Module – IV

Data Communication & Computer Network

Definition:
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between devices over a
network or a communication channel. It involves the transmission, reception, and
processing of data in digital or analog form.

Features of Data Communication:

Data communication has several key features that ensure efficient, reliable, and
secure data exchange between devices. These features include:

1. Accuracy:
 Ensures that data is transmitted without errors.
 Error detection and correction techniques (like parity checks,
checksums, and CRC) help maintain accuracy.
2. Speed (Data Transfer Rate):
 Determines how quickly data can be transmitted.
3. Security:
 Protects data from unauthorized access, corruption, or interception.
 Encryption, authentication, and firewalls ensure secure
communication.
4. Interoperability:
 The ability of different systems and devices to communicate using
standard protocols.
 Common protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and Bluetooth.
5. Jitter:
 Refers to variations in the time delay of received packets.
 Low jitter is essential for smooth streaming and voice
communication.

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Components of Data Communication
1.) Sender: The device that sends the data (e.g., computer, smartphone).

2.) Receiver: The device that receives the data (e.g., another computer, server).

3.) Transmission Medium: The physical or wireless channel through which data
travels (e.g., cables, radio waves).

4.) Message: The actual data being transmitted.

5.) Protocol: A set of rules governing data transmission (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP,
FTP).

Modes of Data Transmission

There are three types of data transmission mode.

Simplex: One-way communication (e.g., TV broadcast, Keyboard, Mouse etc.)

Figure : Simplex communication

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Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, but only one device transmits at a time
(e.g., walkie-talkie).

Figure : Half duplex communication

Full-Duplex: Two-way communication where both devices can transmit and

receive simultaneously (e.g., telephone calls).

Figure : Full duplex communication

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Data Transmission Method OR Types
There are two method or types of data transmission.

Data transmission Method OR Types

Serial Parallel
Parallel

Synchronous Asynchronous

Figure : Data transmission method

1.) Serial Data Transmission :
 Serial transmission is a method of transmitting data where bits are
sent one after another over a single communication channel.
 It is widely used in long-distance communication and modern
computer systems due to its simplicity and efficiency.

Figure : Serial data transmission

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Types of Serial Transmission
1.2) Synchronous Transmission
 Data is sent in a continuous stream with synchronization between the
sender and receiver.
 A clock signal is used to match the sender and receiver speeds.
 Example: Ethernet, USB, SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface).
1.2) Asynchronous Transmission
 Data is sent in small packets, each with a start and stop bit.
 No need for continuous synchronization.
 Example: UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter), RS-232.
Advantages of Serial Transmission
 Uses fewer wires compared to parallel transmission.
 Requires less complex hardware design.
Disadvantages of Serial Transmission
 Since bits are sent one by one, it takes longer to transmit large data.
2.) Parallel Data Transmission :
Multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously (e.g., internal data buses in
computers).

Figure : Parallel Transmission

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Comparison between Serial and Parallel Transmission
Feature Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission
Definition Transmits data one bit at a time Transmits multiple bits
over a single channel. simultaneously over multiple
channels.

Speed Slower due to sequential Faster because multiple bits are

transmission. sent at once.

Cost Cheaper (fewer wires required). More expensive (more wires and
complex circuitry).

Distance Best for short distances

Suitable for long-
distance communication. communication

Examples USB, Ethernet, RS-232, Fiber Internal computer buses, RAM,

Optics. Printer cables (older systems)

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Transmission Media in Data Communication
Transmission media refers to the physical pathway through which data is
transmitted from one device to another.
It can be broadly classified into two categories:

Transmission media

Guided Media Un-guided Media

Twisted pair cable Radio wave

Co-axial cable Micro wave

Fiber optic cable

Infrared

Satellite

Figure : Classification of transmission media

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1.) Wired (Guided) Transmission Media
Wired media use physical cables to transmit data signals from one computer to
another computer. Wired media can be classified into three (3) types:
1.1) Twisted Pair Cable
Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
interference.
A protective sheath that encases multiple twisted pairs.

