ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE ▪ JAMI MASJID, FRIDAY MOSQUE; A CONGREGATIONAL

MOSQUE FOR PUBLIC PRAYER ON FRIDAYS.

▪ ALSO MUSLIM, MUHAMMADAN OR SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE.
▪ ULU JAMI, A FRIDAY MOSQUE HAVING A SAHN (CENTRAL
▪ MOSQUE AS A DISTINCT BUILDING TYPE.
COURTYARD OF A MOSQUE) FOR LARGE CONGREGATIONS.
▪ DOMES, TUNNEL VAULTS, ROUND AND HORSESHOE ARCHES,
▪ MADRASA, TEACHING MOSQUE.
AND RICH SURFACE DECORATIONS (CALLIGRAPHY AND FLORAL
PARTS OF A MOSQUE
MOTIFS IN A GEOMETRIC FRAMEWORK).
▪ MINARET, TOWER ATTACHED TO THE MOSQUE; WHERE THE
FEATURES
MUEZZIN CALLS THE MUSLIM PEOPLE TO PRAYER.
▪ SQUINCHES, SUPPORTS UNDER THE DOME.
▪ IWAN, ALSO IVAN OR LIWAN, LARGE VAULTED PORTAL OPENING
▪ MUQARNAS, “STALACTITE” DECORATION OF ICICLE-LIKE
ONTO THE CENTRAL COURTYARD OF A MOSQUE.
ELEMENTS HANGING FROM THE CEILING.
▪ MIMBAR, ALSO MINBAR, PULPIT FROM WHICH THE IMAM
▪ GLAZED TILES ON INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR SURFACES.
DELIVERS HIS SERMONS.
STRUCTURES
▪ QIBLA, ALSO QIBLAH, WALL IN A MOSQUE IN WHICH THE

MIHRAB (NICHE OR DECORATIVE PANEL) IS SET, ORIENTED TO

MECCA.

▪ SAHN, ATRIUM

▪ FAWWARA, OR MEDA, FOUNTAIN FOR WASHING BEFORE PRAYERS.

▪ LIWANAT, COLONNADE

▪ DIKKA, READING DESK

▪ MAQSURA, SCREEN, PROTECTIVE BARRIER OF THE MIMBAR.

DECORATIONS

▪ DOMES

▪ POINTED OR OGEE ARCHES

▪ WALLS COVERED IN STONE CARVINGS, INLAYS, AND MOSAICS.

SELIMIYE MOSQUE, TURKEY. (THE ULTIMATE ARCHITECTURAL EXPRESSION
OF THE OTTOMAN KÜLLIYE, BY ARCHITECT SINAN.) ▪ ORNAMENTS ARE BASED ON FLORA, GEOMETRIC SHAPES, AND

MOSQUE ARABIC SCRIPT.

▪ ALSO MASJID OR MUSJID.

▪ MUSLIM BUILDING OR PLACE OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.

 KA’BA

■ ALSO KA’ABA OR KA’ABAH.

■ “HOUSE OF GOD”

■ SMALL CUBICAL STONE BUILDING IN THE

COURTYARD OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT MECCA.

■ CONTAINS A SACRED BLACK STONE.

DOME OF THE ROCK, JERUSALEM. (ISLAM’S OLDEST MONUMENT.)
■ OBJECTIVE OF THEIR PILGRIMAGE.
DOME OF THE ROCK ■ THE POINT TOWARD WHICH THEY TURN IN
JERUSALEM. PRAYING.
■ INFLUENCED BY BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.

■ USED AS A SHRINE FOR PILGRIMS; AT ITSCENTER IS THE SACRED ROCK INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
FROM WHICH MUHAMMAD IS SAID TO HAVE
▪ ARCHITECTURE OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
ASCENDED TO HEAVEN.
▪ CHARACTERIZED BY HINDU AND BUDDHIST MONUMENTS
■ OCTAGONAL IN PLAN
▪ STRUCTURES SOMETIMES SHARE THE SAME SITE, HAVE

RHYTHMIC STRATIFIED MOTIFS, AND PROFUSE CARVED

THE GREAT MOSQUE
(MASJID AL-HARAM), ORNAMENTATION, OFTEN COMBINING THE RELIGIOUS AND THE
MECCA. (THE LARGEST SENSUOUS.
MOSQUE IN THE WORLD;
SITE OF THE HAJ
PILGRIMAGE.)
 THE SITE OF SANCHI. (COMPRISES A GROUP OF BUDDHIST MONUMENTS -
MONOLITHIC PILLARS, PALACES, TEMPLES AND

MONASTERIES. IT IS THE OLDEST BUDDHIST SANCTUARY IN EXISTENCE

AND WAS A MAJOR BUDDHIST CENTRE IN INDIA.)

GUPTA DYNASTY

▪ 320-540 CE

▪ COURT WAS THE CENTER OF CLASSICAL INDIAN ART AND

LITERATURE

▪ EARLIEST SUBSTANTIAL ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS ARE FROM THIS

PERIOD.

PALLAVA
MAURYA ▪ HINDU STATE ESTABLISHED IN SOUTHERN INDIA, 350-CE.
THE GREAT STUPA AT SANCHI, OLDEST ▪ CONTRIBUTED TO THE EXPANSION OF INDIAN CULTURE INTO
EXISTING STUPA IN INDIA. SOUTHEAST ASIA.
■ ANCIENT INDIAN PEOPLE WHO UNITED NORTHERN INDIA AND ▪ DRAVIDIAN, STYLE OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE IN THE PALLAVA
ESTABLISHED AN
PERIOD, NAMED AFTER THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN SOUTHERN
EMPIRE 320 BC.
INDIA.
■ ARCHITECTURE SHOWS THE CULTURAL INFLUENCE OF PERSIA

AND THE FIRST USE OF DRESSED STONE (STONE WORKED TO DESIRED

SHAPE AND SMOOTHED ON THE FACE).
 STUPA

DHAMEK STUPA.

