Grade 10th Chemistry Note

Out Lines:
Unit-1:Chemical Reactions & Stoichiometry
Unit-2: Solutions
Unit-3: Important Inorganic Compounds
Unit-4: Energy Changes & Electrochemistry
Unit-5: Metals & Non-metals
Unit-6: Hydrocarbons

1
 Unit-1:
Chemical Reactions & Stoichiometry
1.1. Introduction
Change-is the transformation of a matter from one
form/state to another.
It is the law of nature.
Examples:
 Growth of seeds into plants
 the burning of wood in a fire place,
 the rusting of iron articles in moist air,
 the rotting of food
 the evaporation of liquids
 Scientists categorize changes as physical and
chemical changes.
2
 Physical change is a change that does not involve
formation of a new substance with a new chemical
composition.
Ex. .evaporation of liquids,
.powdering of sugar
.melting of ice
 Chemical change is a change which results in the
formation of one or more new substances with new
chemical composition.
 It occurs due to chemical reactions between substances.
Ex: -turning of milk into curd,
-photosynthesis by green plants
-rotting of egg by bacteria
3
Change is called a chemical
reaction if it exhibits all or part of
the following characteristics.
i. Formation of new substance
ii. Production of heat or light or both
iii.Change in color
iv.Change in temperature

4
 Chemical reaction is the process in which
reacting substances(reactants) are converted into
new substances (products).
 The characteristics of the products are
completely different from those of the reactants.
Ex: If S + O2 → SO2
 Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a pungent
odour.
 These characteristics of sulphur dioxide are
completely different from the characteristics of the
original substances, sulphur and oxygen.
i.e: characteristics of product are completely different
from the characteristics of the original reactants.
5
 A chemical reaction is represented by a short
hand notation called chemical equation as
follow:
Reactants → Products
 A balanced chemical equation can be used to
describe the relationships between the
amounts of reactants and products.
 The quantitative study of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction is called
reaction’s stoichiometry.
6
1.2 Chemical Equations
 A chemical equation is a short hand representation of
chemical reaction in terms of chemical symbols and
formulas.
 Instead of using words, chemical symbols and
formulas are used to represent the reaction.
 The starting substances are called reactants; and the
new substances produced are known as products.
 Reactants are written on the left side and products on
the right side of the equation.
 An arrow (→) is placed between the two sides to
indicate transformation of reactants into products.
i.e: Reactants → products
7
1.2.1 Writing Chemical Equation
Steps to write a chemical equation
1. Write a word equation:
Ex. Hydrogen + Nitrogen → Ammonia (Word equation)
NB: - read the '+' sign as 'reacts with‘
-the arrow (→) can be read as: 'to produce', 'to form',
'to give' or 'to yield'.
2. Write the symbols and formulas for the reactants and
products in the word equation.
H2 + N2 → NH3 (Unbalanced equation)
3. Balance the equation
3H2 + N2 → 2NH3 (Balanced equation)

8
 Chemically reactive substances might be solids, liquids, gases,
or they can dissolve in a solvent.
 Sometimes this information is added to an equation by placing
the appropriate symbols after the formulas:
Ex.
(s) = Solid, (l) = Liquid, (g) = Gas, (aq) = Aqueous solution
Ex. 1.2: Write the chemical equation for the reaction of sodium chloride
and silver nitrate to produce Silver chloride and Sodium nitrate.

9
Any chemical equation must fulfill the following
conditions:
a. An equation must represent a true and possible
chemical reaction.
b. The symbols and formulas must be written
correctly.
 The elements – hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine exist as
diatomic molecules.
 These elements should be written as molecules in
the equation.
 The equation must be balanced.
10
A chemical equation has both qualitative and
quantitative meanings.
Qualitatively, a chemical equation indicates
the types of the reactants and products in the
reaction.
Quantitatively, a chemical equation expresses
the relative number (amount) of moles,
molecules or masses of the reactants and
products.

11
Ex: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Qualitatively, it shows that the reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen forms water.
Quantitatively, it indicates that two units of
hydrogen combine with one unit of oxygen to
form two units of water.
The quantities may be expressed in terms of
grams, number of moles or number of
molecules.

12
1.2.2. Balancing Chemical Equations
 Balancing a chemical equation means equalizing the
number of atoms on both sides of the equation by
putting appropriate coefficients in front of the
formulas.
 According to the Law of Conservation of Mass, atoms
are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical
reaction.
 As a result, the number of atoms of each element
should remain the same before and after the reaction.
Method of balancing a chemical equation are:
* Inspection method
* Least Common Multiple (LCM) method
13
* Algebraic method
A. Balancing Chemical Equations by Inspection Method
 Used to balance the equation by inspecting.
 Most commonly used.
 Works best for simple equations.
 It is also known as a trial and error method or a hit and trial
method.
Steps:
1. Write the word equation.
2. Write the correct symbols or formulas for the reactants and
products (unbalanced equation).
3. Start with the most complicated compound count and tabulate
the number of each type of atoms on the two sides of the
unbalanced equation.
4. Make the number of each type of atoms on the left side equal to
the number of corresponding atoms on the right side of the 14
equation.
15
16
B. Balancing chemical equations by the LCM method
By taking the LCM of the total valency of the reactants and
products and dividing it by the total valency of the reactants and
products, the coefficients for the balanced chemical equation are
derived.
Steps:
1. Represent the reaction by a word equation.
2. Write the correct symbols or formulas for the reactants and
products.
3. Place the total valency of each atom above it.
4. Find the LCM of each total valency and place it above the
arrow.
5. Divide the LCM by each total valency number to obtain the
coefficients for each of the reactants and products.
Place the obtained coefficients in front of the respective chemical
formulas and check. 17
Examples(N…):
Balance the following reaction using LCM
method.
a. When aluminum reacts with oxygen,
aluminum oxide is formed.
b. The reaction of sodium sulphate with
aluminum nitrate would form aluminum
sulphate and sodium nitrate.
c. The reaction of magnesium nitrate with
ammonium phosphate would form ammonium
nitrate and magnesium phosphate.
18
C. Balancing Chemical Equations Using Algebraic
Method
Steps:
1. Write the unbalanced equation with the
correct symbols of the reactants &products
2. Assign algebraic variables to each species as
coefficients (a, b, c) in the unbalanced
equation
3. Choose the smallest variable and assign
arbitrary number(assume a=1) in order to
determine the remaining variables. 19
Examples(N…):
Balance the following rxn using Algebraic method
a. Al + O2 → Al2O3
b. PCl5 + H2O → H3PO4 + HCl
c. H2SO4 + NaOH →Na2SO4+ H2O

20
1.3. Types of Chemical Reactions
Many chemical reactions can be classified
as one of the four basic types of reactions.
Some reactions may be categorized into more
than one category.
The four basic types of chemical reactions are:
combinations,
decompositions,
single displacement, and
double displacement reactions
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22
A. Direct Combination Reactions
Two elements, two compounds, or an element
and a compound react to form a single
compound.
Represented by the equation: A + B →AB
where the reactants A and B are elements or
compounds and the product AB is a compound.
Such type of reaction is also known as
synthesis or composition reaction.

23
Examples
a. 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
Element + Element Compound
b. CaO + CO2 → CaCO3
Compound + Compound Compound
c. O2 + 2CO → 2CO2
Element Compound Compound

24
B. Decomposition Reactions
 involves the breaking down of a single compound
into two or more elements or simpler compounds.
It can be carried out using:
heat (thermal decomposition),
light (photo decomposition),
electricity (electrical decomposition) or
a catalyst.
 But most decomposition reactions are carried out when
heat is supplied and this heat energy is indicated by a
‘delta’ (Δ) symbol above the arrow.

25
The general form for a
decomposition reaction is:
AB →A + B, where the reactant AB
must be a compound and the products
A and B could be elements or
compounds.

Ex.

26
C. Single Displacement/Single Replacement
Reactions
Are reactions in which one element displaces
another element from its compound.
Represented by the following two general forms.
i. A + BC →B + AC
If A is a metal, it will displace B to form AC,
provided A is a more active metal than B.
ii. A + BC →BA + C
If A is a non-metal, it will displace C to form BA,
provided A is a more active nonmetal than C.
In general, a more reactive element displaces a less
reactive element from a compound. 27
Examples.
1. Active metals displace hydrogen from acids
Reactive metals such as K, Ca, Na, Zn displace
hydrogen gas from dilute acids.
Ex. a. Zn + 2HCl →ZnCl2 + H2
b. Cu + HCl →No reaction (why?)
2. Reactive metals, such as K, Ca, Na react vigorously
with water to displace hydrogen:
Ex. a. 2Na + 2H2O →2NaOH + H2
b. Ca + 2H2O →Ca(OH)2+ H2
3. A more active metal displaces a less active metal
Ex. a. Zn + CuSO4 →ZnSO4+ Cu
b. Fe + CuSO4 →FeSO4+ Cu
28
Figure 1.4: Replacement of copper by iron metal
from copper sulphate solution.
29
D. Double Displacement/ Double
replacement or metathesis Reactions
is a reaction in which two compounds
react together to form two new
compounds by exchange of the positive
and negative ions of each reactant.
Represented by the following general
form:
AB + CD →AD + CB
30
Examples
a. AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
Soluble Soluble Insoluble Soluble
b. BaCl2 + Na2SO4→ BaSO4↓ + 2NaCl
Soluble Soluble Insoluble precipitate Soluble
c. Na2CO3 + 2HCl →2NaCl + H2O + CO2↑

31
1.4. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
Oxidation is the loss of one or more
electrons by an atom.
Reduction is the gain of one or more
electrons.
Oxidation and reduction reactions occur
simultaneously and collectively called redox
reactions.
Thus, redox rxn is a rxn in which electrons
are transferred from one atom to another.
32
 Ex. Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
In this reaction, zinc reduces Cu2+

by donating two electrons to it.

i.e: Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Therefore, Zn is oxidized and
copper is reduced.

33
1.4.1.Oxidation Number or
Oxidation State
is the number of electrons that an
atom appears to have gained or
lost.
Oxidation number could be
integers including zero and
fractional numbers.
34
Positive oxidation number indicates
lose of electron.
Negative oxidation number indicates
gain of electron.
Zero oxidation number indicates that
atom did not gained and lost electron.
Fractional oxidation number
represents the average oxidation number
for the same element having several
oxidation numbers, like iron. 35
Oxidation increases oxidation number.
Reduction decreases oxidation number.
Ex. Cu0 + 2Ag+ → Cu2+ + 2Ag0
In this reaction:
oxidation number of copper is increased
from 0 to +2 and thus copper is oxidized.
oxidation number of silver is decreased
from +1 to 0, and silver is reduced.

36
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers
1. The oxidation state of uncombined
elements, which are monoatomic,
diatomic and polyatomic is zero.
Ex. The oxidation state of Be, Cu, Br2,
O2, O3, P4, and S8 is zero
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic
ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
Ex: Na+= +1, Mg2+= +2, S2– = –2.
37
3. The oxidation number of oxygen in a compound is
usually –2 except in the following cases:

Exceptions Oxidation Example

number of
Oxygen
In peroxides = -1 Na2O2
In super oxides = –1/2 KO2

In oxygen = +2 OF2
diflouride 38
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen
in its entire compounds is +1
except, it is –1 in metal hydrides,
like NaH, CaH2 and AlH3.
5. The sum of the oxidation number
of all the atoms in a neutral
compound is zero.
Ex:
39
6. In a polyatomic ion, the sum of
the oxidation numbers of the
constituent atoms equals the
charge on the ion.
Ex.

40
7. Elements of group IA have +1 and
group IIA have +2 oxidation states
in all of their compounds.
8. In a compound, the more
electronegative element is assigned a
negative oxidation number, and the
less electronegative element is
assigned a positive oxidation
number.
41
Examples(Exercise 1.5):
1. Find the oxidation numbers to the
underlined species for the following
compounds or ions
a. K4[Fe(CN)6] d. Na2S4O6 g. H2SO4
b. K2Cr2 O7 e. S2O8-2 h. HAuCl4
c. H2PtCl6 f. H2P2O7-2 i. Fe2(SO4)3

42
2. Determine whether the following processes
are oxidation or reduction reactions
a. Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu d. S-2 → S + 2e–
(Reduction) (oxidation)
b. K → K++ e– e. Fe2+→Fe3++ e–
(oxidation) (Oxidation)
c. O + 2e → O2– f. N + 3e– → N-3
(Reduction) (Reduction)

43
1.4.2. Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
Reducing agent is substance that gives up an
electron and causes reduction.
Oxidizing agent is substance that gains an
electron and causes the oxidation.
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent
1. Loses electrons 1. Gains electrons
2. Causes reduction 2. Causes oxidation
3. Undergoes oxidation 3. Undergoes reduction
4. Becomes more positive 4. Becomes more negative
44
Tests for an oxidizing agent are
accomplished by mixing it with a
substance that is easily oxidized
to give a visible color change
when the reaction takes place.

45
Examples:
I. Permanganate ion oxidizing agent
(MnO4–) in acidic solution changes color
from purple to colorless

46
II. Dichromate ion oxidizing agent
(Cr2O72–) in acidic solution changes color
from orange to green

47
Other common reducing agents are:
carbon,
carbon monoxide,
sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3),
sodium sulphite (Na2SO3)
iron(II) salts.

48
The oxidizing or reducing ability of
substances depend on the following
factors.
I. Electronegativity:
Elements with high electronegativity
such as F2, O2, N2 and Cl2 are good
oxidizing agents.
Elements with low electronegativity;
metallic elements like Na, K, Mg and Al
are good reducing agents. 49
II. oxidation states:
In a compound or ion, if one of its
elements is in its higher oxidation state,
then it is an oxidizing agent.
Ex. KMn+7O4, NaCl+7O4, K2Cr2+6O7
If an element of a compound or ion is in
its lower oxidation state, then it is a
reducing agent.
Ex. Fe+2S, C+2O, Na2S+4O3
50
1.4.3 Analyzing Redox Reactions
Ex. Identify the reducing and oxidizing agents
a. 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
b. Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
0 0 +3 -2
Answer: a. 2Fe + 3O2 → Fe2O3
Fe is oxidized from 0 to +3, it is reducing agent
O is reduced from 0 to –2, it is oxidizing agent.