Applications of Twisted Pair Cable

 Ethernet networking (LANs, WANs).
 Telephone and VoIP communications
 Security camera systems.
 DSL internet connections.
Types of Twisted Pair Cable
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Usage:
In environments with high levels of electromagnetic interference, like
industrial settings, data centers, and high-speed network applications.

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  Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Usage:
 Cat5: Used for telephone lines.
 Cat6: Supports speeds up to 10 Gbps for short distances.

Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable

 Cheaper than coaxial and fiber optic cables.
 Can be easily bent and routed.
 Suitable for Ethernet, telephone, and DSL connections.

Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable

 Cannot support extremely high speeds like fiber optics.
 Signal degrades over long distances.
 Vulnerable to external interference (especially UTP).

Twisted Pair Cable Connector Name

The most common connector used for Twisted Pair Cables is the RJ-45
(Registered Jack 45) connector.
However, there are other connectors used depending on the application.

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1.2) Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has a central copper conductor surrounded by insulation and a
metal shield.

Applications of Coaxial Cable

 Used for cable TV,
 Broadband internet,
 And older Ethernet networks.
Advantages:
 Better shielding than twisted pair cables.
 Higher bandwidth and data transmission speed.
Disadvantages:
 Bulkier and more expensive than twisted pair cables.
 Signal loss can occur over longer distances (Use Repeater).
 Physical damage in natural calamities
Coaxial connector name
 N type (Paul Neil),
 C type connector (Carl concelman),
 BNC type connector (Bayonet Neil Concelman),
 TNC type connector (Thread Neil Concelman) etc.

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Figure : Coaxial cable connector
1.3 Fiber Optic Cable
Uses light signals to transmit data through a glass or plastic core.

Applications of Fiber Optic Cable

 High speed Internet & Telecommunications
 Industrial & Medical Applications
 Underwater & Underground Communication

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Types
 Single-mode fiber (SMF): Long-distance communication.
 Multi-mode fiber (MMF): Shorter distances with higher bandwidth.

Advantages
 Extremely high-speed data transmission.
 Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Supports long-distance communication.

Disadvantages
 Expensive and complex installation.

2.) Wireless (Un-Guided) Transmission Media

Wireless media use electromagnetic waves to transmit data without physical
connections.

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Wireless media can be classified into three (4) types:

2.1) Radio Waves

 Used for Wi-Fi, AM/FM radio, and mobile networks.
 Operate in different frequency bands (e.g., FM radio: 88-108 MHz, Wi-Fi:
2.4 GHz & 5 GHz).

Advantages:
 Can cover long distances.
 No physical cables needed.

Disadvantages:
 Susceptible to interference and security threats.

2.2) Microwaves
 High-frequency waves used for satellite communication and point-to-point
links.
 Can be Terrestrial Microwaves (between ground towers) or Satellite
Microwaves (via satellites).

Advantages
 Supports long-distance communication.
 High-speed data transmission.

Disadvantages
 Affected by weather conditions.

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2.3) Infrared (IR) Transmission
Uses infrared light waves for short-range communication (e.g., remote controls,
short-range data transfer).

Advantages
 Secure as signals cannot penetrate walls.

Disadvantages
 Limited range and requires direct line of sight.

2.4) Satellite Communication

 Data is transmitted to a satellite in space and then sent back to the receiver
on Earth.
 Used for GPS, weather forecasting, and global communication.
Advantages
 Covers a large geographical area.
 Ideal for remote locations.

Disadvantages
 High latency and expensive setup.

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 Comparison: Guided Media vs Unguided Media
# Feature Guided Media (Wired) Unguided Media (Wireless)

1 Definition Uses physical cables to transmit Uses electromagnetic waves for

data wireless data transmission.

2 Transmission Signals travel through a fixed Signals travel freely through air,
Type path (cables). space, or water.

3 Interference Less affected by external More prone to interference (e.g.,

interference. weather, other signals).