■ A BUDDHIST MEMORIAL MOUND TO

ENSHRINE A RELIC OF BUDDHA.

■ CEYLON, DAGOBA; TIBET AND NEPAL,

CHORTEN.

■ DOME-SHAPED MOUND ON A
KIVA PLATFORM, CROWNED BY A CHATTRI,
■ LARGE UNDERGROUND OR PARTLY SURROUNDED BY AN AMBULATORY
UNDERGROUND CHAMBER USED BY THE (STONE VEDIKA), WITH FOUR TORANAS.
MEN FOR RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES OR PARTS OF A BUDDHIST STUPA
COUNCILS. ▪ TORANA, ELABORATELY CARVED, CEREMONIAL GATEWAY IN
BUDDHIST STRUCTURES INDIAN BUDDHIST AND HINDU ARCHITECTURE WITH TWO OR
THREE LINTELS BETWEEN TWO POSTS. ENSHRINED.

▪ VEDIKA, RAILING ENCLOSING THE STUPA. PARTS OF A HINDU MANDIRA

▪ CHATTRI, UMBRELLA-SHAPED FINIAL SYMBOLIZING DIGNITY, ▪ AMALAKA, BULBOUS STONE FINIAL OF A SIKHARA.

COMPOSED OF A STONE DISC ON A VERTICAL POLE. ▪ SIKHARA, TOWER USUALLY TAPERED CONVEXLY AND CAPPED

OTHER RELIGIOUS BUDDHIST STRUCTURES BY AN AMALAKA.

▪ VIHARA, MONASTERY OFTEN EXCAVATED FROM SOLID ROCK. ▪ GOPURAM, MONUMENTALLY, USUALLY ORNATE GATEWAY

▪ CHAITYA, SHRINE CARVED OUT OF SOLID ROCK ON A HILLSIDE; TOWER.

FORM OF AN AISLED BASILICA WITH A STUPA AT ONE END. ▪ MANDAPA, LARGE, PORCH-LIKE HALL AND USED FOR RELIGIOUS

▪ WAT, BUDDHIST MONASTERY OR TEMPLE IN THAILAND OR DANCING AND MUSIC.

CAMBODIA.

▪ GOMPA, TIBETAN BUDDHIST MONASTERY OR NUNNERY.

HINDU TEMPLES

SHORE TEMPLE. (ONE OF THE OLDEST FREESTANDING HINDU TEMPLE.)

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

OR INDO-ISLAMIC; BLENDED TRADITIONS FROM INDIA AND

ISLAM. (MUGHAL PERIOD, GOLDEN AGE OF ISLAMIC

ARCHITECTURE IN NORTHERN INDIA.)

MANDIR

SRI RANGANATHASWAMY TEMPLE.

■ A HINDU TEMPLE.

■ RATH, A HINDU TEMPLE CUT OUT OF

SOLID ROCK TO RESEMBLE A CHARIOT.

■ VIMANA, SANCTUARY OF A HINDU

TEMPLE IN WHICH A DEITY IS

 JAMA MASJID (THE GREAT MOSQUE), ONE OF THE BIGGEST IN INDIA; AT THE
HUMAYUN’S TOMB, NEW DELHI, INDIA. (FORERUNNER OF TAJ MAHAL,
CENTRE OF THE COURT IS THE TOMB OF SHAIKH SALIM, A SUFI SAINT.
OLDEST OF THE MUGHAL MONUMENTS.)

FATEHPUR SIKRI (CITY OF VICTORY), THE CAPITAL OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE;

BUILT BY EMPEROR AKBAR

DIWAN-I-KAS
■ DIWAN-I-KAS, HALL OF PRIVATE INFLUENCE ON SOUTHEAST ASIA

AUDIENCE, DIVIDED BY OVERHANGING

MOULDINGS CALLED CHAJJA.

■ DIWAN-I-AM, THE HALL OF PUBLIC

AUDIENCE.

ANGKOR WAT, SIEM REAP, CAMBODIA. (ONE OF THE LARGEST RELIGIOUS

STRUCTURES IN THE WORLD; A “TEMPLE MOUNTAIN.”)

TAJ MAHAL, AGRA, INDIA. (MOST RENOWNED EXAMPLE OF MUGHAL

ARCHITECTURE.)

TAJ MAHAL

■ “CROWN PALACE”

■ BUILT BY SHAH JAHAN AS A TOMB FOR

HIS WIFE, MUMTAZ MAHAL.

■ PLACED ON A CHAHAR BAGH, A

PLATFORM AT THE END OF A WALLED

ANGKOR WAT
GARDEN DIVIDED BY CANALS.
ANGKOR, CAMBODIA.
■ THE MARBLE FACADE IS DECORATED
■ BUILT BY SURYAVARMAN, KING OF THE
WITH FLORAL MOTIFS AND A TYPE OF
KHMER EMPIRE.
INLAY CALLED PIETRA DURA (USING CUT,
■ CONSTRUCTED TO HONOR THE HINDU
FITTED, AND POLISHED COLORED STONES
GOD, VISHNU AND TO SERVE AS THE
TO CREATE IMAGES).
KING’S TOMB AFTER HE DIED. ▪ PAWON TEMPLE

■ USE OF CORBELLED ARCH. A SMALLER TEMPLE, INNER SPACE DOES NOT REVEAL WHICH DEITY

MIGHT HAVE BEEN THE OBJECT OF WORSHIP.