51
 0 +1 -1 +2 -1 0
b. Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Mg is oxidized from 0 to +2, it is
reducing agent.
H is reduced from +1 to 0, therefore
HCl is the oxidizing agent.

52
 0 +1 -1 +2 -1 0
b. Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Mg is oxidized from 0 to +2, it is
reducing agent.
H is reduced from +1 to 0, therefore
HCl is the oxidizing agent.

53
1.4.4. Balancing Redox Reactions using
Oxidation-Number-Change Method.
Steps:
1. Write an unbalanced chemical equation.
Assign oxidation numbers to each atom.
2. Identify the atoms that are oxidized and
reduced.
3. Connect the atoms that are changing their
oxidation number using line. On the line,
write the oxidation-number change.
54
4. Balance the number of electrons lost in
oxidation with those gained in reduction
by adjusting the coefficients of
substances being oxidized and reduced.
5. Balance the remaining substances by
counting atoms.
Ex. Balance
HNO₃+ H₃AsO₃ → NO + H₃AsO₄+ H₂O

55
Non-redox Reactions
Are reactions in which neither oxidation nor
reduction takes place.
Oxidation states of chemical elements
remain unchanged in reactants and products.
Neutralization and double displacement
reactions are examples of non-redox
reactions.
Ex. a. Na2SO4+ CaCl2→CaSO4+ 2NaCl
b. KOH + HNO3→KNO3+ H2O
56
1.5. Molecular and Formula Masses, the
Mole Concept and Chemical Formulas
For a given atom, its mass number and
atomic mass, which expressed in amu
are quite close each other.
Ex. Atoms Mass Atomic mass
number (amu)
O 16 15.994
Mg 24 23.985 57
Molecular Mass (MM) is the sum of masses
of all the atoms present in a molecule (in one
unit of molecule), which can be expressed in
amu.
1amu = 1.660 × 10–24g.
Example:
a. MM of H2O = 2(1 amu) + 1(16amu)=18 amu
Ionic compounds are not discrete molecules,
but rather, ions.
The smallest unit of an ionic compound is
called a formula unit.
58
Fomula Mass ( FM) is the sum of the
atomic masses of all atoms present in the
formula unit of the compound, whether it
is molecular or ionic.
But FM is used mostly for ionic
compounds.
Example:
FM of NaCl = 1(23amu) + (35.5amu)= 58.5 amu
FM of Ca(OH)2 = 1(40 amu) + 2(16amu) + 2(1amu) = 68 amu

59
1.5.2 The Mole Concept
A mole is defined as the amount of a
substance that contains the same number of
entities.
It is convenient way to deal with the amount
of molecules or ions.
The concept first proposed by Avogadro.
A mole of any substance equals 6.02x1023
units of that substance.
This number is known as Avogadro’s
number. 60
Examples:
1 mole of H2O equals 6.02 x 1023
molecules of H2O
1 mole of NaCl equals 6.02 x 1023
formula units of NaCl
1 mole of K equals 6.02 x 1023 atoms of K
1 mole of Cl2 equals 6.02 x 1023
molecules of Cl2

61
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of a
substance in gram.
It is the molecular mass or formula
mass expressed in grams.
Molar mass of substance A means:
= mass of one mole of A
= 6.02 x 1023 units of substance A
Ex: Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5g
= mass of one mole of NaCl
= 6.02 x 1023 formula units of NaCl 62
1.5.3 Chemical Formulas - Empirical and
Molecular Formulas
Chemical formulas are formulas used to
express the composition of compounds in
terms of chemical symbols.
Empirical formula (simplest formula) is
the formula written with the smallest ratio.
It tells the ratio of atoms in the compound.
The molecular formula is the actual
formula that tells exact number of atoms of
different elements present in a molecule.
63
Examples:
Molecules Molecular Empirical
formula formula

Benzene C6H6 CH

Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O

64
Percent Composition by Mass (%)
Indicates the percent of each element
present in a given compound.

𝒏 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
% 𝐛𝐲 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 x 100%
𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
where n is the number of moles of the
element in 1 mole of the compound.
65
Ex. Determine percentage composition for
each element in C2H5OH
2 ×12𝑔
%𝐶 = x 100% = 52.17%
46𝑔
6 ×1𝑔
%𝐻 = x 100% = 13%
46𝑔
1 ×16𝑔
%𝑂 = x 100% = 34.78%
46𝑔

66
Determination of Empirical Formulas
Steps to determine empirical formula:
1. Derive the number of moles of each element from its
mass. Masses of elements may be given in terms of
percent composition of elements or grams.
2. Divide each element’s molar amount by the smallest
molar amount to yield subscripts of empirical formula.
3. Multiply all coefficients by an integer, (if
necessary), to obtain smallest whole number
ratio of subscripts.
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓
N𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 element = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 67
Example (Exercise 1.8, 5b)

What is the empirical formula of a compound

that contains 56.5% K, 8.7% C and 34.8% O?
Ans: Assume the given % as masses
56.5𝑔
Mole of K= = 1.448mol
39𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
8.7𝑔
Mole of C= = 0.725mol
12/𝑚𝑜𝑙
34.8𝑔
Mole of O= = 2.175mol
16𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
The smallest mole is 0.725mol
⸫ K: 1.448mol/0.725mol=2, C: 0.725mol/0.725mol=1,
O: 2.175mol/0.725mol=3
⸫ Empirical formula is K2CO3
68
Determination of Molecular Formulas
Molecular formula=Empirical formula x n
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
n=
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
Example (Exercise 1.8, 6b)

A compound of carbon, hydrogen and chlorine

has a molar mass of 99 g/mol.
It contains 24.3% carbon and 4.1% hydrogen.
What is its molecular formula?

69
Ans: Assume the given % as masses and determine
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎.
24.3𝑔
Mole of C = = 2.025mol
12/𝑚𝑜𝑙
4.1𝑔
Mole of H = = 4.1mol
1/𝑚𝑜𝑙
71.6𝑔
Mole of Cl = = 2.016mol
35.5/𝑚𝑜𝑙
C: 2.025mol/2.016mol =1, H: 4.1mol/2.016mol=2,
Cl: 2.016mol/2.016mol=1
⸫ Empirical formula is: CH2Cl
Molar mass of Empirical formula = 49.5g/mol
99𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
n= = 2
49.5𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molecular formula =Empirical formula x n
= 2(CH2Cl) = C2H4Cl2 70
1.6 Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative
composition of substances.
It is the study of the amount of reactants and
products.
Stoichiometric calculations are done for balanced
chemical equations.
Stoichiometric calculations are based on:
A. The composition of any substance in the
chemical equation should be expressed by a
definite formula.
B. The law of conservation of mass must be
obeyed. 71
1.6.1 Molar Ratios in Balanced Chemical Equation
Molar Ratio is called mass-mass or mole-mole
problems.
A balanced chemical equation provides information
about the nature, masses, number of moles, number
of molecules/atoms of reactants and products.
Calculations based on chemical equations are
called stoichiometric problems.
Ex. N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3.
1mol N2 + 3mol H2 → 2mol NH3 (Molar interpretation)
28g/molN2 + 3(2g/molH2) → 2(17g/molNH3) (mass interpretation)

72
1.6.2 Mass – Mass Relationships
The mass of one substance is determined from the given mass
of the other substance.
There are two methods for solving mass-mass problems.
A. The Mass - ratio Method
Steps:
1. Write the balanced chemical equation.
2. Place the given mass above the corresponding formula, and
x above the formula of the substance whose mass is to be
determined
3. Write the total molar mass of the substances below the
formula of each substance. Total molar mass is the molar
mass of the substance multiplied by its coefficient.
4. Set up the proportion.
5. Solve for the unknown mass, x. 73
Example(Exercise 1.9:5)
How many grams of CaCO3 are needed to react with
15.2g of HCl according to the following equation?
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2+ CO2 + H2O
x 15.2g
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2+ CO2 + H2O
100g 2(36.5g)

𝒙 𝟏𝟓.𝟐𝒈 (100g) x(15.2g)

= ⇒x= = 20.82g
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝟕𝟑𝒈 𝟕𝟑𝒈
⸫ 20.82g of CaCO3 are needed to react
with 15.2g of HCl
74
NB: Stoichiometric problems can also be solved
using the mole ratio or molar mass as conversion
factors.
The numbers in a conversion factor come from the
coefficients of the balanced chemical equation.
Conversión factor =mole ratio = moleA ∕Bmole
For mole – mole problems:
Mole B = mole A x mole ratio
mole 𝐁
= mole A x
mole 𝐀

Given moles / moles derived The moles from balanced

from given mass Equation
75
For Mass-Mass problems
1mole 𝐀 mole 𝐁 molar mass 𝐁
Gram B = gram A x x
molar mass 𝐀 mole 𝐀 1mole 𝐁

The moles from

balanced Equation

molar mass 𝐀 mole 𝑨 1mole 𝐁

Gram A =gram B x x
1mole 𝐀 mole 𝑩 Molar mass 𝐁

Ex. How many grams of aluminum metal must be

heated to produce 20.4 g of aluminium oxide?
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
76
Ans:
molar mass 𝐀𝐥 mole 𝑨𝒍 1moleAl2O3
Gram Al = gramAl2O3 x x
1mole 𝐀𝐥 moleAl2O3 Molar massAl2O3

𝟐𝟕𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍 4mole 1mol

= (20.4g) x x
1mole 𝐀𝐥 𝟐mole 102𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

= 10.8g of aluminum metal is needed

77
B. The Mole - ratio Method
Steps:
1. Write the balanced chemical equation.
2. Convert the given mass to moles and write the
obtained moles and the required quantity, x, above
the formulas of the respective substances.
3. Place the coefficients as the number of moles
under the formula of each substance involved.
4. Set up the proportion.
5. Solve for the unknown value, x; and convert the
moles obtained into mass.
78
Example (Exercise 1.9:6)

What mass of nitrogen dioxide is produced by the

decomposition of 182 g of magnesium nitrate?
2Mg(NO3)2 → 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
Soln:
182𝑔
Mole of Mg(NO3)2 = = 1.23mol
148𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
1.23mol x
2Mg(NO3)2 → 2 MgO + 4NO2 + O
2mol 4mol

1.23𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥
= ⇒ x=(1.23mol)x(4mol)/(2mol) =2.46mol
2𝑚𝑜𝑙 4𝑚𝑜𝑙
Convert the moles obtained into mass.
Mass of NO2 = mole of NO2 x molar mass of NO2
= 2.46mol x 46g/mol = 113.16g
79
1.6.3 Volume – Volume Relationships
At STP; it means at Standard Temperature
(0℃) and Pressure (1atm), one mole of any
gas occupies 22.4 liters.
This, 22.4 liters is known as molar volume at
STP.
Avogadro’s Law: states that equal volumes
of different gases, under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure, contain equal
number of molecules.
80
 According to this law, the volume of
a gas is proportional to the number of
molecules (moles) of the gas at STP.
i.e: V ~ n; where V is the volume
and n is the number of moles of gas.
In Volume – volume problems, the
volume of one substance is given and
the volume of the other substance is
calculated.
81
Example1(Exercise 1.10: 1)
What volume of nitrogen reacts with 33.6 litres
of oxygen to produce nitrogen dioxide at STP?
Ans: N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
X 33.6L
N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
22.4L 2(22.4L)

𝒙 𝟑𝟑.𝟔𝑳 𝟐𝟐.𝟒𝑳 𝒙 𝟑𝟑.𝟔𝑳

= ⇒X= = 16.8L
22.4𝐿 44.8𝐿 44.8𝐿
⸫ 16.8L of N2 reacts with 33.6 L O2

82
Example2(Exercise 1.10: 2)
How many litres of sulphur trioxide are formed
when 4800 cm3 of sulphur dioxide is burned in
air STP?
Ans: 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
4.8L x
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
2(22.4L) 2(22.4L)

𝟒.𝟖𝑳 𝒙 𝟒.𝟖𝑳 𝒙 𝟒𝟒.𝟖𝑳

= ⇒X= = 4.8L
44.8𝐿 44.8𝐿𝐿 44.8𝐿
⸫ 4.8L of SO3 formed. 83
1.6.4. Mass –Volume Relationships
In these problems, either the mass of one
substance is given and the volume of the
other is required or the volume of one
substance is given and the mass of the
other one is required.
The steps to solve such type of problems
are the same as the previous steps except
putting the masses on one side and the
volumes on the other side of the equality
sign.
84
Example1(Exercise 1.11: 1)
How many liters of oxygen are required to react with
156g of benzene according to the ff chemical
equation at STP?
2C6H6+ 15O2 →12CO2+ 6H2O
156g x
Ans: 2C6H6 + 15O2 → 12CO2 + 6H2O
2(78g) 15(22.4L)

𝟏𝟓𝟔𝒈 𝒙 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝒈 𝒙 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝑳

= ⇒X= = 336L
156𝑔 336𝐿 156𝑔
⸫ 336L of O2 required to react with 156g of benzene
85
Example1(Exercise 1.11: 2)
What mass of iron metal would be completely
oxidized by 89.6 L of oxygen to produce Fe2O3
at STP?
Ans: 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
x 89.6L
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
4(56g) 3(22.4L)