4 Distance Short to long distances (fiber Suitable for medium to global

optics can reach 100+ km). distances (e.g., satellite).

5 Security More secure, as signals remain Less secure, as signals can be

within cables. intercepted.

6 Maintenance Requires maintenance for Easier maintenance but affected

physical cables. by environmental factors.

7 Examples Radio waves, Microwaves,

Twisted pair, Coaxial cable, Infrared, Satellite.
Fiber optics.

8 Usage Used in LANs, broadband, Used in Wi-Fi, cellular networks,

telephone networks. satellite communication.

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Q. Write down the importance of Data Communication
 Data communication plays a crucial role in modern technology and daily
life.
 It enables efficient information exchange between devices, systems, and
people.
 Here are some key reasons why data communication is important

1.) Enhances Communication Efficiency

 Enables fast and seamless communication across distances.

2.) Facilitates Business Operations

 Supports online transactions, digital marketing, and remote work.

3.) Enables Internet and Networking

 Using the powers of internet, allowing access to websites, social media, and
online services

4.) Essential for Healthcare and Emergency Services

 Supports telemedicine, electronic health records, and remote patient
monitoring.

5.) Enables Financial Transactions

 Supports online banking, mobile payments, and e-commerce.

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Q. Write a short notes on Analog and Digital Transmission

Analog Transmission
 Uses continuous signals that vary in amplitude, frequency, or phase.
 Data is transmitted as waves (e.g., sound waves, radio waves).
 Used in traditional telephony, radio, and TV broadcasting.
Example:
 AM/FM radio, analog telephone signals.
Disadvantages:
 Prone to noise and signal degradation over long distances.

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Digital Transmission
 Uses discrete signals (0s and 1s) for data transmission.
 More reliable and less affected by noise compared to analog signals.
 Used in modern communication systems, including the internet, fiber optics,
and digital TV.
Example:
 Computers, fiber optic communication, VoIP (Voice over IP).
Advantages:
 Higher speed, better security, and improved error detection.

Q. Write down the difference between Analog and Digital Transmission

# Feature Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

1 Signal Continuous wave form data Discrete (0s & 1s) form of data
Type

2 Noise High Low

Sensitivity

3 Quality Degrades over distance Maintains quality

4 Example AM/FM Radio Internet, VoIP, Fiber Optics

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What is a Channel in Networking?
 In data transmission, CHANNEL is a medium by which we can transfer the
data from one place to another place, i.e. from sender to receiver.
 Generally Channel is used for career the signal.
 It is an important component of data communication

Types of Channels in Networking

There are two types of channel exist. One is wired/Guided other is wireless/ un-
guided.

What is Channel Capacity?

 Channel capacity refers to the maximum rate at which data can be
transmitted over a communication channel without errors.
 It is typically measured in bits per second (bps) and determines the
efficiency of data transfer in a network.
 The efficiency is analysis by Shannon Capacity Theorem

Key Factors Affecting Channel Capacity

 Bandwidth (B) – The range of frequencies available for transmission.
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) – The strength of the signal compared to
background noise.

Example: (Class work)

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How we can increase the capacity of a channel ?
 Increase Bandwidth : Use of fiber optics, wider frequency bands.
 Improve SNR : Uses of better antennas, power boost, noise reduction.
 Optimize Data Encoding & Compression : Uses of efficient algorithms.

What is Baud Rate?

 Baud rate is the number of signal changes (symbols) per second in a

communication channel.
 It measures how fast a signal changes, not necessarily how many bits are
transmitted.

What is Bit Rate?

Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted per second in a communication system.
It is measured in bits per second (bps) and determines the speed of data transfer.