BOROBUDUR, CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA. (“TEMPLE OF THE COUNTLESS

BUDDHAS.” LARGEST BUDDHIST TEMPLE IN THE WORLD.)

BOROBUDUR CHINESE ARCHITECTURE

CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA. ▪ PALACES AND TEMPLES ARE THE CHIEF BUILDING TYPE.

■ STEPPED PYRAMID RESTING ON A BASE ▪ DIVERSE ARCHITECTURE CAUSED BY DIFFERENCES IN

SHAPED TO REPRESENT A MANDALA GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

(GEOMETRIC SYMBOL OF THE UNIVERSE.) ▪ SYSTEM OF WOOD FRAME CONSTRUCTION.

■ BASE (KAMADHATU); BUILT IN THREE

TIERS: A PYRAMIDAL BASE WITH FIVE

CONCENTRIC SQUARE TERRACES

(RUPADHATU), THE TRUNK OF A CONE

WITH THREE CIRCULAR PLATFORMS AND, AT

THE TOP, A STUPA (ARUPADHATU).

BOROBUDUR TEMPLE COMPLEX

▪ THE BOROBUDUR TEMPLE

▪ MENDUT TEMPLE

WHOSE DEPICTION OF BUDDHA IS REPRESENTED BY A

FORMIDABLE MONOLITH ACCOMPANIED BY TWO BODHISATTVAS

YANG-SHAO

A MODEL OF JIANGZHAI, A YANGSHAO

SHANG DYNASTY
VILLAGE.
THE SITE OF YIN, THE CAPITAL OF THE SHANG DYNASTY.
■ NEOLITHIC CULTURE IN CHINA CENTERED
■ ALSO YIN DYNASTY.
AROUND THE YELLOW RIVER.
■ 1600-1030 BC.
■ CHARACTERIZED BY PIT DWELLINGS AND
■ INTRODUCTION OF WRITING,
FINE POTTERY PAINTED IN GEOMETRIC
DEVELOPMENT OF AN URBAN
DESIGNS.
CIVILIZATION, AND A MASTERY OF

BRONZE CASTING.
QIN DYNASTY

▪ 221-206 BC

▪ EMERGENCE OF A CENTRALIZED GOVERNMENT; FIRST IMPERIAL

DYNASTY.

▪ THE CONSTRUCTION OF MUCH OF THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA.

RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES

TOWERS AND GATEWAYS

▪ PAILOU, MONUMENTAL GATEWAY TO A PALACE, TOMB, OR

SACRED PLACE.

▪ ZHONGLOU, BELL TOWER OR PAVILION AT THE RIGHT SIDE OF A

CITY GATE, PALACE ENTRANCE, OR FORECOURT OF A TEMPLE.

▪ GULOU, LEFT SIDE COUNTERPART OF A ZHONGLOU.

MINGTANG

■ BRIGHT HALL

■ A RITUAL STRUCTURE IN CHINESE

ARCHITECTURE THAT SERVES AS THE

SYMBOLIC CENTER OF IMPERIAL POWER.

■ DESIGNATED AS THE INTERSECTION OF

HEAVEN (CIRCLE) AND EARTH (SQUARE),

ORIENTED AROUND THE FOUR CARDINAL

DIRECTIONS.

■ LINGTAI, SPIRIT ALTAR, RAISED

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY; USUALLY

THE CENTRAL, CIRCULAR UPPER STOREY OF

THE MINGTANG.

TA

▪ A CHINESE PAGODA.

▪ PAGODA, BUDDHIST TEMPLE, SQUARE OR POLYGONAL IN PLAN,

WITH ROOFS PROJECTING FROM EACH STOREY; ERECTED AS A

MEMORIAL OR TO HOLD RELICS (DERIVED FROM THE INDIAN

STUPA).
FOGONG PAGODA. (200-FOOT-HIGH TOWER BUILT ENTIRELY OUT OF
WOOD.)

TEMPLE OF HEAVEN

■ CIRCULAR MOUND ALTAR, RITUAL

THE SONGYUE TEMPLE TA, DENGFENG, HENAN PROVINCE. (CHINA’S
OLDEST SURVIVING TA.) PLATFORM.

■ IMPERIAL VAULT OF HEAVEN

■ HALL FOR PRAYER FOR GOOD HARVESTS

■ ABSTINENCE PALACE
 PALACE OF HEAVENLY PURITY, BEIJING, CHINA. (BUILT BY EMPEROR ZHU DI,
THE BEST PRESERVED IMPERIAL PALACE IN CHINA.)

TEMPLE OF HEAVEN. (CIRCULAR WOODEN PRAYER HALL, HEAVEN.

RECTANGULAR COURTYARDS, EARTH.)

HALL FOR PRAYER FOR GOOD HARVEST, TEMPLE OF HEAVEN.

PALACES
FORBIDDEN CITY

■ A PALACE COMPLEX INCLUDING

TEMPLES, RECEPTION HALLS,

RESIDENCES, AND SERVICE BUILDINGS.

■ PALACE OF HEAVENLY PURITY, THE

RESIDENCE OF THE SON OF HEAVEN AND

THE CONCEPTUAL CENTER OF THE

EMPIRE.