𝒙 𝟖𝟗.𝟔𝑳 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝒈 𝒙 𝟖𝟗.𝟔𝑳

= ⇒ X= = 298.7g
224𝒈 67.2𝐿 67.2𝐿
⸫ 298.7g of Fe oxidized by 89.6 L of oxygen
86
1.6.5 Limiting and Excess Reactants
In a chemical reaction involving two
reactants, the reactant that completely
consumed first in a reaction is called the
limiting reactant.
It limits or determines the amount of
product that can be formed.
When the limiting reactant is completely
consumed, no more product can be
formed. 87
Reactant that present in greater than necessary
to react with limiting reactant is called Excess
reactant.
Yield of the product is the one calculated using
the limiting reactant and it is the smallest.
Ex. 0.3mol Magnesium metal added to 0.52mol
hydrochloric acid by the following reaction:
Mg + 2HCl →MgCl2+ H2
a. Determine the limiting and excess reactant
b. how many moles of H2 are produced?
c. How many moles of the excess reactant
remains unreacted?
88
Solution a:
A. H2, which will be produced Using the quantity of Mg
0.3mol x?
Mg + 2HCl →MgCl2+ H2
1mol 1mol
0.3𝑚𝑜𝑙 x 1mol
⇒ x= = 0.3mol of H2 will be produced
1𝑚𝑜𝑙
B. H2, which will be produced Using the quantity of HCl
0.52mol x?
Mg + 2HCl →MgCl2 + H2
2mol 1mol
0.52𝑚𝑜𝑙 x 1mol
⇒ x= = 0.26mol of H2 will be produced
2𝑚𝑜𝑙
NB: the reactant that produced less product is limiting
⸫ HCl is limiting reactant and Mg is excess reactant
b. 0.26mol of H2 is produced 89
c. Amount of Mg consumed is:
x 0.52mol
Mg + 2HCl →MgCl2 + H2
1mol 2mol

1𝑚𝑜𝑙 x 0.52mol
⇒ x= = 0.26mol of Mg consumed
2𝑚𝑜𝑙
The excess amount/ unconsumed Mg:
= 0.3mol – 0.26mol
= 0.04mol

90
Unit 2: Solution
Introduction:
 Matter –is anything that has mass and occupies
space.
 It is classified in to two.
i. Pure substance
 Is a single kind of matter that has definite and
constant composition with definite physical and
chemical properties regardless of its source or the
way it is made.
 It cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by
any physical process.
 It can be inter-converted through chemical process
only.
Ex. Elements like O2, Cl2, Cu, Zn and compounds. 1
ii. Mixture
 Is a matter composed of two or more
substances in which the individual
substances keep their own properties.
 Components of mixtures (unlike those of
compounds) can have variable proportions,
can be separated physically, and retain their
properties.
Ex: air, food, medications, the skin, hair
products such as body lotion and shampoo are
all mixtures. 2
Mixtures have the following general
properties:
 Each component keeps its original properties.
 The separation of components can be easily
done.
 The proportion of the components is variable.
 Mixtures can be converted into its component
by physical process and vice versa.
 There are two types of mixtures:
homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
3
2.1. Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures
 Homogeneous mixture
 is a mixture in which the composition is uniform
throughout the mixture.
 i.e., it has no visible boundaries.
 The components are evenly distributed throughout the
entire mixture.
 It can be formed by combining the components in various
proportions(ratio)
Examples.
 5g NaCl in 100g of water
 10g NaCl in 100g of water
 a spoonful of sugar dissolved in water 4
 The difference between Pure substance and
homogeneous mixture:
 The composition(ratio) of components in Pure
substance is always the same/constant regardless
of the source or the way it is made.
 But a homogeneous mixtures may be formed by
combining them in various proportions.
 Pure substance inter-converted through chemical
process only.
 But a homogeneous mixtures can be inter-
converted through physical process.
5
Heterogeneous mixture:
 is a mixture that consists of physically
distinct parts, each with different
properties.
 This type of mixtures has at least two
visible phases.
Examples.
 Mixture of oil and water
 wood ash and water
 sand and water 6
2.1.1 Suspensions, Solutions, Colloids
A. Suspensions
 Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which
the solid particles are spread throughout the liquid
without dissolving in it.
Examples
 A mixture of chalk and water
 sand and water,
 mixture of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
and water
 muddy water.
7
B. Solutions
 Solution is a homogeneous mixture of a
solute dissolved in a solvent.
 Ex: Air, drinks like soda, coffee, and tea
and the fluids in our body.
 The particles in solution are of the size
of individual atoms, molecules or ions.
 The solvent part of the solution is
usually a liquid but can be a gas or a
solid. 8
 The major component of the solution is called
solvent, and the minor component is called
solute.
 If both components in a solution are 50%, the
term solute can be assigned to either
component.
 When a gaseous or solid material dissolves in a
liquid, the dissolved gas or solid material is
called solute
 All solutions are homogeneous mixtures but
not all homogeneous mixtures are solutions.
9
Properties of Solutions
 has a single uniform phase and has no visible boundaries.
 The components do not settle upon standing
 The particles of a solution are very small that they can
pass through the pores of even fine filter paper.
 So, solute cannot be separated from the solvent by
filtration.
 Solutions are very stable; neither coagulate upon
standing.
 NB: Although the components of a solution may not be
separated by settling (sedimentation) or filtration, the
solute can be separated from the solvent by other
processes.
Ex: solution of sodium chloride and water can be
separated by distillation or evaporation. 10
Types of Solutions
Solutions can exist in all three physical states
1. Gaseous solutions
 Both solute and solvent are gases
Ex: Atmosphere is a gaseous solution.
 It consists N2, O2, Ar, CO2, water vapor and
methane.
 The major component (Nitrogen) is regarded
as a solvent and the other components are
regarded as solute.
 Other example is natural gas
11
2. Liquid solutions
 In liquid solutions, solute can be solid,
liquid, or gas but the solvent is always a
liquid.
Examples:
 carbonated beverage (gas and liquid),
 alcoholic beverage (liquid in liquid), and
 sea water (solid in liquid).

12
3. Solid solutions
 Solid solutions have no restriction on the
state of the solute but the solvent has to be
solid.
Examples:
 Alloys, ceramics, and polymer blends
 Dental filling solution [mercury(liquid)-
silver(solid)] solution.
 wax, and H2 in Pd (gas in solid; used for
hydrogen storage).
13
C. Colloids
A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which insoluble
particles of one or more substances are suspended
uniformly throughout another substance.
Properties of Colloids
 A colloid (colloidal solution) appears to be
homogeneous but actually, it is heterogeneous upon
closer inspection.
 The size of particles in a colloid is bigger than those
in a true solution but smaller than those in a
suspension.
 It is between 1nm and 100nm in diameter.
 The particles of a colloid can pass through a filter
paper.
 So, a colloid cannot be separated by filtration.
14
There are two phases in colloidal solution:
 Dispersed phase -is component that present in
smaller proportions.
 Dispersion medium -is component that present in
greater proportion
 Colloids are quite stable.
 The particles do not separate on keeping.
 A colloid (colloidal solution) scatters a beam of light
passing through it (b/c its particles are fairly large).
 As a result, beam of light as well as colloidal particles
become visible.
 But, the beam of light is not visible as it passes
through true solution. 15
 The phenomenon in which the particle
in a colloid scatter the beams of light
that are directed at them and make the
path of the light beam visible is called
Tyndall effect.
 This effect is not observed in true
solutions.
 Suspension does not display Tyndall
effect, b/c its particles settle down.
16
Figure2.1: The light beam is not visible as it
passes through true solution (left) but it is clearly
visible when it passes through a colloid (right). 17
Types of Colloids
There are 8 different types of colloidal solutions
Dispersed Dispersion Types of colloids Example
Phase Medium

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist

Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust

Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream

Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream

Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia (magnesium

hydroxide in water), mud

Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice

Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter

Solid Solid Solid sol Colored Gemstone, milky glass

18
Coagulation
 It is the process by which the
dispersed phase of a colloid is made
to aggregate and thereby separate
from the continuous phase
(dispersion phase).
Ex: curdling of milk when it sours

19
Association of colloids
 When molecules or ions that have both a
hydrophobic (nonpolar, water hating) and
a hydrophilic (polar, water loving) end are
dispersed in water, they associate, or
aggregate, to form colloidal-sized particles
called micelles.
 The hydrophobic end point inward.
 The hydrophilic ends are on the outside of
the micelle facing the water molecules.
20
 A colloid in which the dispersed phase consists of
micelles is called an association colloid.
Ex: Ordinary soap in water
 Soap consists of compounds such as sodium
stearate, C17H35COONa.
 The stearate ion (C17H35COO-) has a long
hydrocarbon at one end which is hydrophobic and
a carboxyl group (COO-) at the other end which is
hydrophilic.

21
 The cleansing action of soap occurs because
oil and grease(dirty) can be absorbed
(soluble) into the hydrophobic center of the
soap micelles and washed away.
 The soap molecule is represented by a polar
head and zigzag hydrocarbon nonpolar tail.
 An oily spot can be removed by soap
because the nonpolar tail dissolves in the oil,
and the entire system becomes soluble in
water because the exterior portion is now
ionic..
22
Figure2.2: The cleansing action of soap
23
2.2 The Solution Process
 The extent of dissolution of a solute in a solvent is
governed by intermolecular forces.
 The energy change and entropy resulted when
solute and solvent mix to form a solution are the
forces driving the solution process.
 Formation of a solution physical process.
Solution process involves three basic steps;
1. breaking up the solute-solute inter-particle forces
2. breaking up the solvent-solvent inter-particles
forces
3. formation of solute-solvent interaction. 24
2.2.1 Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle
Forces of Attractions
There three inter-particles forces of
interaction
I. solute-solute interaction
II. solvent-solvent interaction
III.solute- solvent interaction
Solutes dissolve in a solvent when solute-
solvent interaction is greater than solute-
solute and solvent-solvent interaction 25
Solution Process

26
Rule-of-thumb “like dissolves like”
States that substances with similar types of
intermolecular forces dissolve in each other.
Examples:
Ionic compounds like NaCl (that are
extremely polar) and polar compounds like
ethanol (C2H5OH) dissolve in polar solvents
like H2O).
Nonpolar compounds and elements like
CCl4, oil, hexane and I2 dissolve in nonpolar
solvents like hexane(C6H14), carbon
tetrachloride(CCl4), and benzene. 27
How can we Predict the Likeness of a
Substance?
Ionic compounds have the highest polarity as
electrons are transferred from one atom to
another forming ions.
Covalent bond is polar when electrons shared
unequally.
Polarity depends on electronegativity
difference of bonding atoms.
In larger molecules, molecular polarity is
determined by the net dipole moment. 28
Dipole moment(µ)
It is the imbalance of charge over the
molecule.
Depends on both shape and bond polarity.
It is given in the unit debye (D).
1 D = 3.34 x 10-30 C.m.
Substances with zero or low electronegativity
difference in between the bonding atoms and
having zero net dipole moment are nonpolar
Ex: H2, O2, N2, CH4, CCl4.
29
Those having high electronegativity
difference in between the bonding atoms
and having net dipole moment are polar
compounds.
Ex: H2O, NH3, CH3OH, NO, CO, HCl,
H2S, PH3
The presence of polar bonds does not
always result in a polar molecule b/c
dipole moments may cancels out.
30
Examples:

The dipole moments cancels out, therefore CO2

is non-polar

b)

The horizontal components of the two dipoles cancels

out each other. But the vertical components add-up to
give a net dipole moment in H2O.
31
Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces
Intramolecular force is a force within a
molecule, which hold a molecule together.
Ex: covalent bond
Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces –is the
force of interaction b/n molecules (between
neighboring molecules), which includes
attraction and repulsion.
They are weaker relative to intramolecular
forces.
The are non covalent interactions. 32
The gaseous state is characterized by
absence of inter-particle forces and
hence the molecules of a gas are free
to move independent of the other
molecules.

33
Types of Intermolecular Forces
dipole-dipole interaction
dipole-induced dipole interaction
dispersion forces or London forces
ion-dipole interaction
ion-induced dipole
hydrogen bonding
Dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and
dispersion forces are commonly refer to as van
der Waals forces.
Their relative strength is as follow:
Dispersion forces < dipole-induced dipole < dipole-
dipole < H - bonding < ion dipole bond
34
Dipole-Dipole Forces
occur between polar molecules as a result of
electrostatic interactions among dipoles
Ex: Solubility of HBr in H2O.

Figure2.4: Dipole–dipole attraction between polar molecules.

35
Dipole–induced Dipole Force
Arise when a polar molecule distorts the electron
cloud of a nonpolar molecule.
Ex: The solubility in water of atmospheric O2, N2,
and noble gases.

Figure2.4: dipole-induced dipole attraction between

polar and nonpolar 36
Dispersion Forces (London forces)
Arise because the electron distribution within
molecules is constantly changing.
i.e: Result from temporary redistribution of the
electrons.
their strength increases with the number of
electrons
It occur between all neighboring molecules.
This type of force is also called instantaneous
dipole-induced dipole force.
It is common to all types of molecules
But it is more account for nonpolar molecules. 37
Ion-Dipole Forces
It is the principal force involved when an ionic
compound dissolves in water
Ex: When NaCl dissolves in H2O it forms ion-dipole
interaction

38
Ion–induced dipole forces
This arise when an ion’s charge distorts the electron
cloud of a nearby nonpolar molecule
When the ion and the nonpolar molecule get closer-
the nonpolar molecule gets polarized.