Baud rate vs Bit rate

Aspect Baud rate Bit rate

Definition No. of signals changes per No. of bit transmitted per

second second
Unit Symbols per sec or Bd Bit per second or bps

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How to Increase Bit Rate?
 Increase baud rate (faster signal changes).
 Use higher-order modulation (QPSK, 64-QAM, OFDM).
 Expand bandwidth (fiber optics, 5G mmWave).
 Reduce noise and interference (improve SNR).
How to Increase Baud rate ?
 Increase Bandwidth (B) : Upgrade to fiber optics (higher bandwidth than
copper cables).
 Reduce Noise and Improve SNR : Use better shielding & error correction
(reduces interference).

What is Bandwidth?
 Bandwidth is the maximum range of frequencies that a communication
channel can transmit.
 It determines how much data can be sent over a network in a given time.
 Measured in: Hertz (Hz) for analog signals and bits per second (bps) for
digital data.

Types of Bandwidth
There are two types of bandwidth :
1.) Analog Bandwidth (Hz)
The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies a channel can
carry.
Example: A channel with frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz has a
bandwidth of 19,980 Hz (≈ 20 kHz).

2.) Digital Bandwidth (bps)

The maximum data rate a channel can support, measured in bits per second
(bps).
Example: Wi-Fi 6 has a bandwidth of 9.6 Gbps (gigabits per second).

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Examples of Bandwidth in Communication Systems
4G LTE (Long-Term Evolution): 100 Mbps
5G mmWave (millimeter wave): 10 Gbps
Fiber Optics: 100 Gbps+

Importance of Bandwidth in Communication Systems

 Bandwidth plays a crucial role in determining the speed, efficiency, and
performance of communication networks.
 It defines the amount of data that can be transmitted per second,
impacting everything from internet speed to voice quality in calls.
Importance :
1) Faster Internet & Downloads
2) Better Streaming & Video Calls
3) Supports Multiple Devices (IoT, Smart Homes)
4) Reduces Lag in Gaming & Remote Work
5) Essential for 5G, AI, and Future Tech

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Computer network
A computer network is a system of two or more computers and other devices
connected to share resources, data, and communication.
These networks can be wired (using cables) or wireless (using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
etc.).
Example: The internet itself is the largest computer network, connecting billions
of devices worldwide.

C-1

c-4 SERVER c-2

c-3

Figure : Computer Network

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Components of a Computer Network
A computer network consists of various hardware and software components
that enable devices to communicate, share resources, and access data efficiently.
Followings are the component of a Computer network
1) Node : Each and every devices connected with a network is called a Node.

Example : Computer, Mobile, Server etc.

2) Transmission media : By the using of transmission media we can connect

the each node and transfer the data.
Example : LAN Cable,Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Fiber optic etc.
3) Protocol : It is the collection of rules and regulation that governs the data
transfer from between sender and receiver
Example : TCP/IP : Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol,
HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol,
FTP : File Transfer Protocol,
DNS : Domain Name System,
SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol etc.

4) Connecting Devices : Connecting the similar or different types of network.

Example : Router, Repeater, HUB, Modem, Bridge, Gateway etc.

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Types of Computer Networks
1) Local Area Network (LAN)
 Covers a small area, like homes, offices, or schools
 Uses Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi.
 Example: Wi-Fi in a home or office.
2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Covers a city or large campus.
 Used by universities, government agencies, and ISPs.
 Example: City-wide Wi-Fi or Cable TV networks.
3) Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Covers large areas, even globally.
 Uses fiber optics, satellites, or undersea cables.
 Example: The Internet (biggest WAN).

Apart from above type we have many types of network now a days.
These are following:
4) Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Covers a very small area (1-10 meters).
 Used for connecting personal devices like smartphones, laptops, and
smartwatches.
 Example: Bluetooth & Hotspot connections.

5) VPN : A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a technology that creates a secure and encrypted
connection over the internet, protecting your data and privacy.

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Key Features of VPN
 Encrypts Internet Traffic – Prevents hackers & ISPs from spying.
 Hides IP Address – Keeps online identity private.
 Enables Remote Access – Used in businesses for secure remote work.
 Secures Public Wi-Fi Use – Protects data on open networks.