■ HALL OF SUPREME HARMONY,

EMPEROR’S THRONE ROOM; ALSO WHERE

HE MET DAILY WITH HIS OFFICIALS.

SUMMER PALACE, BEIJING, CHINA. (SUMMER RETREAT FROM THE

FORBIDDEN CITY.)

ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS

▪ BUILDINGS ARE DISPERSED AROUND A COURTYARD.

▪ ENTIRE GROUPING IS ORGANIZED AROUND A CENTRAL PATHWAY

OR AXIS.

▪ LARGEST AND MOST IMPORTANT BUILDING AT THE

NORTHERNMOST.
▪ SURROUNDING STRUCTURES AND COURTYARDS INCREASE IN ■ ARRANGING ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

SIZE AS THEY GET CLOSER TO THE MAIN BUILDING. SO THAT THEY ARE IN HARMONY WITH

FORTIFICATIONS NATURE.

■ GOAL: TO PROMOTE THE OPTIMAL FLOW

OF POSITIVE ENERGY (CHI’I) WITHIN THE

BUILDING.

■ MOST BUILDINGS FACE SOUTH OR

SOUTHEAST TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF

PREVAILING WINDS AND SUNSHINE.

JIAN

▪ THE BASIC MEASURE IN CONSTRUCTION.

▪ STANDARD UNIT OF SPACE MARKED BY ADJACENT FRAME

SUPPORTS.
THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA, BUILT BY QIN SHIH HUANG TI.

GREAT WALL OF CHINA

■ FORTIFIED WALL TO PROTECT CHINA

AGAINST NOMADS FROM THE NORTH.

■ ALSO SERVED AS A MEANS OF

COMMUNICATION.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES

YIN-YANG

■ THE INTERACTION OF TWO OPPOSING

AND COMPLEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

■ YIN: FEMININE, DARK, AND NEGATIVE

■ YANG: MASCULINE, BRIGHT, AND

POSITIVE

FENG SHUI

■ “WIND WATER”
 ▪ GREEN, WOOD.

▪ YELLOW, EARTH; SPACES RESERVED FOR EMPERORS.

▪ BLUE AND BLACK, WATER.

▪ WHITE AND GRAY, METAL.

▪ RED, FIRE; HOPE AND SATISFACTION.

DOUGONG

■ INTERLOCKING BRACKET SYSTEM USED IN

JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE
TRADITIONAL CHINESE CONSTRUCTION TO ▪ CHARACTERIZED BY A SYNTHESIS OF SEMINAL IDEAS FROM

SUPPORT ROOF BEAMS. CHINA AND NATIVE CONDITIONS PRODUCING A DISTINCT STYLE

■ HAS BOTH STRUCTURAL AND DECORATIVE ▪ LIGHT, DELICATE, AND REFINED.

PURPOSE.

COLORS

CONNOTATIONS OF COLORS:
 ▪ MODIFICATION AND NATURALIZATION OF IDEAS AND

INSTITUTIONS INTRODUCED FROM CHINA.

SHINTO SHRINE

SHIMMEI-ZUKURI

▪ STYLE OF SHINTO SHRINE EMBODYING THE ORIGINAL STYLE OF

JAPANESE BUILDING.

▪ RECTANGULAR PLAN RAISED ON POSTS, SURROUNDED BY A

RAILED VERANDA, WITH A FREE-STANDING POST AT EACH GABLE

END.

ISE JINGU

THE ISE JINGU CONSISTS OF TWO SHRINES:

▪ OUTER SHRINE (GEKU), WHICH IS DEDICATED TO TOYOUKE,

THE SHINTO DEITY OF CLOTHING, FOOD AND HOUSING.

▪ INNER SHRINE (NAIKU), WHICH ENSHRINES THE MOST

VENERATED DEITY AMATERASU, THE SUN GODDESS.

NARA PERIOD

HEIJŌ PALACE, IMPERIAL RESIDENCE.

■ 710-794 CE.

■ ADOPTION OF CHINESE CULTURE AND

FORM OF GOVERNMENT.

■ NAMED AFTER THE FIRST PERMANENT

CAPITAL AND CHIEF BUDDHIST CENTER IN

ANCIENT JAPAN.
NAIKU, INNERMOST SHRINE FOR AMATERASU. (REBUILT EVERY 20 YEARS;
HEIAN PERIOD UNLIKE MOST OTHER SHINTO SHRINES, THE ISE SHRINES ARE

▪ 785-1185 CE. BUILT IN A PURELY JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE STYLE WHICH SHOWS ALMOST
NO INFLUENCE FROM THE ASIAN MAINLAND.)
 BUDDHIST TEMPLE

TORII

THE TORII OF ITSUKUSHIMA (MIYAJIMA)

SHRINE.

■ MONUMENTAL FREESTANDING GATEWAY

ON THE APPROACH TO A SHINTO SHRINE.

■ TWO PILLARS CONNECTED AT THE TOP BY

A HORIZONTAL CROSSPIECE AND A LINTEL

ABOVE IT.

A JAPANESE BUDDHIST TEMPLE

KODO, ASSEMBLY HALL FOR

MONKS FOR READING SACRED

TEXTS.
ITSUKUSHIMA SHRINE, HIROSHIMA PREFECTURE. (UNESCO WORLD
HERITAGE SITE) TO, JAPANESE PAGODA
ENSHRINING BUDDHA RELICS.