This type of force initiates the binding of the

Fe2+ion in hemoglobin to an O2 molecule entering a
red blood cell 39
The Hydrogen Bond
The hydrogen bond is an interaction of H-bonded to
O, N, or F in one molecule with O, N, or F of
another molecule.
Ex: Hydrogen bonding in water

40
2.2.2 Solutions of Ionic Solids in Water
Many ionic compounds are soluble in
water (at least 1g dissolves in 100mL
water).
However, not all ionic compounds are
soluble.
Examples:
KCl is readily soluble in water
AgCl is insoluble.
Ca(OH)2 is slightly soluble. 41
When ionic solid solute dissolve in liquid solvent,
the solvent molecules penetrate between catios
and anions of ionic solute and surround them.
The process in which solute particles become
surrounded by solvent is called solvation.
It is process of attraction and association of
molecules of a solute and a solvent.
When the solvent is water the process is called
hydration.
Ionic compounds that are soluble in water exist in
their ionic state as hydrated cations and anions
within the solution. 42
Ex:

Figure2.8: Hydration of Na+ and Cl- ions as

NaCl dissolves in water. 43
2.2.3 The Solubility Rules for Ionic
Solids
Solubility is a measure of how much
solute dissolved in a solvent at a specific
temperature.
It is the maximum amount of a solute
that can be dissolved in a given volume
(usually 100mL) of solvent at a given
temperature.
44
The solubility rules for common ionic compounds
i. All common salts of the Group 1A elements (such
as Na+, K+, Li+) and ammonium, NH4+, are
soluble.
ii. All common salts containing acetate (CH3COO-),
or nitrate (NO3-), and most perchlorates (ClO4-)
are soluble.
iii. All common chlorides (Cl-), bromides (Br-), and
iodides (I-) are soluble, except those of Ag+, Pb2+,
Cu2+, and Hg2+.
iv. All common fluorides (F-) are soluble, except
those of Pb2+ and Group 2A.
45
v. Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble.
 Hydroxides of GI elements are soluble.
 Hydroxides of GII elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are
slightly soluble.
 Hydroxide salts of transition metals and Al3+are
insoluble.
Ex: Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, are not soluble.
vi. All compounds containing sulfate (SO42-) are soluble,
except those of barium (Ba), strontium (Sr), lead
(Pb), calcium (Ca), silver (Ag), and mercury (Hg)
vii. Except for those compounds following rule1,
compounds containing carbonate (CO32-), sulfides;S2-
oxides (O2-), and phosphates (PO43-) are insoluble.
46
There are also molecular solids (covalent
solids) that held together by dispersion forces,
dipole-dipole forces, or hydrogen bonds.
Ex: ice, glucose, sucrose, solid CO2, sulfur,
solid hydrocarbons (like octadecane, C18H38).
Polar molecular solids such as ice, glucose,
and sucrose dissolve in polar solvents like
water.
Nonpolar molecular solids such as solid CO2,
sulfur, solid hydrocarbons dissolve in
nonpolar solvents like benzene, hexane, etc. 47
2.2.4 Solution of Liquids in Liquids
Ex: Grain alcohol/ethanol (CH3CH2OH) in
water
When two similar liquids (in terms of
polarity) are able to mix into a solution, the
are termed miscible.
Liquids that do not mix together, are
termed immiscible.
Ex: Oil and water
48
2.2.5 The Rate of Dissolution
Dissolution is the process through which a
solute dissolves in a solvent.
The rate of dissolution is the speed with which a
solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
This depends on:
largely depends on inter-particle forces
to a lesser extent it depends on:
surface area of the solid solute,
the temperature and
pressure (for gaseous solutes) 49
When the solvent-solute interactions are
stronger than solute-solute and solvent-
solvent interactions, the dissolution process
becomes faster.
Ex: Ethanol in water.
Increasing surface area of the solute will
increase the rate of dissolution b/c it increases
the number of solute particles in contact with
the solvent.
Stirring or agitation of the mixture can also
increase rate of dissolution. 50
2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process
The energy released or absorbed during mixing
solute in solvent to produce solution is called
solvation energy.
If solvent is water it is called hydration energy
i.e: Hydration energy is the energy released when
solute solvated by water molecules.
NB: Solution process involves:
breaking solute-solute interaction,
breaking solvent-solvent interaction, and
forming solute-solvent interactions (mixing step).
51
 If the energy released during mixing step is larger than
the energy required to break the solute-solute and
solvent-solvent forces, energy is released & the
process is exothermic.
 The energy released heats up the surrounding.
 Ex: When NaOH is mixed in water in a flask, the flask
gets hot.
 If the energy released in the mixing step is less than the
energy required to break the solute-solute and solvent-
solvent forces, energy is absorbed from the
surrounding & the process is endothermic.
 The surrounding gets cold.
 Ex: When NH4Cl mixed in water in a flask, the flask
gets cold.
52
Heat of solution or Enthalpy of solution
is the amount of heat released or absorbed during the
dissolution process.
q = m x Cg x ∆T
q - the amount of energy released or absorbed in
Joules (J) or kJ,
m - mass of the solution,
∆T - temperature change (Ti-Tf),
Cg - the specific heat of solution (J/g.℃)
- it can be assumed to be the same as that of
water, 4.184 J/g. ℃ for dilute solutions).
Heat of solution can either be positive
(endothermic) or negative (exothermic)
depending on the observed temperature change. 53
Molar heat of solution (ΔHsoln)
is the heat absorbed or released when one
mole of the substance is dissolved in water at
constant pressure.
𝑞
ΔHsoln =
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
The enthalpy changes are expressed in kJ/mol
for a reaction taking place at standard
conditions (a temperature of 298.15K and a
pressure 1atm).

54
Ex: When 5.19 g of NaCO3 was dissolved in 75.0 g of water,
the temperature of the water rose by 3.8 ℃.
Calculate the heat of solution and the molar heat of solution.
Take Cg of the solution as 3.820 J/g. ℃ and molar mass of
NaCO3 as 105.99 g/mol.
Soln
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
= 5.19 g + 75.0 g = 80.19 g
Temperature raised means Tf > Ti
⸫ ΔT = Ti – Tf = -3.80 ℃
moles of solute =5.19 g/105.99 g/mol
= 0.0489 mole
q = m x Cg x ∆T
= (80.19 g) (3.820 J/g. ℃ ) (-3.80 ℃ ) = -1164.0J
𝑞
ΔHsoln =
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

−1164.0J
= = -23,803.70 J/mole
0.0489 mole
The process is Exothermic
55
In solution process:
breaking solute-solute interaction, ΔHsolute > 0
breaking solvent-solvent interaction, ΔHsolvent > 0
forming solute-solvent interactions, ΔHmix< 0
The total enthalpy change (ΔHsoln):
ΔHsoln = ΔHsolute + ΔHsolven + ΔHmix
ΔHsoln can be zero (ideal solution),
negative (exothermic) or positive
(endothermic).
56
Ideal solution is a solution formed when the
strengths of the intermolecular forces of attraction in
solute-solute and solvent-solvent are similar to solute-
solvent.
Examples:
a. Mixture of ideal gases or mixture of gases, which
are closely approach to ideal behavior
helium and argon
b. Mixtures of structurally similar liquids.
 Mixtures of methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH)
 Pentane (C5H12) and hexane (C6H14)
Ideal gas is a gas composed of many particles with the
absence of inter-particle interactions.
57
Enthalpy of Hydration (Ionic Solids in Water)
ΔHsoln = ΔHsolute + ΔHsolven + ΔHmix
=ΔHlat + ΔHhydr
Solvation energy is energy released or
absorbed when solute particles are
surrounded by solvent molecules.
If solvent is water it is called hydration
energy(ΔHhydr)
Hydration is usually exothermic
Lattice energy(ΔHlat), is the energy required
to break the ions apart from crystal
lattice(Ionic solids).
It is endothermic process. 58
Lattice energy works against the solution
process.
So, ionic solid with large lattice energy
is usually insoluble.
Lattice energies depend on:
the charge on the ions and
distance b/n the positive and
negative ions.

59
As the magnitude of the charge on the ions
increases the lattice energy also increases.
you can
i.e: substances with single charged ions is
more soluble, and those with multiple
charged ions are less soluble in water.
Lattice energy is inversely proportional to
the distance between the centers of the two
ions.
Thus, CsCl has less lattice energy than
NaCl. 60
Examples of Endothermic and
Exothermic Processes
If the energy released during mixing step is
larger than the energy required to break the
solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces,
energy is released & the process is
exothermic.
The energy released heats up the
surrounding.
Ex: When NaOH is mixed in water in a flask,
the solution and flask become hot.
61
If the energy released in the mixing step is
less than the energy required to break the
solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces,
energy is absorbed from the surrounding &
the process is endothermic.
The surrounding gets cold.
Examples:
a. When NH4Cl mixed in water in a flask, the
flask gets cold.
b. When ammonium nitrate is dissolved in
water, the solution becomes very cold 62
Enthalpy and entropy of solution are the
driving force in the formation of
solutions.
Enthalpy (heat) of solution can be
determined in the laboratory by
measuring the temperature change of the
solvent when solute is added.
Calorimeter is a device used to measure
the amount of heat involved in a
chemical or physical process. 63
2.3 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process
When an ionic solid dissolves, ions leave the
solid and become dispersed in the solvent.
Some dissolved ions collide back again with
the undissolved solute and recrystallize.
When rate of dissolution is greater than the
rate of crystallization, the concentration of
ions in the solution rises.
Solution equilibrium is the physical state at
which the rate of dissolution of ions from
the solid is equal to the rate of
recrystallization of dissolved solute. 64
Recrystallization -is the process of
dissolved solute returning to the solid state.
After equilibrium is established:
no more solid dissolves.
no further change in the concentration over
time
Such a solution is said to be saturated.
Dissolution
solid(solute) Dissolved ions
Crystallization
65
2.3.1 Unsaturated, Saturated, and
Supersaturated Solutions
Saturated solution
is a solution at equilibrium and contains the
maximum amount of dissolved solute.
The solvent reached its maximum ability to
dissolved more solute.
Unsaturated solution
is the solution in which solvent can dissolve
more solute.
It is before equilibrium
66
Supersaturated solutions
Is solution that has dissolved solute
beyond the normal saturation point,
in which solute dissolved forcefully.
This may be done by increasing
temperature or pressure.

67
2.3.2 Factors Affecting Solubility of Substances
Solubility of a solute in a given solvent depends on:
inter-particle forces,
temperature, and
pressure (for gases only).
A. Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Solids
Solubility of most of solid solutes increases with
temperature.
Ex: solubility of Na2SO4, rises more than tenfold
when the temperature rises from 0°C to 32.4°C,
where it reaches a maximum of 49.7g Na2SO4 per
100g water. 68
B. Effect of Temperature on Solubility of
Gases
The solubility of gases in liquids decreases
with increasing temperature.
When a gas dissolves in liquids solvent, heat
should be released and new attractive forces
form.
Thus, if external heat is added, it breaks the
attractive forces between the gas and the
solvent and decreases the solubility of the
gas. 69
C. Effect of Pressure on Solubility of
Gases: Henry‟s Law
Pressure has virtually no effect on the
solubility of solids & liquids in liquid
solvents because they are
incompressible.
Henry‟s Law: the solubility of gases
increases as the partial pressure of the gas
above a solution increases.
70
Figure 2.14: A model depicting why the solubility
of a gas increases as the partial pressure increases
at constant temperature. 71
Henry‟s law:
C α P or C = kP
C - the concentration of dissolved gas at
equilibrium(M=mol/L)
P - the partial pressure of the gas
k - the Henry’s law constant, which must be
determined experimentally for each
combination of gas, solvent, and temperature
(mol/(L.atm) = M/atm).

72
If the partial pressure of a gas changes while
the temperature remains constant, the new
concentration of the gas within the liquid can
be calculated as follows:
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
=
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
C1 -initial concentration, P1 -initial partial pressure
C2 -final concentration, P2 -final partial pressure

73
NB: Gases that form strong intermolecular
forces such as H-bonding or react
chemically with water, such as hydrogen
halides, H2S, and NH3, do not obey
Henry’s law.
B/c all of these gases are much more
soluble than predicted by Henry’s law.

74
Example 2.2
The partial pressure of CO2 gas inside a bottle of cola
is 4atm at 25°C. What is the solubility of CO2?
The Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water is
3.3 x 10-2 mol/L.atm at 25°C.
Given:
PCO2 = 4atm
kCO2 = 3.3 x 10-2 mol/L.atm
Solubility(concentration) of CO2 =?
C = kP
=(3.3 x 10-2 mol/L.atm ) x (4atm)
= 0.1mol/L 75
Exercise 2.5
The concentration of CO2 in a solution is 0.032M at
3.0atm. What is the concentration of CO2 at 5.0atm
of pressure?
Given:
C1 =0.032M, P2= 5.0atm
P1 = 3.0atm C2 = ?
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
=
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
𝑪𝟏 𝒙 𝑷𝟐
⇒ 𝑪𝟐 =
𝑷𝟏
(0.032M)𝒙 (5.0atm)
= = 0.053M
(3.0atm)
76
2.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions
 Concentration is relative quantity of a solute against a total
quantity of solution or solvent.
i.e: Concentration is the amount of solute present in a given
quantity of solvent or solution.
 The following are ways of expressing concentration of
solutions.
Percent by mass or volume,
Parts per million (ppm)
Parts per billion (ppb)
Mole fraction,
Molarity,
Molality, and
Normality 77
2.4.1 Percent by Mass/Volume
Percent by mass also called the percent by
weight.

Percent by mass of solute

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
[%(w/w)] =
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 + 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
x 100%

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
= x 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

78
Example(Exercise 2.6: 1)
A sample of 0.892g of potassium KCl, is dissolved in
54.6g of water.
What is the percent, by mass, of KCl in the solution?
Given:
Mass of solute = 0.892g
Mass of solution = 0.892g + 54.6g = 55.492g
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
%by mass = x 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒐.𝟖𝟗𝟐𝒈
= x 100%
𝟓𝟓.𝟒𝟖𝟐𝒈
= 1.6%
79
 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Volume percent [% (v/v)] = x 100%
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Example 2.5
A rubbing alcohol usually contains 70mL of
isopropanol in 100 mL of solution.
What is the %(v/v) of this solution?