Popular VPN Protocols

 OpenVPN – Secure & widely used.
 IPSec – Strong encryption for network security.

Limitations of VPN
 May slow down internet speed.
 Blocked by some websites (e.g., streaming services).

Q. Write a short notes on CCAN (Campus Cluster Area Network)

A Campus Cluster Area Network (CCAN) is a specialized network that connects
multiple buildings or departments within a university, corporate campus, or
research facility.
It provides high-speed, secure, and efficient communication across a large
geographical area, usually covering a single institution or enterprise.
Key Features of CCAN
 High-Speed Connectivity - Uses fiber optics, Ethernet, or Wi-Fi.
 Centralized Management - Controlled by an IT department.
 Ensures Security & Data Privacy - Uses firewalls, VPNs, and access controls.
Applications of CCAN
 Universities & Colleges - Connects classrooms, labs, libraries, and hostels.
 Corporate Campuses - Links office buildings for secure communication.
 Research Institutes - Supports high-speed data sharing for scientific
research.
 Healthcare Campuses - Connects hospitals, labs, and medical centers.

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Benefits of CCAN
 Enhanced Communication & Collaboration.
 Centralized IT Control & Maintenance.
 High-Speed Data Sharing & Internet Access.
 Scalable for Future Growth.

Figure: CCAN

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Types of Computer Network Architecture
Computer network architecture is the structure of network, that shows how
devices are connected to each other and how they are communicated.
Network architecture generally two types:

1.) Peer to peer network:

 In this types of network each and every computer or devices act as a
client and server itself. Each devices communicate to other devices
directly.
 In this types of network there is no particular server.

Features :
 Simple , easy to install and less cost
 Effective for small area , like small office, home network etc.
 Low security bcz. no. of controlling system exist.

Application of Peer to peer network:

 Small office or home network
 File sharing system, like bit torrent, napster, edonkey, etc.

Client Client

Computer 1 Computer 2
Peer to Peer network
Server Server

Figure : Peer to Peer network

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 2.)Client – Server network:
 In this type of architecture there is a central server which is
connected to all client computer.
 Server computer accept the request from client computer,
process the request then send response to that client.
Features:
 Centrally Control the system.
 Ensure high security and management.
 Efficient for large network ,like Bank, Private company offices,
Internet service Provider, etc.
Application :
 Web server like Google, Facebook, Instagram, etc.
 Banking system.
 Railway reservation system.
 Corporate network.

Computer - 1

Computer -4
Server Computer -2

Computer -3

Figure – Client / Server architecture

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Network topology
 Geo metrical representation of computer network is called Topology.
 That represents how network devices are connected to each other.
Types of network Topology:
There are five (5) types of network topology exist.
1) STAR Topology:
 Structure: In star network each node connected with a central computer
called HUB.
 Application: Large corporate office, Banking Network
 Advantages :
 If one node get not reachable, then remaining network will
reachable.
 Faults are easily detected.
 Provide easy access for service.
 Disadvantages:
 Difficult to expand
 If HUB is failure then whole network will failure.

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 2. RING Topology:
 Structure : In the ring network all the nodes are connected with its
adjacent node by a cable and forms a ring.
 Application : MAN, Factory automation system etc.
 Advantage : Data transmission is very fast.
 Disadvantage : Difficult to find and remove erroneous node from
network

3.) BUS Topology:

 Structure :
In bus network each node is connected to a single Communication cable, called
back bone through an interface and communicate directly in the network
 Application : Small office, Laboratory, warehouse where no. of computer is
less.
 Advantage : Installation is easy with minimum cost.
 Disadvantage : If main cable is failure, then whole network get faulty.

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 4.) TREE Topology:
 Structure : In tree network several computers are connected in hierarchical
fashion. It is also known as hierarchical network
 Application : Large corporate office , University campus network etc.
 Advanatge : Easily network can be expanded.
 Disadvantage : It depends on root node, If root node is failure then whole
network will failure.