KONDO, GOLDEN HALL;

SANCTUARY WHERE THE MAIN

IMAGE OF WORSHIP IS KEPT.

CHUMON, INNER GATEWAY TO

THE PRECINCT.

KAIRO, COVERED GALLERY

SURROUNDING THE PRECINCT.

SORIN, CROWNING SPIRE ON A

JAPANESE PAGODA.

TO

■ JAPANESE PAGODA, ALSO BUTTO OR

TOBA.

■ CENTRAL STRUCTURE OF A BUDDHIST

HORYUJI TEMPLE, NARA. (ONE OF THE OLDEST SURVIVING WOODEN
BUILDINGS IN THE WORLD.) COMPOUND.
THE GOLDEN PAVILION, KYOTO. (KINKAKU-JI; BUILT BY ASHIKAGA ▪ TOKONOMA, DECORATIVE ALCOVE.
YOSHIMITSU, A ZEN TEMPLE.)
▪ CHIGAIDAMA, STAGGERED SHELVES.
PALACES
▪ SHOJI, PAPER-COVERED WOODEN LATTICE.

HIMEJI CASTLE. (HIMEJI-JO; THE FINEST SURVIVING EXAMPLE OF EARLY

17TH-CENTURY JAPANESE CASTLE ARCHITECTURE.)

HIMEJI CASTLE

■ “THE WHITE HERON.”

ZASHIKI, RECEPTION ROOM. (MAIN ROOM IN A TRADITIONAL JAPANESE
■ TENSHU-GUN, KEEPS. HOUSE FOR RECEIVING GUESTS.)

■ HARAKIRI-MARU, INNER COURTYARD IN TANA, A RECESS WITH BUILT-IN

THE SOUTHEAST CORNER OF THE COURT SHELVING.

WHERE A SAMURAI WOULD COMMIT TATAMI, STRAW MATS USED AS

SUICIDE. FLOOR COVERINGS (ABOUT 3’X6’)

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE TOKOBASHIRA, POST MARKING THE

SHOIN PARTITION BETWEEN THE

▪ MEANING “WRITING HALL.” TOKONOMA AND THE TANA.

▪ A NEW TYPE OF RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE DURING THE ENGAWA, EXTENSION OF THE FLOOR,

MUROMACHI PERIOD (1338-1573). USUALLY FACING A GARDEN; SERVES

▪ FEATURES THE PROPORTIONING SYSTEM OF USING TATAMI AS A PASSAGEWAY OR SITTING

MATS (ABOUT 1X2 YARDS IN SIZE). PLACE.

KAKEMONO, A VERTICAL HANGING TRADITIONAL JAPANESE CONSTRUCTION.

SCROLL CONTAINING EITHER TEXT OR A INITIALLY EQUAL TO 6 SHAKU (1.818 METERS); LATER VARIED

PAINTING. ACCORDING TO THE TATAMI MATS (APPROXIMATELY 3’ X 6’).

CHASHITSU

■ TEAHOUSES

■ VENUE FOR TEA CEREMONY

THE SIZE OF A ROOM IS DESIGNATED BY THE
■ ROJI, ORNAMENTAL GARDEN ADJACENT T
NUMBER OF ITS FLOOR MATS (TATAMI).
THE TEAHOUSE.

PROPORTIONING SYSTEM

KEN

A LINEAR UNIT FOR REGULATING COLUMN SPACING IN

 KOREAN ARCHITECTURE
THE ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER OF THE JAPANESE PERIOD IS THAT OF
KOREA; MOST OF THE CHINESE

INFLUENCES REACHED JAPAN FROM KOREA.

KOREAN ARCHITECTURE FROM THE THREE KINGDOM PERIODS OF THE END

OF CHOSON PERIOD

AN OUTLINE OF THE KOREAN ARCHITECTURE IS ESSENTIAL TO AN

UNDERSTANDING OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF

JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. IT IS THE LINK BETWEEN THE CLASSICAL

TRADITIONS OF CHINESE BUILDING FORM AND

THE UNIQUE TRANSFORMATIONS THEREOF IN JAPAN.

THE THREE KINGDOM PERIODS

(57 BC-668)

NO WOODEN STRUCTURES SURVIVE FROM THE PERIOD KOREA WAS

DIVIDED INTO THREE KINGDOMS

(KOGURYO, PAEKCHE, AND SHILLA), ONLY A FEW STONE BUILDINGS,

INCLUDING TWO PAGODAS OF PAEKCHE

AND ONE OF SHILLA CONSTRUCTION.

TIMBER BUILDINGS

BUILDINGS DURING THE KOGURYO KINGDOM (57BC-668)

MURALS DEPICTED FROM THE WALLS IN THE SAMSHILCH’ONG,

YODONGSONGCH’ONG AND YAKSURI

TOMBS AND IN HOUSES IN THE SSANG-YONCH’ONG, ANAK NO. 1 AND

T’ONGGU NO. 12 TOMBS.

PAINTED PILLARS AND BEAMS IN BURIAL CHAMBERS OF MUYONGCH’ONG,

KWIGAPCH’ONG AND ANAK NO. 1 TOMBS

KOGURYO STRUCTURES OFTEN HAD A ROUND PILLARS WITH ENTASIS

SUPPORTING SIMPLY EXECUTED

BRACKETS. SHORT STRUTS WITH BEARING BLOCKS AND INVERTED V-

SHAPED TRUSSES WERE FITTED ON BEAMS

AND PURLINS TO SUSTAIN THE FRAMEWORK OF GABLED OR HIPPED ROOF.