𝟕𝟎𝒎𝑳
%(v/v) isopropanol = x 100%
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒍𝑴
= 70%

80
 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
% (w/v) solute = x 100%
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

NB: Mass of 100mL of solution is equal to

100g if density of solution is assumed to be
equal to density of water (1g/mL); for dilute
solutions.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
i.e: density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

81
For more dilute solutions, parts per million
(ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) are used.
ppm and ppb are widely used to express the
amounts of trace pollutants/ contaminants in
the environment.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
ppm = x 106
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
ppb = x 109
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

NB: 1ppm = 1g solute per 1,000,000g solution 82

Example 2.7
A 2.5g sample of ground water was found to
contain 5.4µg of Pb2+.
Express the concentration of Pb2+ ppm and ppb
Given
Mass of solute = 5.4µg = 5.4 x 10-6g
Mass of solution = 2.5g + 5.4 x 10-6g ≈ 2.5g
5.4 x 10−6g
ppm = x 106 = 2.16ppm
2.5g
5.4 x 10−6g
ppb = x 109 = 2160ppb
2.5g 83
When reporting contaminants like lead in
drinking water, ppm and ppb concentrations
are often reported in mass/volume.
Since it is easier to think about water in terms
of its volume, rather than by its mass.
In addition, the density of water is 1.0g/mL.
Therefore, for dilute solutions the conversion
between ppm mass/volume is :
1ppm = 1 mg/L

84
2.4.2 Mole Fraction (X)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Mole fraction of solute (X 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆) =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Mole fraction of solvent (X 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕) =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
NB: Mole of solution = mole of solute + mole of solvent
X 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 + X 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 1
Ex: If mole fraction of the solute is 0.25, then:
Mole fraction of solvent = 1- 0.25 = 0.75
i.e: Solute is 25% by mole, then solvent is 75%.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Mole percent(Mole %) = x 100
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

85
Example (Exercise 2.7:1)
A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142g of isopropyl
alcohol (C3H7OH) and 58.0g of water. What are the mole
fractions of alcohol and water? M.wt C3H7OH = 60.0 g/mol,
H2O = 18 g/mol.
Ans:
Mass of solvent(isopropyl alcohol) = 142g
Mole of solvent = 142g/60g/mol = 2.37mol
Mass of solute (water) = 58g
Mole of solute = 58g/18g/mol =3.22mol
Mole of solution = 2.37mol + 3.22mol = 5.59mol
2.37𝑚𝑜𝑙
Mole fractions of solvent(isopropyl alcohol) = = 0.42
5.59𝑚𝑜𝑙
3.22𝑚𝑜𝑙
Mole fractions of solute (water) = = 0.58 86
5.59𝑚𝑜𝑙
2.4.3 Molarity (M)
The molarity(M) of a solution is the number of
moles of solute present in 1L of solution.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒
Unit of molarity is M(molarity)
1M = 1mol/1L
Molarity(M) is the most common unit of
concentration
It is also the most useful for calculations
involving the stoichiometry of reactions in
solution. 87
Example1(Exercise 2.8 :1)
5.85g of NaCl is dissolved in water to make 250mL
of solution. Calculate molarity of the solution.
Ans:
Mass of solute(NaCl)= 5.85g
Mole of solute (NaCl) = 5.85g/58.5g/mol
= 0.1mol
Volume of solution = 0.25L
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒
= 0.1mol/0.25L = 0.4M
88
Example2(Exercise 2.8 :2)
How would 250 ml of 0.15 M KNO3 solution be
prepared?
Given:
Volume of solution = 250mL= 0.25L
Molarity of solution = 0.15M
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Mole of solute(KNO3) = (Molarity) x (volume of solution)
= (0.15mol/L) x (0.25L) = 0.038 mol
Mass of KNO3 = 0.038 mol x 101.10 g/mol = 3.8g
Therefore, 3.8g KNO3 needed to dissolve, to produce
250mLof solution.
89
2.4.4 Molality
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 Molality(m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
 Molality includes the quantity of solvent, not solution.
 Molality has two advantages over molarity for precise
work:
Effect of temperature.
 Molal solutions are based on masses of components,
not volume.
 Since mass does not change with temperature, neither
does molality.
 But in molarity, liquid expands when heated, so a unit
volume of hot solution contains less solute than that of
cold solution.
 Thus, the molarity varies with temperature .
90
Effect of mixing.
Unlike volumes, masses are additive in
molality: adding 500g of one solution to 500g
of another does give 1000g of final solution.
But in molarity, because of solute-solvent
interactions it is difficult to predict volume of
solution, since volume may not be additive:
Adding 500mL of one solution to 500mL of
another may not give 1000mL of final
solution.
91
Example 2.10
Calculate the molality of a solution prepared by
dissolving 32.0g of CaCl2 in 271g of water.
Ans:
Mass of solute(CaCl2) = 32g
Mole of solute = 32g/111g/mol = 0.29mol
Mass of solvent(water) = 271g = 0.271kg
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molality(m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔) 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
0.29𝑚𝑜𝑙
= = 1.06m CaCl2
0.271𝑘𝑔

92
2.4.5 Normality(N)
The normality of a solution is the number of gram
equivalent of a solute per liter of solution.
1N = 1eq/L
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Normality(N) = …Eq 2.14
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆

Number of gram
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
equivalents of solute = 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 ……. Eq 2.15
𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Equivalent weight of solute = ………. Eq 2.16
𝑧
93
Substituting eq 2.16 in eq 2.15 gives:
Number of gram
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
equivalents of solute = x z… Eq 2.17
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆

= mole of solute x z
Substituting eq 2.17 in eq 2.14 gives:

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Normality(N) = x z …Eq2.18
(𝒎𝒐𝒂𝒍𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆) 𝒙 (𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍)

=M x Z ……. Eq2.19

94
Where „z‟ is:
 number of transferable H+ in acid
 number of transferable OH- in base
 Number of electrons lost or gained for redox reactions
 number of positive or negative charges formed for salts
Ex: z=1 for HCl z=1 for NaOH
z=2 for H2SO4 z=2 for Na2CO3
z=2 Ca(OH)2 z=1 for Al2(SO4)3
Normality is the only concentration unit that is reaction
dependent.
Since the value of ‘z’ depends on the actual number of H+,
OH- and number of charge released; not just the one in the
formula.
95
Example1:
Calculate the number of gram equivalent or simply
equivalents in 20g NaOH.
Given: mass = 20g
molar mass= 40g/mol
NaOH →Na+ + OH-
⇒ z=1
Number of gram
equivalents of solute = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 x z
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
=(20/40) x 1
= 0.5eq 96
Example2
Calculate the number of equivalents present in 0.50mol H3PO4if
the acid is:
a. completely neutralized to give PO43-
b. converted to H2PO4 -
c. converted to HPO42-
Ans:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Number of equivalents = x z = mole of solute x z
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
a. H3PO4 → 3H+ + PO43- ⇒ z= 3, mole = 0.5mol
Number of equivalents = mole of solute x z = 0.5 x 3 = 1.5eq
b. H3PO4 → H + H2PO4
+ - ⇒ z= 1, mole = 0.5mol
Number of equivalents = mole of solute x z = 0.5 x 1 = 0.5eq
c. H3PO4 → 2H+ + HPO42- ⇒ z= 2, mole = 0.5mol
Number of equivalents = mole of solute x z = 0.5 x 2 = 1eq 97
Example3:
Calculate Normality of the solution containing 0.50mol
H3PO4 in 100mL of solution, if the acid is completely
neutralized to give PO43-
Given:
Mole = 0.5mol
Volume = 100mL = 0.1L
H3PO4 completely neutralized means: H3PO4 → 3H+ + PO43-
⇒ z= 3
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 0.5𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molarity == = = = 5M
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.1𝐿
N = M x Z = (5M) x(3) = 15N
98
2.4.6 Conversion of Concentration Units
During conversion, note the following:
In (w/w) percent:
1% = 1g of solute in 100g of solution
In (v/v) percent:
1% = 1mL of solute in 100mLof solution
In (w/v) percent:
1% = 1g of solute in 100mLof solution
1ppm = 1g of solute in 106g solution
1ppb = 1g of solute in 109g solution
1ppm = 1mg/L 99
Converting (v/v) percent to Molarity
When (v/v) percent is given, convert the mL of
solute into mass using its density and find its mole.
Ex: Calculate the molarity of 40% (v/v) H2SO4
solution in which volume of solution is 1mL and
density .of H2SO4 is 1.83g/mL
Given:
Volume of solute(H2SO4 ) = 40% = (1mL x40)/100 = 0.4mL
Mass of solute = density x volume
= (1.83g/mL) x 0.4mL = 0.732g
Mole of solute = (0.732g)/98g/mol = 0.0075mol
Volume of solution = 1mL = 0.001L
Molarity(M) = (0.0075mol)/0.001L = 7.5M 100
Converting Mole Fractions to Molality
Ex: The mole fractions of glucose, C6H12O6, and
water are 0.150 and 0.850, respectively. What is the
molality of glucose in the solution?
Ans: Consider 0.15moles of glucose and 0.85moles
of water which is consistent with the given mole
fractions
Then, mass solvent (H2O) = mole x molar mass
= 0.85mol x 18g/mol = 15.3g = 0.0153kg
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molatity(m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
0.15𝑚𝑜𝑙
= = 9.8m
0.0153𝑘𝑔
101
Converting Molality to Molarity
Ex: An aqueous solution is 0.273m KCl.
What is the molar concentration of KCl?
The density of the solution is 1.011 x 103g/L.
Give: 0.273molality means 0.273mole of solute (KCl) in
1kg(1000g) of solvent
 Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
= (0.273mol x 74.5g/mol) + 1000g = 1020.3g
 density of the solution = 1.011 x 103g/L
 Volume of solution =mass of solution/density of solution
=1020.3g/1011g/L = 1.01L
 Molarity (M) = 0.273mole/ 1.01L= 0.27M
102
Converting (w/w) percent to Molarity
Calculate the molarity of 36.5%(w/w) HCl
solution. Density of solution is 1.20g/mL;
molar mass HCl = 36.5 g/moL)
Given:
Mass of solution = 100g
Mass of solute = 36.5g
Mole of solute = 36.5g/36.5g/mol = 1mol
Volume of solution = mass of solution/density
= (100g)/1.20g/mL = 83.3mL = 0.0833L
Molarity = 1mol/0.0833L = 12M
103
2.5.1 Preparation of stock solution from pure compound
Stock solution is a concentrated solution that will be diluted to
the required lower concentration for actual use.
A. Preparation of liquid solution using a solid solute.
This involves six steps:
1. Calculate the mass required to be dissolved in a suggested
volume. The required mass is calculated from the given
mole.
Mass required = mole x molar mass.
2. Weight the required mass using balance
3. Transfer the measured mass into beaker. Add some solvent
and mix(shake). Heating over hot plate may be required if
solute is not readily soluble.
4. Transfer the dissolved mixture into desired volumetric flask
5. Dilute to the mark (to the required volume) by solvent.
6. Cap it and label its name of solute, concentration
104
Figure 2.15 Steps of preparing solution
105
B. Preparation of liquid solution using liquid solute.
You need to calculate the volume of solute to be
dissolved in a given solvent.
The required volume of solute is calculated from
the given mole and density of solute as follow:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)
V = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Then, transfer the required(calculated) volume into
volumetric flask.
Dilute to the mark (to the required volume) by
solvent

106
Example:
How 100mL of 1M NaOH solution prepared from
pure NaOH solid?
Given:
M= 1M =1mol/L
Volume of solution = 100mL 0.1L
Molarity = Mole of solute/ Volume of solution
Mole of solute(NaOH) = molarity x Volume of solution
= (1mol/L) x (0.1L) = 0.1mol
Mass of solute(NaOH) = mol x molar mass
= (0.1mol) x (40g/mol) = 4g
Therefore, 1M NaOH solution prepared by dissolving 4g
NaOH 100mL volumetric flask 107
2.5.2. Diluting a Solutions
Concentrated solutions are usually stored as
stock solutions in laboratory.
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a
less-concentrated solution from a more
concentrated (stock) one.
This can be done by withdrawing small
volume(V1) of concentrated (stock) solution
and diluting to a required final volume (V2)
by adding more solvent.
108
Solution1 Solution2
Before dilution After dilution
Volume1=V1 Volume2=V2
Concentration1 =M1 Concentration2 =M2
109
Dilution decreases the concentration of the
solution, but doesn’t change number of moles of
solute present in the solution.
i.e: Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution
Molarity of solution1(M1) = Moles1/V1
⇒ Mole1 = M1 x V1
Molarity of solution2(M2) = Moles2/V2
⇒ Mole2 = M2 x V2
Since moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution

M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
This formula is known as dilution formula 110
Caution!
When preparing dilutions from
concentrated acids such as sulfuric acid:
Add the acid slowly to water with
frequent stirring.

⇒ AW
Adding water to acid causes harm
⇒ WA !!
111
Example (Exercise 2.12: 1)
How would you prepare 200mL of a 0.866M KOH solution,
starting with a 5.07M stock solution?
Given:
M1 = 5.07M
M2 = 0.866M
V2 = 2.00 x 102mL
V1 = ?
Ans: M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
M2 x V2 (0.866M)x (200mL)
V1= = = 0.0034L
M1 5.07M
Thus, we must withdraw 0.0034L from the 5.07M KOH
solution, transfer it to a 200mL volumetric flask and dilute it
with sufficient amount of water to the mark (200mL). 112
Do the best!
Prepare the main note for:
2.6. Solution Stoichiometry
2.7. Describing Reactions in Solution

113
Do the best!
1. Differentiate pure substances and mixtures
2. Why all homogeneous mixtures are not solutions?
3. Assume that solid and liquid substances mixed. Describe the condition when the
solid and liquid become solute and solvent.
4. Describe the similarities and difference of homogeneous and heterogamous
mixture.
5. Describe the difference between Intramolecular and Intermolecular Forces.
Express using figure examples.
6. Describe the Dynamic equilibrium of solution
For question 7&8:
0.25L aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 30 percent HCl by mass.
7. Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in the solution.
8. Calculate the molar concentration of the solution. Show steps necessarily
For question 9&10:
0.5 mole of ethanol is mixed with 1.5moles of water.
9. Calculate the mole fraction of alcohol.
10. Calculate the percent by mass %(w/w) 114
2.6. Solution Stoichiometry
Many reactions occur in solution.
The concept of molarity is very
important in solution stoichiometry.
i.e: molarity is a conversion factor.
b/c number of moles of a solute
determined from volume and
molarity solution.
1
Steps:
1. Balance the equation.
2. Find the mole of one substance
from its given volume and molarity.
3. Relate it to the stoichiometrically
equivalent amount of another
substance.
4. Convert to the desired units.
2
Example
What is the concentration of sodium hydroxide required to react
completely with equal volume of 0.104 M sulfuric acid?
H2SO4+ 2NaOH →Na2SO4+ 2H2O
Ans:
From the equation: H2SO4 + 2NaOH →Na2SO4+ 2H2O
1mol 2mol

MoleH2SO4 MoleNaOH
VH2SO4 = , VNaOH =
MH2SO4 MNaOH
MoleH2SO4 MoleNaOH
VH2SO4 = VNaOH ⇒ =
MH2SO4 MNaOH
1mol 2mol
=
0.104𝑀 MNaOH

(2mol)x(0.104M)
⇒ MNaOH = = 0.208M
1mol
3
Mass – Volume
Exercise 2.15
What volume of 0.512M NaOH will react with 17.9 g of
H2C2O4(s) according to the following chemical equation?
H2C2O4(s)+2NaOH(aq) → Na2C2O4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Given:
MNaOH = 0.512M
Mass of H2C2O4 = 17.9g
17.9g
Mole of H2C2O4 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝐦𝐨𝐥
90𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
1mol 2mol
From equation: H2C2O4+ 2NaOH→ Na2C2O4(aq) + 2H2O
𝟎. 𝟐𝐦𝐨𝐥 mol?