5.) MESH Topology:

 Structure : In mesh network each computer is connected to every
computer
 Application : Army, High security, High data transmission network.
 Advantage : It avoid media failure.
 Disadvantage : Installation is difficult and costly also.

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 6.) HYBRID Topology:
 Stucture: Hybrid network created with more than one network
 Application : Large enterprise network, Data center, ISP etc.
 Advantage: More powerful and reliable.
 Disavantage: Installation and maintenance is costly.

Note :
LAN TOPOLOGY = BUS + Ring Topology
MAN TOPOLOGY = STAR + RING + MESH Topology

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Q.Write a short notes on HUB:
 A hub is a basic networking device used to connect multiple computers or
devices in a local area network (LAN).
 It operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and is primarily
used for data transmission within a network.

Types of Hubs:
1.) Active Hub – Amplifies and regenerates signals before forwarding them.
2.) Passive Hub – Simply forwards data without amplification.
Features:
1.) Simple and inexpensive.
2.) Easy to install and use.
3.) Less secure.

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Q. Write a short notes on bridge
 A bridge is a networking device that operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer
2) of the OSI model.
 It is used to connect two or more network segments, helping in filtering
traffic, reducing collisions, and improving performance.

Types of Bridges:
1.) Simple bridge : Connects two network.
2.) Multi port bridge : Connects more than two network
Features :
1.) Reduces network congestion
2.) Improves security by controlling data flow.
3.) Improves performance

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Q.Write a short note on REPEATER
 A repeater is a network device that operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1)
of the OSI model.
 It is used to regenerate and amplify signals over long distances to prevent
signal degradation and loss.
Types of Repeaters:
1.) Analog Repeater – Amplifies the original signal, including noise.
2.) Digital Repeater – Regenerates the signal, removing noise and distortion.
3.) Wi-Fi Repeater – Extends wireless network coverage by rebroadcasting the
signal.
Features :
1.) Receives weak or distorted signals and amplifies/regenerates them before
retransmission.
2.) Extends the range of a network by boosting signal strength.

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Q. Write a short note on Router
 A router is a networking device that operates at the Network Layer (Layer
3) of the OSI model.
 It is responsible for forwarding data packets between different networks
and determining the best path for data transmission.
Types of Routers:
1.) Edge Router – Connects internal networks to external networks like the
Internet.
2.) Core Router – Used in large networks to handle high-speed data transfer.
3.) Virtual Router – Software-based router used in cloud environments.
Features :
1.) Routes data between different networks using IP addresses.
2.) Selects the best path for data transmission based on routing algorithms.
3.) Provides security through firewalls and access controls.

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Q. Write a short note on Gateway
 A gateway is a network device that operates at multiple layers of the OSI
model (Layer 3 and above).
 It serves as a bridge between two different networks that use different
protocols, ensuring seamless communication.

Types of Gateways:
1.) Protocol Gateway – Converts one communication protocol to another.
2.) Network Gateway –types of network Connects two different

Features :
1.) Enables communication between different network types.
2.) Enhances security and protocol compatibility.
3.) Supports data conversion and filtering.
4.) Installation is much expensive.

Notes : INDIA has three(3) Gateway (Mumbai, Chennai, Agartala). By which

India is connected world wide.
IIG’s : INTERNATIONAL INTERNET GATEWAY’s.

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Q. Write a short note on SWITCH
 A switch is a networking device that is used to connect multiple devices
within a local area network (LAN) and efficiently forward data based on
MAC addresses.

Types of Switches:
1.) Layer 2 Switch – Works using MAC addresses for data forwarding.
2.) Layer 3 Switch – Can perform routing functions using IP addresses.
Features:
1.) Forwards data only to the intended recipient based on MAC addresses.
2.) Reduces network collisions and improves performance.
3.) Requires configuration in complex networks.

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