TOKONOMA, A SHALLOW, SLIGHTLY RAISED ALCOVE FOR THE DISPLAY OF A
KAKEMONO OR FLOWER ARRANGEMENT KOGURYO WAS INFLUENCED BY HAN(25-219) AND THE NORTHERN
WEI(386-534) DYNASTIES OF CHINA.
PAEKCHE KINGDOM (18BC-660) 2 STONE BUILDINGS IN KYONGJU

ARCHITECTURE INFLUENCED BY SOUTH-WESTERN PART OF THE PENINSULA.

SHILLA KINGDOM (57BC-935)

EXCAVATION OF HWANGNYONGSA TEMPLE IN KYONGJU, THE CAPITAL OF

SHILLA, SUGGEST KOGURYOS INFLUENCE.

STONE BUILDINGS

PAEKCHE KINGDOM

2 PAGODAS

ONE AT IKSAN, CHOLLANAM-DO PROVINCE ON THE SITE OF MIRUSKA, A

TEMPLE BELIEVED TO

DATE FROM THE REIGN OF KING MU-WANG (600-641)

ANOTHER FIVE STOREY STRUCTURE ON THE SITE OF CHONGNIMSA TEMPLE

IN PUYO, CH’UNGCH’ONGNAM-DO PROVINCE.

CH’OMSONGDAE OBSERVATORY – CYLINDRICAL MONUMENT, SLIGHTLY

CONVEX IN OUTLINE,

RISES IN METICULOUS COURSES AND HAS SQUARE WINDOW AT HIGH

LEVEL.

MIRUKSA PAGODA, THE EARLIEST KNOWN EXAMPLE IN STONE (BELIEVED

TO HAD SIX OR NINE STOREY)

THROUGH ONLY PARTS OF SIX REMAINS.

FUTURE PAEKCHE PAGODAS WITH IDEAL COMBINATION OF TWO-TIERED

FOUNDATION AND AN ELEGANT
PUNHWANGSA TEMPLE – MADE OF STONES CUT TO THE SIZE AND SHAPE
FIVE STOREY MAIN BODY. OF BRICK AND RESEMBLES A
BRICK PAGODA. STONE BEAST ARE STATIONED AT THE FOUR CORNERS OF SSANGBONGSA TEMPLE OF HWASUN, CHOLLANAM-DO – FOUND THE
ITS FOUNDATION AND STONE IMAGE OF DECORATIVE STUPA OF ZEN MASTER CH’OLGAM AROUND 868.