⇒ MoleNaOH = (0.2mol) x (2mol)

= 0.4mol
1𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝟎.𝟒𝑚𝑜𝑙
VNaOH = = 0.78L
0.512𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 4
Mole - Volume Calculation
Example
What volume of a 0.35M AgNO3 is required to react
completely with 55mL of 0.24M NaCl solution?
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
Given:
MAgNO3 = 0.35M ⇒ MoleNaCl = M x V
MNaCl = 0.24M = (0.24mol/L) x (0.055L)
VNaCl = 55mL = 0.055L =0.0132mol
0.0132mol mol??
From equation: NaCl + AgNO3 → NaNO3 + AgCl
1mol 1mol

MoleAgNO3 = (0.0132mol x 1mol)/1mol = 0.0132mol

𝟎.0132𝑚𝑜𝑙
VAgNO3 = = 0.0377L = 37.7mL
0.35𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 5
Mole - Number of Particles
Exercise 2.16
What volume of 0.5M glucose (C6H12O6) contains
3.01 × 1022 molecules of glucose?
1mol of C6H12O6 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules of glucose
Mol?? = 3.01 × 1022 molecules of glucose
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 (3.01 × 1022)
Mol C6H12O6 = = 0.05mol
6.02 x 1023
𝟎.05𝑚𝑜𝑙
V C6H12O6 =0.5𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 = 0.1L

6
2.7 Describing Reactions in Solution
Molecular Equation
 -is a chemical equation in which the reactants and the
products are written as if they were molecular
substances, even though they may actually exist in
solution as ions.
 The state of each reactant and is indicated as solid(s),
liquid(l), gas(g) and aqueous solution(aq), where (aq)
indicates that molecule is dissolved in water.
 Molecular equation describes the actual reactants and
products.
 But, it does not give any information about what is
happening at the level of ions. 7
Example1:
Consider the following reaction in aqueous solution,
which expressed by molecular equation.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) →AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
In this equation, AgNO3, NaCl, NaNO3:
 are ionic soluble in water.
 They go into solution as ions, to give freely moving
ions, rather than existing as molecules.
 Their freely moving ions makes them electrolytes.
 So, they should be written as ions, rather than as
molecules.
 But, AgCl(s) is insoluble in water, become precipitate
and settle to the bottom of solution.
 It should be left as molecule(AgCl(s) 8
Ionic Equation
is a chemical equation which gives information of
reactants and the products about what is happening at
the level of ions.
Consider the following reaction:
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) →AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
AgNO3, NaCl, NaNO3 are ionic soluble in water.
They go into solution as ions.
So, the complete equation should be as follow:
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) →
AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq) 9
Spectator
are ions appearing on both sides of the equation.
Ex: NO3-(aq) and Na+(aq) are spectator in the above
equation.
Spectator do not take part in the reaction and they
can be canceled on both sides to express the
essential reaction that occurs.
i.e: Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
The resulting equation(net ionic equation) is:
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

10
Steps for writing a net ionic equation
1. Write the balanced molecular equation
2. Write the balanced complete ionic equation
3. Cancel out the spectator ions.
What remains is the net ionic equation.

11
 Unit-3
IMPORTANT INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
3.1. Introduction
 Inorganic compound refers to all compounds that do not
contain carbon except:
 oxides of carbon (CO, CO2)
 Carbonates & hydrogen carbonates
 Carbides (compounds containing C&metal; eg SiC).
 Inorganic compounds are mineral constituents of the
earth.
 They found in nonliving things.
 But, organic compounds found in living things.
 The majority of metal compounds are inorganic.
 Inorganic compounds are mostly found in nature as:
 silicates,
 oxides,
 carbonates,
 sulphides,
 sulphates,
 chlorides,
 Nitrates .
 Inorganic compounds are classified into four groups:
 oxides,
 acids,
 bases and
 salts.
 We are familiar with the utility and
importance of oxides, acids, bases
and salts in our daily life.
Example:
 CO2 used in fire extinguisher
 The sour taste of vinegar is due to its
acetic acid (CH3COOH)
 NaOH is used in the preparation of
soaps
 NaCl is common salt which is useful
as a food ingredient.
3.2. Oxides
 Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen and any one
other element.
i.e: Oxygen + Metal/Non-metal/Metalloid) → Oxide
Ex: Na2O, N2O5, SO3
 Oxygen reacts directly with almost all elements except noble
gases and inactive metals like gold, platinum, and palladium.
 Binary compounds are compounds consisting of only two
elements.
 Based on their chemical properties; Oxides are classified into:
 Acidic Oxides
 Basic Oxides
 Neutral Oxides
 Amphoteric Oxides
 Peroxides
A. Acidic Oxides
 are oxides formed by the chemical combination
of oxygen with nonmetals.
i.e: acidic oxides are non-metal oxides.
Ex: CO2, NO2, SO2
 They also called acid anhydrides.
 They form acidic solutions when reacted or
dissolved in water.
 Acid anhydride means acid without water.
NB: all non-metal oxides are not necessarily acidic
oxides.
Ex: CO, N2O, are non-metal oxides, but they are
neutral oxide; not acidic oxides. .
There are also acidic oxides that do not react
directly with water.
Acids of such oxides are formed by other
methods.
SiO2 is not soluble in water, but it neutralizes
basic oxides, thus it is acidic.
i.e: SiO2+ Na2O →Na2SiO3(sodium silicate)
The acid of SiO2 (H2SiO3) is prepared by the
reaction of HCl with Na2SiO3
i.e: Na2SiO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → H2SiO3 + 2NaCl
Chemical properties of acidic oxides
1. Acid oxides + Water → Acid solutions
Ex: CO2+ H2O →H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
SO2+ H2O →H2SO3 (Sulphurous acid)
2. Acidic oxide + Basic oxide →Salt
Ex: CO2 + Na2O →Na2CO3 (sodium carbonate)
SO3+ CaO →CaSO4 (calcium sulphate)
3. Acidic oxide + Base → Salt + Water
This reaction is called neutralization reaction.
Ex: SO2+ 2NaOH →Na2SO3+ H2O
CO2+ 2LiOH →Li2CO3+ H2O
B. Basic Oxides
 are oxides formed by the chemical combination of
oxygen with metals.
 i.e: Basic oxides are metal oxides.
Ex: Li2O, Na2O, K2O, MgO, CaO, BaO, CuO.
 They form basic solutions (alkaline solutions)
when dissolved and reacted with water.
 Most metals form oxides.
 All metal oxides are not necessarily basic oxides.
Ex: Al2O3 and ZnO are metal oxides, but not basic
oxides; they are amphoteric oxides.
 Oxides of metals that dissolve in water and react
with it to form basic or alkaline solutions are called
basic anhydrides.
 The term base is used to describe both
soluble and insoluble basic oxides.
i.e: There are also metallic oxides which have
basic properties but are insoluble in water.
 These oxides react with acids to give salt
and water.
Ex: FeO + 2HCl →FeCl2+ H2O
 The oxides of active metals, group IA and
heavier members of group IIA, dissolve in
water and readily form bases.
Chemical properties of basic oxides
1. Basic oxide + Water →Basic solution (alkaline solutions)
E.x: Li2O + H2O →2LiOH
CaO + H2O →Ca(OH)2
2. Basic oxide + Acidic oxide → Salt
Ex: BaO + SO3→BaSO4
Na2O + CO2→Na2CO3
3. Basic oxide + Acid →Salt + Water
Ex: CaO + 2HCl →CaCl2+ H2O
CuO + H2SO4→CuSO4 + H2O
NB: ⇒Acidic oxides react with bases and basic oxides.
⇒ But acidic oxides do not react with acids
⇒ Basic oxides do not react with bases.
Acid-Base Indicators
are substances used to identify whether a given
solution is acidic, basic or neutral by showing
colour changes.
Examples
Indicator Colour in aqueous Colour in aqueous
solution of solution of basic oxide
acidic oxide
Universal Yellow – orange (in weakly Blue (in weakly basic) and
Indicator acidic) Purple (in strongly basic)
Red (in strongly acidic)
Litmus Red Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink (red)

Methyl orange Red Yellow

C. Amphoteric Oxides
 are oxides which show both acidic and basic properties.
 In their reaction with acids, they act as bases and, in their reaction
with bases they act as acids.
Ex: Al2O3 , ZnO, PbO, PbO2, SnO, and SnO2
Ex: Consider the amphoteric properties of Al2O3
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O (Al2O3 acted as base)
Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O (Al2O3 acted as base)
NB: There are also amphoteric hydroxides.
Ex: Al(OH)3 is amphoteric hydroxide
Common characteristic of acidic, basic and amphoteric oxides:
 Acidic oxides form salts when reacted with basic oxides and bases.
 Basic oxides form salts when reacted with acidic oxides and acids.
 Amphoteric oxides form salts when reacted with acids and bases.
 Thus, acidic oxides, basic oxides and amphoteric oxides are salt-
forming oxides.
D. Neutral Oxides
 Are oxides that do not show basic and
acidic properties.
 They react neither with acids nor with
bases to form salt and water.
Ex: H2O, CO, N2O, NO.
 Neutral oxides are very few in number.
 Neutral oxides are not salt- forming
oxides.
E. Peroxides
 Peroxide is a compounds in which oxidation
number of oxygen is -1.
 In peroxides, the two oxygen atoms are linked to
each other and with other atom.
 Thus, peroxides contain “– O – O –” link.
Ex: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), sodium
peroxide(Na2O2), calcium peroxide(CaO2), barium
peroxide(BaO2), and strontium peroxide(SrO2)
 Most peroxides of metals are formed by burning the
metals in a sufficient amount of oxygen.
 There are many organic peroxides (ROOR‟) which
are important activators in a process called
polymerization, which creates plastic polymers.
Chemical Properties of Peroxides
1. Peroxides are powerful oxidizing agents.
They react with different substances by
losing oxygen.
Ex: PbS(s) + 4H2O2(aq)→ PbSO4(s) + 4H2O (l)
2. Peroxides react with aqueous acids to form
hydrogen peroxide.
Ex: Na2O2(s) + 2HCl (aq) →2NaCl (aq) + H2O2(aq)
Hydrogen Peroxide(H2O2)
 It is a colorless liquid whose solutions are usually used as
bleach and an antiseptic.
 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to release oxygen.
i.e: 2H2O2(aq) →2H2O (l) + O2(g)
 This reaction is slow but can be speed up by the addition of
catalysts like MnO2 or Pt.
 Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizing agent.
 Its oxidizing power is responsible for its effectiveness as an
antiseptic for mouthwash and cleansing wounds.
 When hydrogen peroxide is added to a colored dye, the color
will oxidize and disappear, showing bleaching action of H2O2 .
Ex: If hydrogen peroxide is added to a black dye (paint) that
contains lead sulphide(PbS), the black colour turns white.
 This is due to the oxidation of PbS to PbSO4
i.e: PbS (s) + 4H2O2→PbSO4+ 4H2O (l)
3.3. Acids
 Many foods, including citrus fruits and some
vegetables, contain acids.
 Acetic acid in vinegar, citric acid in lemons and
other citrus fruits, are among the acids that we
encounter every day.
 Hydrochloric acid is the acid in gastric juice; it
is
 essential to digestion.
 Phosphoric acid gives flavour to many
carbonated beverages.
 In Latin, the word acidus is used for sour.
Arrhenius Definition of Acids
 Arrhenius defined acid as a substance that releases
hydrogen ion/proton(H+) or hydronium ion (H3O+)
in aqueous solution(when dissolved in water).
 It is the simplest definition of acids.
General form:
HA(aq) →H+(aq) + A–(aq) or
HA(aq) + H2O(l) →H3O+(aq) + A–(aq)

Ex: HCl(aq) →H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) or

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H2O(l) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) or

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) →H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

Arrhenius acid
 According to this definition, for a
substance to be an Arrhenius acid, it
should contain ionizable hydrogen.
 Other Arrhenius acids are HNO3,
H2SO4, H3PO4, HBr, HI and HF.
 Limitation of Arrhenius definition is
that it works only in water solvent.
General Properties of Acids
1. Acids have a sour taste.
 Lemon juice and orange juice taste sour,
due to the presence of citric acid.
 Citric acid in lemon and orange juice is
harmless.
 However, concentrated acids are corrosive
and poisonous.
 So the test „taste‟ is never allowed to
identify acids especially in the laboratories.
2. Acids change the color of certain Acid-
Base indicators.
Examples
Indicator Colour in aqueous Colour in aqueous
solution of acids solution of bases

Universal Yellow – orange (in weakly Blue (in weakly basic) and
Indicator acidic) Purple (in strongly basic)
Red (in strongly acidic)
Litmus Red Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink (red)

