiency is a considerable challenge.
3. Wireless Communication Issues: The open and shared nature of the wireless
medium introduces challenges such as interference, signal attenuation, and unreliable
communication links. Addressing these issues is crucial for maintaining reliable and
robust communication in WSNs.
4. Data Security and Privacy: WSNs often deal with sensitive data, and ensuring the
security and privacy of transmitted information is paramount. Implementing

13
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

encryption, secure key management, and access control mechanisms are ongoing
challenges in the design of secure WSNs.
5. Quality of Service (QoS): Meeting the diverse QoS requirements of different
applications can be challenging. Some applications may require low latency, while
others prioritize energy efficiency. Striking the right balance to satisfy the varied
demands of applications within the same WSN is a considerable challenge.

6. Fault Tolerance and Reliability: Sensor nodes may experience failures due to
environmental factors, hardware issues, or malicious attacks. Designing fault-tolerant
and reliable protocols to ensure continued operation in the presence of node failures is
a significant challenge.
7. Deployment and Localization: Strategically deploying sensor nodes to achieve
desired coverage and ensuring accurate localization in dynamic environments are
challenging tasks. Factors such as node mobility, environmental changes, and
obstacles impact the effectiveness of deployment and localization algorithms.
8. Limited Computational and Storage Capabilities: Sensor nodes typically have
limited processing and storage capabilities. Optimizing data processing algorithms
and storage management strategies to make efficient use of these constrained
resources is a challenge.
9. Integration with Existing Systems: Integrating WSNs with existing systems,
protocols, and standards can be challenging. Compatibility issues and the need for
seamless integration with other communication technologies must be addressed.
10. Dynamic Environments: WSNs are often deployed in dynamic and unpredictable
environments. Adapting to changes in topology, node availability, and environmental
conditions poses challenges for designing robust and adaptive WSN protocols.
11. Cost Constraints: While individual sensor nodes are often inexpensive, the overall
cost of deploying and maintaining a large-scale WSN can be significant. Striking a
balance between cost-effectiveness and meeting application requirements is a constant
challenge.

1.7 Enabling Technologies for Wireless Sensor Networks

1. Wireless Communication Protocols:

 IEEE 802.15.4: A standard for low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-
WPANs) providing a foundation for many WSNs.
 Zigbee: A communication protocol built on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, designed for
low-power, low-data-rate wireless communication, commonly used in home
automation and industrial control.
 LoRa (Long Range): A low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) protocol suitable for
long-range communication with low data rates, often used in applications like
agriculture and environmental monitoring.
2. Energy Harvesting:

14
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

 Solar Panels: Convert sunlight into energy to power sensor nodes, suitable for outdoor
deployments.
 Vibration Energy Harvesting: Converts mechanical vibrations into electrical energy,
useful for powering nodes in industrial settings.
3. Low-Power Hardware:

 Low-Power Microcontrollers: Energy-efficient processors designed to operate on

minimal power, extending the lifespan of battery-operated sensor nodes.
 Low-Power Sensors: Sensors with low energy consumption, enabling prolonged
operation on limited power resources.
4. Routing Protocols:
 LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy): A popular hierarchical routing
protocol that minimizes energy consumption by organizing nodes into clusters.
 RPL (Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks): An IPv6-based routing
protocol designed for low-power and lossy networks, suitable for WSNs.
5. Data Aggregation and Compression:
 Data Fusion Algorithms: Combine and process data from multiple sources to reduce
redundancy and improve efficiency.
 Compression Techniques: Reduce the amount of data transmitted, minimizing energy
consumption and improving bandwidth utilization.
6. Localization Techniques:
 GPS (Global Positioning System): Provides accurate location information for outdoor
deployments.
 Triangulation and RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indication): Methods for
estimating node locations based on signal strength.
7. Security Mechanisms:
 Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption: Ensures secure communication between
nodes.
 Key Management Protocols: Facilitate secure key distribution among nodes.
 Intrusion Detection Systems: Monitor network activities for potential security threats.
8. Middleware and Operating Systems:
 Contiki OS: An open-source operating system for the Internet of Things (IoT) and
WSNs.
 TinyOS: An event-driven operating system designed for low-power wireless devices.
9. Machine Learning for Anomaly Detection:
 Anomaly Detection Algorithms: Use machine learning techniques to identify
abnormal behavior in the network, enhancing security and fault tolerance.
10. Cloud Computing Integration:

15
MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

 Cloud-based WSNs: Integration with cloud platforms for data storage, processing, and
analysis, enabling scalable and centralized management.

16