VAJRADHARA, GUARDIAN DEITIES OF THE TEMPLE, AT EITHER SIDE OF THE THE KORYO PERIOD (918-1392)
NICHES OF THE BODY OF THE PAGODA.
TIMBER BUILDINGS
UNIFIED SHILLA PERIOD (668-935)
WOODEN BUILDINGS PRESERVED FROM THE KORYO PERIOD INCLUDE THE
TIMBER BUILDINGS KUNGNAKCHON (NIRVANA HALL) OF PONGJONGSA TEMPLE IN ANDONG,
AND THE MURYANGSOJUN (AMITA HALL) OF PUSOKSA TEMPLE IN YONGJU
(ACCORDING TO SAMGUK SAGI – HISTORY OF THE THREE KINGDOMS (719 C) IN THE 14TH CENTURY A STYLE INTRODUCED TO NORTHERN CHINA
WRITTEN IN THE 12TH CENTURY) UNDER THE YUAN (MONGOL) DYNASTY ALSO FOUND ITS WAY TO KOREA.
THIS STYLE, WITH CLUSTERS OF BRACKETS ON THE COLUMN-HEADS AND
IT CAN BE DEDUCED THAT HOUSES FOR THE UPPER CLASS HAD TILED
THE HORIZONTAL BEAMS BETWEEN THEM, WAS MUCH HEAVIER THAN THAT
ROOFS, THE EAVES OF WHICH WERE
PREVIOUSLY INTRODUCED IN CHINA.
DRESSED WITH END TILES AND THAT EACH END OF THE RIDGE HAD AN
MULTI BRACKETING SYSTEM SOON WIDELY ADOPTED.
ORNAMENTAL TILE SHAPED LIKE A BIRD’S
STONE BUILDINGS
TAIL, WHILE THE ENDS OF THE HIP-RIDGES WERE FINISHED WITH
GROTESQUE MASKS. THE GABLES WERE WOLCHONGSA TEMPLE IN P’YONGCH’ANG, KANG-WON-DO – OCTAGONAL
NINE STOREY PAGODA FROM THE
DECORATED WITH HANGING ORNAMENTS RESEMBLING FISH, THE EAVES
WERE DOUBLE TIERED AND SUPPORTED CHINESE INFLUENCE OF SONG AND LIAO DYNASTY WITH THE FLOURISHING
OF BUDDHISM DURING THE KORYO PERIOD, A GREAT NUMBER OF
BY BRACKETS ON TOP OF THE PILLARS, AND THE WOODEN PART OF THE
ELABORATE STUPAS WERE BUILT. THE PREDOMINANT TYPE WAS
STRUCTURE WAS COLORED AND COVERED
OCTAGONAL, BUT BELL-SHAPED STUPAS BEGAN TO APPEAR TOWARDS THE
RICHLY WITH GOLD AND SILVER ORNAMENT. END OF THE PERIOD, WITH RICH EMBELLISHMENTS ON THE BODY AND
REDUCED ROOF STONE SIZE
STONE BUILDINGS
PULGUKSA TEMPLE STUPA – LAMP SHAPED STUPA OF ROYAL PRECEPTOR
SOKKAT’AP AT PULGUKSA TEMPLE IN KYONGJU – WHICH IS SUPPORTED ON HONGBOP. THE BODY IS TOPPED WITH A ROOF STONE SHAPED LIKE A
A SQUARE PEDESTAL WITH PILLARS LOTUS AND THE LATTER IS COVERED WITH ELABORATE CARVINGS.
CARVED UPON IT. EACH STOREY AND EACH ROOF IS CARVED FROM A THE CHOSON PERIOD (1392-1910)
SINGLE STONE.
TIMBER PERIOD
TABOT’AP PAGODA IN PULGUKSA - A VARIATION OF THE THREE STOREY
PROTOTYPE. THE SAKYAMUNI HALLS (TAEUNGJON) OF PONGJONGSA TEMPLE IN ANDONG
KWALLYONGSA TEMPLE IN CH’ANGNYONG AND KAESHIMSA TEMPLE IN
STUPAS TO HOUSE THE SARIRA (THE REMAINS OF VERY HOLY PERSONS) SOSAN ARE OF THE EARLY CHOSON STYLE BUILDINGS WITH MULTI
AND RELICS OF HIGH RANKING MONKS. CLUSTER BRACKETING
MOST SHILLA STUPAS ARE OCTAGONAL IN SHAPE, THE OLDEST BEING THAT NAMDAEMUN (SOUTH GATE) THE ANCIENT ENTRANCE TO THE CITY OF
BUILT FOR THE HIGH PRIEST, SEOUL, HAVE TWO STOREY STRUCTURE OF SIMILAR SIZE BUILT IN THE
MULTI CLUSTER BRACKETED STYLE.
YOMGOHWASANG, IN ABOUT 844. DECORATED WITH RELIEFS OF LIONS,
ASPARAS (HEAVENLY BEINGS) AND FOUR ANCIENT PALACES IN SEOUL:
FOUR BUDDHIST GUARDIAN KINGS. ROOF STONE IS CARVED TO SIMULATE  KYONGBOKKUNG
A TILED ROOF.  CH’ANGGYONGGUNG
  CH’ANGDOKKUNG NEPAL ARCHITECTURE
 TOKSUGUNG
INFLUENCES:
MYONGJONGJON – THE MAIN AUDIENCE HALL OF CH’ANGGYONGGUNG AND
THE GATE INFRONT OF IT ARE THE OLDEST EXTENT PALACE STRUCTURES. GEOGRAPHICAL- 720KM LONG X 240KM IN AVERAGE BREADTH, EXTENDING
ACROSS THE HIMALAYAS AND ALONG THE NORTHERNBORDER OF INDIA
STONE BUILDINGS
-HIGH MOUNTAINS INCLUDING MOUNT EVEREST
DUE TO SUPPRESSION OF BUDDHISM IN FAVOR OF CONFUCIANISM IN THIS
PERIOD, THE NUMBER OF STUPAS -THREE OLD CAPITALS: KATMANDU, PATAN AND BHATGAON

AND PAGODAS DECLINED. MOST ARTISANS GENERALLY DEVELOPED • HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL- BULK OF POPULATION WERE NEWARSAND
PAGODAS IN THE ANCIENT TRADITION. GURKHAS ( TIBETAN-MONGOL STOCK),

SUJONGSA TEMPLE IN YANGJU KYONGGI-DO PAGODA – HAVE A VARIATION -INDIGENOUS STYLE IN ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE NEVERMATERIALIZED
FROM TRADITIONAL STYLE WITH BECAUSE OF MIGRATIONS AND INVASIONS FROMINDIA

OCTAGONAL SHAPE AND FIVE STOREY HIGH PAGODA 14TH, 15TH AND EARLY 18TH C- ARTS FLOURISHED DURING THE REIGN
OFMULLA RAJAS
BELL-SHAPED STUPA CONTINUED.
-1768: GURKHA RAJA SEIZED THE EMPIRE. RAJPUT A GURKHADYNASTY,
HOEAMSA TEMPLE PAGODA NEAR SEOUL HAS A STONE RAILING IN ITS HINDU BY ADOPTION AND INTERMARRIAGE RULED THECOUNTRY.
BASE , LOTUS, ARABESQUE AND FLORAL
RELIGION:
PATTERN ORNATELY SCULPTURED IN ITS PEDESTAL, AND A DRAGON AND
CLOUD PATTERN ON ITS BELL SHAPED MAIN -3RD C- INDIAN EMPEROR ASOKA BROUGHT BUDDHISM TO THE VALLEY OF
NEPAL. BUILT STUPAS FOR COMMEMORATION.
BODY.
-5TH AND 7TH C- BUDDHIST AND HINDU SETLLEMENTS WERE
UNDERGROUND ICE STORES WERE MOST FREQUENTLY BUILT STONE FORMED.CONVERSIONS WERE MADE AND MONASTERIES FORMED
STRUCTURES OF THE PERIOD. RECTANGULAR
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER:
STONES WERE USED TO FORM A NUMBER OF ARCHES, BETWEEN WHICH
WEIGHT SUPPORTING STONES WERE •EXUBERANT DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF BUILDINGSFROM INDIA AND
CHINA
FITTED TO UPHOLD THE FRAME OF THE CYLINDRICAL STORAGE CHAMBER.
ICE CUT FROM THE RIVERS IN WINTER •STUPAS, TEMPLES, PICTURESQUE TOWNSHIPS ANDINTRICATE NATIVE
CRAFTSMANSHIP
WAS STORED FOR USE THROUGH THE SUMMER.
•STUPAS: OLDEST MONUMENTS ASSOCIATED WITHASOKA, SWAYAMBUNATH
AND BODNATH BOTH INKATMANDU

•TWO KINDS OF TEMPLES SURVIVED:

-SIKHARA (INDIAN INFLUENCE)-PAGODA (CHINESE INFLUENCE)

•MONUMENTAL PILLAR- A NEPALESE TOWN FEATURE, GENERALLY

SUPPORTING A METAL SUPERSTRUCTUREADORNED WITH MYSTIC
SYMBOLS, GROUPS OF DIVINITIESAND PORTRAIT STATUARY OF ROYALTIES.