Methyl orange Red Yellow

NB: Natural dyes like red extract of cabbage leaves, petals of

some colored flowers and turmeric also act as indicators to
test the presence of acid or base.
3. Acids react with active metals to yield
hydrogen gas.
 Acids react explosively with metals like
sodium, potassium and calcium.
 The reaction is very dangerous and should
not be performed.
 However, dilute acids (HCl, H2SO4) react
moderately with reactive metals like: Mg,
Zn, Fe and Al to form their respective salts
with the evolution of hydrogen gas.
Ex: H2SO4 + Zn →ZnSO4 + H2
6HCl + 2Al → 2AlCl3+ 3H2
 Concentrated nitric acid and hot
concentrated sulphuric acid react with
copper producing nitrogen dioxide and
sulphur dioxide gases, respectively.
 This is because concentrated HNO3 and
hot concentrated H2SO4 are oxidizing
acids.
i.e: Cu + 4HNO3→Cu(NO3)2+ 2NO2+ 2H2O
Cu + 2H2SO4→CuSO4+ SO2+ 2H2O
 Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates to form salt, water and carbon
dioxide gas
Ex: 2HCl + CaCO3→CaCl2+ H2O + CO2
HCl + NaHCO3→NaCl + H2O + CO2
4. Concentrated acids react with sulphites
to form salts with the liberation of
sulphur dioxide gas.
i.e: Sulphite + Acid →Sulphur dioxide + Salt + Water
CaSO3+ H2SO4 → SO2+ CaSO4+ H2O
NaHSO3+ HCl → SO2+ NaCl + H2O
5. Acid + Base (basic oxides or hydroxides of metal) → Salt
+ Water
 The reaction of acids with basic oxides or bases to form salt
and water is called neutralization reaction
E.x: 2HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + H2O
H2SO4 + CaO → CaSO4 + H2O
H2SO4 + 2NaOH →Na2SO4+ 2H2O
HNO3+ KOH → KNO3 + H2O
6. Aqueous solutions of acids are electrolytes.
 Some acids are strong electrolytes because they ionize completely
in water, yielding a great number of ions.
 Strong electrolytes give bright light
Ex: HCl (aq) →H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
 Other acids are weak electrolytes that exist primarily in a non-
ionized form when dissolved in water.
 They gives few ions in aqueous solution;
 Weak electrolytes give dim light.
Ex: CH3COOH
Classification of Acids
A. Classification of Acids Based on the Number of
Ionizable (replaceable) hydrogen ions; H+
I. Monoprotic Acid
is an acid that contains only one ionizable hydrogen atom per molecule.
Ex: HCl, HNO3
i.e: HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
HNO3(aq) →H+(aq) + NO3–(aq)
II. Polyprotic acids
are those acids containing more than one ionizable (replaceable) hydrogen ion
in aqueous solution.
a. Diprotic acids
are polyprotic acids which contain two ionizable hydrogen atoms
Ex: H2SO4, H2S, and H2CO3
b. Triprotic acids
are polyprotic acids those containing three ionizable hydrogen atoms.
Ex: H3PO4
H2SO4(aq) →2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
H2CO3(aq) ⇌2H+(aq) + CO32–(aq)
H3PO4(aq) ⇌ 3H+(aq) + PO43–(aq)
B. Classification of Acids Based on the Number of
Elements they Contain
 Classified into two.
I. Binary acids
 are those acids composed of only two different
elements.
 The two elements are hydrogen and a non-metal.
Ex: HCl, HBr, HF, HI, H2S
II. Ternary acids; also called oxy-acids
 are acids composed of three different elements.
 The three elements usually are hydrogen,
oxygen and a non-metal.
Ex: H2SO4, H2CO3, H3PO4, HClO4
C. Classification of Acids Based on their degree of
dissociation in an aqueous solution
 Divided into strong acids and weak acids.
I. Strong acids
 Are acids that completely dissociates in an aqueous
solution.
 Strong acids produce large amount of H+ ions
 A dilute aqueous solution of strong acids contains
predominantly the ions derived from the acids
instead of the acid molecules.
Ex: HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3–(aq)
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
 HCl and HNO3 are almost completely ionized in water.
II. Weak acid
 Is an acid that dissociates only partially in aqueous solution.
 They release few hydrogen ions in aqueous solution.
 The aqueous solution of a weak acid contains hydrogen ion/
hydronium ions, anions and dissolved molecules of the acid.
Examples
Acetic acid (CH3COOH), oxalic acid (H2C2O4), carbonic acid
(H2CO3).
 Their partially dissociation indicated by the double arrow (⇌) :
i.e: CH3COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3COO–
H2C2O4 ⇌ 2H+ + C2O42–
H2CO3 ⇌ 2H+ + CO32–
NB: Organic acids which contain the acidic carboxyl group (–
COOH) are generally weak acids.
D. Classification of Acids Based on the relative
amount of acid present in a given solution
Classified in to concentrated” and “dilute acids
I. Concentrated Acid
 Is a solution of acid that has relatively large
amount of solute acid dissolved in the solvent.
II. Dilute acid
 Is a solution of acid that has relatively smaller
amount of solute acid dissolved in the solvent.
 Both strong acid and a weak acid may be
concentrated or diluted depending on the number
of moles of acid present.
 Precautions in Handling Acid
Concentrated acids are corrosive and may cause visible destruction
or irreversible alterations to living tissue by chemical action at the
site of contact.
Hence, the following safety precautions should be taken when
handling acids:
a. Wear goggles, gloves and a laboratory coat
b. If a concentrated acid is spilled or splashed on your body, first
wash the affected part with running water and then with 10%
Na2CO3solution
c. To dilute concentrated acids, pour the concentrated acid in to
water and not water in to the acid.
d. If corrosive acids are swallowed, administer weak bases such
as Mg(OH)2 or Al(OH)3
e. Use bellows to pipette acid instead of sucking using yours lips
f. If an acid enters your eye, wash with water repeatedly and then
consult a doctor
g. If concentrated acid is spilled on to cloth, immediately wash it
with running water
 pH and pH scale
 The molar concentrations of H3O+/H+ in aqueous
solutions are generally very small.
 Instead, a more convenient quantity or scale to
express concentrations of H3O+/H+ is pH.
 So, pH is a measure of H3O+/H+ concentrations
in a solution.
 It is a scale used to rank solutions in terms of
acidity or basicity (alkalinity).
 Concentration of hydrogen ion [H+] in pure
water is the basis for determining the pH scale.
 Water is a weak electrolyte because it ionizes
very slightly into ions in a process called
autoionization or self-ionization;
Autoionization or self-ionization
Is transfer of a proton(H+) from one molecule of the
substance to another molecule of the same substance.
Ex: H2O undergoes auto-ionization as shown below:

This can be represented by the following equation:

2H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq)
The product of the molar concentrations of H3O+and OH– gives a
constant known as ionic product constant of water (Kw).
i.e: Kw =[H3O+] [OH–] = 1.0 x 10–14 at 25°C,
where square bracket; [ ] represents concentration
=[H+] [OH–], since H+ and H3O+ interchangeably used
⇒ [H+] [OH–] = 1.0 x 10–14
Electrical conductivity measurements of pure water (experiment)
show that concentrations of H3O and OH are 1.0 x 10–7M at
25°C. i.e: [H+] = [OH–]
[H+] [OH–] = 1.0 x 10–14
[H+]2 = 1.0 x 10–14
⇒ [H+] = 1.0 x 10–7 at 25 °C
So it is difficult to deal with such small figures of concentration.
It is convenient to convert such small figures of concentration
into a positive figure, by taking the common logarithm (base-10)
of the figure and multiplying it with -1.
i.e: pH = - log[H+]
„p‟ before a symbol means‟ negative logarithm.
Similarly: pOH = - log[OH-]
Where pOH is a measure of OH– concentrations in a solution.
According to this scale, pH and pOH of water are
calculated as:
pH = -log[H+]
= -log(1.0 x 10–7 ) = 7
pOH = -log[OH-]
= -log(1.0 x 10–7 ) = 7
In any aqueous solution at 25°C, no matter what it
contains: [H+] x [OH-] = 1.0 × 10–14
 There are also three possible situations.
A . neutral solution, where [H+] = [OH–].
B. acidic solution, where [H+] > [OH–].
C. basic solution, where [OH–] > [H+]
NB: pH and pOH value varies from 0 to 14.
 pH

 As the pH value decreases, strength of the acid or acidity of the

solution increases.
i.e: if two solutions A and B have pH values of 2 and 5, respectively,
this indicates that solution A is more acidic than solution B.

 pOH

 As the pOH value decreases, strength of the base or the basicity

of the solution increases.
 pH + pOH = 14
pH of a solution and Colors of Universal
indicator.
 When universal indicator solution is added to a solution, it develops
different colors depending on the pH of the solution.
The following is colors of universal indicator at different pH
(Universal Indicator chart).

pH &
colors
Examples:
Different colors of universal indicator depended
for different solution having different pH.
Example1
Calculate the pH value of a solution when
hydrogen ion concentration is 1.0 x 10-5M
Given: [H+] = 1.0 x 10-5M = 10-5M
Ans: pH = -log[H+]
= -log(10-5)
= -(-5log(10) = 5
Therefore, the solution is acidic.
Example2
Calculate the [H+] of an aqueous solution when
its pH is 9.
Ans: pH = -log[H+]
⇒ -pH = log[H+]
[H+] = antilog(- pH )
= 10-9 =
= 10-9 M
 Example3
A solution of hydrochloric acid is 0.01M.
What is its pH value
Ans: Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid so it
ionizes completely.
i.e: HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
0.01M 0.01M 0.01M
⇒ [H+] = 0.01M = 10-2M
pH = -log[10-2]
=-(-2log10)
=2
Example4
Calculate the pH value of 0.05M H2SO4. Assume
that H2SO4 is completely ionized.
Ans: H2SO4 is a strong acid so it ionizes completely.
i.e: H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
0.05M 2(0.05M ) 0.05M
=0.1M = 10-1M
⇒ [H+] = 10-1M
pH = -log[H+]
pH = -log[10-1]
=-(-1log10)
=1
Example5
Calculate the concentration of OH–, and pOH
in a solution in which [H+] = 2.0 × 10–5M
Hint: log = 0.699
Ans:[H+] [OH–] = 1.0 x 10–14
[2x10-5] [OH–] = 1.0 x 10–14
1.0 x 10 –14 1.0 x 10 –14+5
[OH–] = −5 ==
2 𝑥10 2
= 5.0x 10–10 M
pOH = -log[OH-]
= -log(5. x 10–10 )
= -[(log5) + (log10–10 )]
= - [(log5) + (-10log10)]
= - [0.699 -10 ]
= 10 – 0.699
= 9.3
The Relationship Between pH and H+ Concentration
 A solution of pH1 has 10 times higher
concentration of [H+] than that of a solution
of pH2 and 100 times than that of a solution
of pH3
 pH-meter – a device is used to measure the pH of a
solution.
Preparation of Acids
Acids can be prepared by the following ways:
1. Acidic oxide + Water →Acid
Ex: N2O5(s) + H2O (l) →2HNO3(aq)
P4O10(s) + 6H2O (l) →4H3PO4(aq)
2. Some nonmetal + Hydrogen →Binary acid
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
H2(g) + S (s) → H2S(g)
 When HCl(g) and H2S(g) dissolve in water,
they form hydrochloric acid, and
hydrosulphuric acid respectively.
3. Using a non-volatile acid:
 Volatile acids can be prepared by heating their
salts with a non-volatile acid .
Ex: Concentrated H2SO4 is a nonvolatile acid and it
is used for the preparation of volatile acids;
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3).
i.e: NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) → NaHSO4(s) + HCl(l)
Nonvolatile acid Volatile acid

NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(l) → NaHSO4(s) + HNO3(l)

Nonvolatile acid Volatile acid
Use of Some Important Acid
1. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4
H2SO4 is the leading industrial chemical.
It is used:
 In production of sulphate and phosphate fertilizers, synthetic, fibers, paints,
drugs, detergents, paper and dyes
 In petroleum refining
 In production of metals
 As electrolyte in car batteries
2. Hydrochloric Acid, HCl
 presents naturally in the gastric juice of our body.
 helps in the digestion of food.
 Industrially, HCl is used for pickling of iron and steel (to remove surface
impurities) before galvanizing and tin plating
 Used to produce aniline dyes, drugs, photographic films, plastics like polyvinyl
chloride (PVC)
 Used to recover magnesium from sea water
3. Nitric Acid, HNO3
Used industrially in the manufacture of:
* Explosives such as trinitrotoluene (TNT) and trinitroglycerine
* Fertilizers such as KNO and NH4NO3
* Rubber, chemicals, plastics, dyes and drugs.
3.4. Bases
Arrhenius Definition of Bases
According to the Arrhenius theory:
 Base is a substance that produces a hydroxide ion (OH-)
when dissolved in water.
Ex: NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2, NH3
i.e: NaOH (aq) →Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
KOH (aq) →K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
 Soluble bases are called alkalis.
NB: The OH- produced by the base can be come from that
base or from water.
Ex: KOH (aq) →K+(aq) + OH-(aq) (OH- is from base)
NH3(aq) + H2O (l) ⇌NH4OH(aq) →NH4+(aq) + OH(aq) or
NH3(aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH(aq) (OH- is from base)
The reaction of ammonia with water is a reversible process;
whose equilibrium strongly favors unreacted ammonia.
General Properties of Bases
1. Bases have a bitter taste and soapy feeling
 They feel slippery like soap to the skin in dilute
aqueous solutions.
 Strong bases like NaOH and KOH are very
corrosive and poisonous.
 So they should be neither brought into contact
with the skin nor tasted.
2. Alkalis change the color of indicators.
3. Alkalis release hydroxide ion(OH-) in aqueous
solution:
Ex: Ba(OH)2(aq) → Ba+ + 2OH-
4. Bases neutralize acids or acidic oxides to
form salt and water:
i.e: Base + Acid (or Acidic Oxide) →Salt + Water
Ex: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) →NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(aq) →Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
5. Aqueous solutions of bases are electrolytes.
 Solutions of strong bases are good electric
conductors while solutions of weak bases
are poor conductors
Strength of Bases (Strong and Weak Bases)
I. Strong base
 is a base that almost completely ionizes in aqueous
solution to give its cations and anions.
 The amount of OH– in the solution of a strong base is
large.
Ex: LiOH, NaOH, KOH, and Ba(OH)2
 Strong bases are strong electrolytes.
II. weak base
 is a base that only partially ionized in aqueous solution.
Ex. Mg(OH)2 , Ca(OH)2, NH4OH
 Weak base contains small amount of OH– and large
amount of the non-ionized base.
i.e: NH4OH(aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
 The double arrow shows that the dissociation of a weak
base does not proceed to completion.
Concentrated and Dilute Bases
 Concentrated bases contain relatively
large amounts of a base (large molarity) in a
given volume of solution.
 Dilute base solutions contain only a small
amount of base (small molarity).
 Thus, both a strong base and a weak base
may be concentrated or dilute depending on
the number of moles of the base present per
liter.
Precautions in Handling Bases
 Strong bases like NaOH and KOH are known as caustic alkalis.
 The word “caustic” refers to a substance that can cause burning.
 Thus, it is very important to avoid contact of these bases with any part of our body
or clothing.
 Not only strong bases but also weak bases are corrosive.
Ex: Concentrated ammonia solution can cause blindness if splashed into the eye.
Precautions in Handling Bases
a. Wear eye goggles, gloves and a laboratory coat.
b. If bases are spilled on your working tables wipe the spillages immediately.
c. Whenever bases are splashed on your cloth, wash the affected part with
running
d. If a base enters your eyes, wash with water repeatedly as first aid treatment
and seek medical advice.
e. If a base is swallowed by accident, drink 1-2% acetic acid or lemon juice
immediately.
f. Whenever bases come into contact with your skin, wash the affected part with
plenty of water and then wash the affected part with a very dilute solution
(about 1%) of a weak acid such as acetic acid.
pOH
pOH is a measure of OH– concentration in acidic or
a basic solution.
pOH= -log[OH–]
Relationship Between pH and pOH
pH + pOH = 14
It is derived using the ionic product of water (Kw) as
follows:
Kw =[H+] [OH–] = 1.0 x 10–14 at 25°C,
Taking negative the logarithm of both sides:
-log{[H+] [OH–] } = -log(1.0 x 10–14 )
{-log[H+]} + {-log[OH–]} = 14

pH + pOH = 14
Example
Find the pH and pOH of a 1x10-4M solution of NaOH
Ans: NaOH is a strong base and it ionizes
completely.
i.e: NaOH (aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
1x10-4M 1x10-4M 1x10-4M
⇒ [OH–] = 1x10-4M
pOH = -log[OH–]
= -log(1x10-4)
=4
pH = 14 – pOH
= 14 – 4
= 10
Exercise 3.10
1. Which solution has a higher [H3O+]
concentration, the one with pH =5, or
with pH = 9 ?
Which solution has the higher OH–
concentration?
Ans: The solution with pH =5 has higher [H3O+]
than that with pH = 9
The solution with pH =9 has higher [OH-]
than that with pH = 5
2. Give the pH and pOH for each solution with the following
concentrations:
a. [H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-5M b. [OH–] = 1.0 x 10-9M
Ans: a. pH = -log[H+]
= -log(1x10-5)
=5
pOH = 14 – pH
= 14 –5
=9
b. pOH = -log[OH–]
= -log(1x10-9)
=9
pH = 14 – pOH
= 14 –9
=5
3. Give the hydroxide ion concentrations of solutions with the
following values of
pH. Which of the solutions is most acidic? Which is most
basic?
a. pH 13.0 b. pH 3.0 c. pH 8.0
Ans: pH 3 is most acidic and pH 13 is most basic
a. pH = -log[H+]
⇒ -pH = log[H+] (by multiplying both side by -1)
[H+] = antilog(-pH )
= 10-13
= 10-13 M
[H+] [OH–] = 1.0 x 10–14
[10-13] [OH–] = 1.0 x 10–14
1.0 x 10 –14
[OH–] = = 1 x 10−1 = 0.1M
10−13
Preparation of Bases
Bases containing OH- (hydroxide bases) can be
prepared by the following methods:
I. Highly reactive metals from Group IA and Group IIA
(below magnesium) react with water to produce Base & H2
Ex: 2Li (s) + 2H2O (l) →2LiOH (aq) + H2(g)
2Na (s) + 2H2O(l) →2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
Ca (s) + 2H2O(l) →Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
II. Group IA or Group IIA Metal oxide + Water →
Metal hydroxide(Base)
Ex: Na2O (s) + 2H2O (l) →2NaOH (aq)
BaO (s) + 2H2O (l) →Ba(OH)2(aq)
III. By double displacement reaction
The reaction of an aqueous solution of a soluble
base and a soluble salt, gives another soluble base
and an insoluble salt as products
Ex: Ba(OH)2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) →2KOH (aq) + BaSO4(s)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → 2NaOH (aq) +CaCO3(s)

Common uses of NaOH and Ca(OH)2

 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH (lye or caustic soda)
 used in the manufacture of soaps, detergents, degreasers and as the
main ingredient in oven and drain cleaners.
 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (slaked lime)
 used in the manufacture of cement and lime water.
 It is usually added to neutralize acidic soil.
 It is used also for lime water test for carbon dioxide.
3.5. Salts
 Salts are ionic compounds that contain positive ions
derived from bases and negative ions derived from acids.
 Formed by the neutralization of an acid with a base.
 Formed when the ionizable hydrogen of acids are partly
or completely replaced by metal ions or ammonium ion.
Ex: NaCl, KNO3, CaCO3, MgHPO4
 A salt gets its name from the name of the metal ion
derived from the base and the anion derived from the
acid.
Ex: NaCl is formed from Na+ derived from NaOH and Cl-
derived from HCl.
Hence, NaCl (sodium cloride) is a salt of NaOH base and
HCl acid
Classification of Salts
 Salts classified into three main groups
 Normal Salts
 Acidic Salts
 Basic Salts
1. Normal Salts or Neutral salts
Are salts formed by the complete replacement of
ionizable H+ions of an acid by a positive metal ion or
NH4+ ions.
These salts are neutral to litmus.
Ex: HCl(aq) + KOH (aq) →KCl (aq) + H2O(l)
H2SO4(aq) + ZnO (aq) →ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
HNO3(aq) + NH4OH (aq) →NH4NO3( aq) + H2O(l)
2. Acidic salts
formed by the partial replacement of replaceable H+
ions of an acid by a positive metal ion.
Ex: H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) →KHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H3PO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) →NaH2PO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 Acidic salts turn blue litmus to red.
Ex: When KHSO4 dissolves in aqueous solution, it releases K+,
H+, SO42-.
 The release of H+ indicates it is acidic.
 Acidic salts react with bases to form normal salts and water.
Ex: KHSO4(aq) + KOH(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
NaH2PO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) →Na3PO4(aq) + H2O(l)
3. Basic Salts
 are salts in which not all of the OH– in a base
have been replaced by the anions of the acid.
 formed by the incomplete neutralization of a
polyhydroxy base by an acid.
Ex: Al(OH)3 (aq) + HCl (aq) → Al(OH)2Cl (aq) + H2O(l)
Zn(OH)2 (aq) + HNO3(aq) → Zn(OH)NO3(aq) + H2O(l)
 Basic Salts react with acids to form normal salts.
Ex: Al(OH)2Cl (aq) + 2HCl (aq) →AlCl3 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(OH)NO3(aq) + HNO3 (aq) →Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O(l)
General Methods for the Preparation of Salts
Usually soluble salts are prepared by methods that
involve crystallization, while insoluble salts are
prepared by methods that involve precipitation.
1. Preparation of Soluble Salts
A. Active metal + Acid →Salt + Hydrogen
 In this reaction, hydrogen of acid is replaced by a reactive
metal.
Ex: Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) →MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) →ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
NB: The reactions of Group IA metals like Na and K are very
vigorous and it is not advisable to use the metals of Group IA
for the preparation of salts by this method.
B. Neutralization method
Acid + Base →Salt + Water
Ex: HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) →NaCl(aq) + H2O(g)
C. Metallic oxide + Dilute Acid →Salt + Water
Ex: CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) →CuSO4(aq) + H2O(aq)
ZnO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) →Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
D. Metal carbonates or Bicarbonates + Dilute acid →Salt + H2O+ CO2
E. Ex: Na2CO3(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) →NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Ca(HCO3)2(s) + 2HCl (aq) →CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2CO2(g)
2. Preparation of Insoluble Salts by Double Decomposition
(Precipitation)
 In this method, solutions of two soluble salts are mixed to produce
two new salts, in which One of the salts is insoluble and the other is
soluble.
 The insoluble salt precipitates (solidify in solution).
Ex: AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Na2CO3(aq) + CuSO4(aq) → CuCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Some important salts and their uses.
1. Sodium chloride, NaCl (common salt)
Uses
 For preparation and preservation of food
 Raw material for the manufacture of Na, Cl, NaOH
 Component of Oral Rehydration Salt (ORS)
 Manufacture of baking soda (NaHCO3and Na2CO3
 In making a freezing mixture which is used by ice cream
vendors
2. Ammonium nitrate, (NH4NO3
 Nitrogenous fertilizer and in explosives
3. Copper (II) sulphate, (CuSO4)
 Used to make Bordeaux mixture [mixture of CuSO4 and
Ca(OH)2], which is used to prevent fungal attack of
leaves and vines
 2. Useful in electroplating and dyeing
4. Iron (III) chloride, (FeCl3)
 Used in the treatment of waste water
 Used for etching printed circuits
5. Potassium nitrate, (KNO3)
 Used in making gun powder
(KNO3, carbon and sulphur) and other explosives)
 Used as fertilizer in agriculture
6. Calcium sulphate, (CaSO4. 2H2O, Gypsum)
 Used for plastering walls and supporting fractured bones.
7. Barium sulphate, (BaSO4)
 Given to patients as a “barium meal” before
gastrointestinal x-ray photography
 Used as a white pigment
8. Iron (II) sulphate (FeSO4)
 Given as iron tablets to patients who suffer from anemia
Properties of Salts
1. Solubility of salts
Some salts are soluble in water; some are insoluble while some salts are only
slightly soluble.
2. Tendency to absorb water from the atmosphere or release water to the
atmosphere.
A. Hygroscopic salts
are salts which absorb water from the atmosphere but remain solid.
Ex: Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4
B. Deliquescent salts
Are salts that absorb water from the atmosphere to form a solution.
The process of absorbing water from the atmosphere by a solid to form a solution
is called deliquescence.
Ex: Calcium chloride(CaCl2), Sodium nitrate (NaNO3), Iron(III) chloride (FeCl3)
NB: All deliquescent substances are hygroscopic, but all hygroscopic substances
are not necessarily deliquescent.
C. Efflorescent salts
Are salts that lose their water of crystallization to the atmosphere.
The loss of water of crystallization by solid crystals to the atmosphere is known
as efflorescence. Ex: Hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3•10H2O),
Hydrated sodium sulphate (Na2SO4•10H2O)
3. Aqueous solutions of soluble salts are good
conductors of electricity(electrolyte).
4. Thermal stability of salts:
 Some salts are thermally stable(do not decompose)
while others undergo decomposition at a high
relative temperature.
 All the carbonates of Group IIA undergo thermal
decomposition to produce metal oxide and CO2
Ex: MgCO3 → MgO + CO2
 Except Li2CO3, the rest of the Group IA carbonates
do not decompose at laboratory temperatures.
Ex: Li2CO3(s) →Li2O(s)+CO2 , b/c Li2CO3 is thermally unstable
Na2CO3 → No reaction/ no decomposition, b/c Na2CO3 is thermally stable
Chemical Tests of Some Ions in Salt
Flame tests is a technique used to identify the presence of
metal ions in a compound by heating a sample compound
with flame and identifying the color of flame formed.
A flame test is commonly used to identify the presence of Li,
Na, K, Ca, Sr and Ba ions in salts
Metal ion Colour of flame
Crimson
Li+
Yellow-
Na+
Purple (violet)
K+
Orange-red
Ca+2
Crimson
Sr+2
Green
Ba+2
Plant Nutrients
 Essential plant nutrients could be either
macronutrients or micronutrients, depending on
the amount required by plants.
I. Macronutrients
 are the elements required in relatively large
amounts by plants.
 Such as: N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, C, H and O.
 N, P, K are said to be primary mineral nutrients.
 C, H and O are obtained by plants from air and
water and not considered as mineral nutrients.
II. Micronutrients
 are the elements required by plants in relatively
small (trace) amounts. Such as: Fe, Co, Zn, Mn,
molybdenum(Mo), Cu, B, CL
Nitrogen (N)
 absorbed by plants in the form of nitrate ions (NO3–).
 utilized by plant in the synthesis of amino acids, proteins,
coenzymes and nucleic acids
 It is also involved in the synthesis of chlorophyll to produce a
deep green color.
Phosphorus (P)
 absorbed by plants mainly in the form of H2PO4– and HPO2– in
small amounts.
 facilitates early growth and root formation, quick maturity and
promotes seed or fruit production.
 has a role in the formation of high energy phosphate
compounds like Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
Potassium (K)
 absorbed by plants in the form of the K+ ion.
 It is a component of enzymes
 Used in controlling the turgidity of plant cells.
Fertilizers
 are materials that are added to soils to increase the growth, yield
or nutritional value of crops.
 There are organic (natural) and synthetic (artificial)
fertilizers.
Organic (natural) fertilizers
 derived from animals and plants after some period of decay and
decomposition.
Synthetic (artificial) fertilizers
 contain nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, (NPK).
 Fertilizers that contain NPK are known as complete fertilizers
 The most important mineral nutrients that need to be added to
the soil are usually NPK.
Examples of artificial fertilizers:
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4, potassium nitrate (KNO3),
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3),
Diammonium hydrogen phosphate, DAP (NH4)2HPO4)
Pesticides
 Pesticides are chemicals that can be applied to
crops to kill pests that affect plant growth and
development.
Ex: CuCl2, Cu(OH)2, Cu(NO3)2, CuSO4, CuCO3.
Herbicides (weed killers)
 are chemicals used to manipulate or control
undesirable plants.
Examples:
Common salt ( NaCl), copper sulphate (CuSO4),
sodium arsenite (NaAsO2), Ammonium sulphamate
(NH4SO3NH2), sodium chlorate (NaClO3).