•SECULAR ARCHITECTURE:

-PRINCIPALY OF WOOD
-BRICK FOR SYTRUCTURAL PURPOSES AND METAL FORORNAMENT •LOCATED IN A LOVELY LITTLE HILLROCK SWAYAMBHU NAT STOUP ISONE OF
THE MOST FASCINATINGARCHITECTURAL JEWELS OF THEWORLD. THIS
•IN BIGGER STREETS, HOUSES EMBRACED A COURTYARD, FACADE WERE GREAT STOUP IS SAIDTO HAVE BEEN BUILT AROUND 250B.C.
TREATED ELABORATELY
•GENERALLY, A HOLY MEMORIAL SITESTOUP REPRESENTS A
-3 STOREYED: IST-SHOP BENEATH AN OVERHANGING FIRSTFLOOR WHICH TYPICALBUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE. ITS MAINFEATURE THE WHITE DOME
IN TURN IS OVERHUNG BY THE TOP STOREY ISIDENTIFIED WITH A SPOTLESS PURE JEWEL OF NIRVANA AND A
THIRTEENTIERED GOLDEN SPIRE IN CONICALSHAPE SURMOUNTED ON
THEDOME. UNDERNEATH THISTOWERING STRUCTURE ARE A PAIR OFALL
•-EACH FLOOR IS SUPPORTED BY BRACKETS AND STRUTSORNATELY SEEING EYES OF BUDDHAPAINTED ON ALL FOUR SIDES OF THESTUPA.
CARVED AND SOMETIMES PAINTED

•-EACH FLOOR IS SUPPORTED BY BRACKETS AND STRUTSORNATELY

CARVED AND SOMETIMES PAINTEWINDOWSHAVE LATTICE SCREENS

-ROOFS HAVE RED CURVED TILES, METAL GUTTERS ANDPROJECTING

CORNICE FOR PROTECTION AGAINST RAIN

•DECORATIONS: CARVING, EMBOSSING, TINKLING BELLS ANDHANGING

LAMPS

-ADORNMENT TYPIFED IN MAKARA FORM OF RAIN WATERSPOUT,

CHARACTERISTIC OF BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY ANDOFTEN WORK OF ARTS.

EXAMPLES:

BOUDHAN
ATH STUPA

•ONE OF THE OLDEST AND THE BIGGESTBUDDHIST MONUMENTS EVER

BUILT INNEPAL, BOUDHANATH IS AN IMPOSINGSTRUCTURE STANDING
SOME 36 METERS.THE STUPA STANDS ON THE MASSIVETHREE LEVEL
MANDALA STYLE PLATFORMSSURROUNDED BY COLOURFUL PRIVATEFAMILY
HOUSES.

•THE BASIC FEATURE OF THIS GREAT STUPAIS VERY MUCH LIKE THAT
OFSWAYAMBHUNATH STUPA EXCEPT ITSFINIAL DISPLAYING. IT IS MUCH
SWYAMBHUNATH STUPA BIGGERTHAN SWAYAMBHU STUPA AND LIES ONTHE VALLEY FLOOR
WHEREAS THE FORMERONE STANDS ON THE HILL TOP. THIS STUPAIS SAID -STUPAS
TO HAVE BEEN BUILT IN 5THCENTURY A. D. THE SITE IS CONSIDEREDVERY
MUCH LIKE MECCA FOR THE TIBETANBUDDHISTS AND EVERY YEAR TENS -MONASTERY- FORTRESS LIKE, SITED ON HILLTOPS, NOT REGULAR IN
OFTHOUSANDS OF PILGRIMS FROM ALL OVERTHE HIMALAYAN REGION VISIT PLAN,BUILT OF STONES AND BRICKS
THE STUPA.
•TEMPLE: RECTANGULAR STONE BUILDING, VERMILLION AND
YELLOWBANDS IN THE EAVES
TIBET ARCHITECTURE
•ROOF: CARRIES A CHINESE PAGODA TYPE PAVILLION, TILE OR BEATENCLAY
INFLUENCES: ROOFING
GEOGRAPHICAL: BOUNDED BY CHINA ON THE NORTH ANDEAST, TO THE •PLAN RESEMBLES A CHAITYAS . PILLARS AND BEAMS ARE PAINTEDYELLOW
SOUTH BY INDIA, NEPAL AND BHUTAN, INDIA ON THE WEST. OR RED
-THE HIGHEST COUNTRY IN THE WORLD (4000-5000M INELEVATION) •WALLS ARE COVERED WITH FRESCOES OR SILKS
-MONASTIC SETTLEMENTS EXAMPLES
-SHEEP AND YAKS RAISED, POSSIBLY AGRICULTURE •SAKYA MONASTERY (1071): ONCE FAMOUS FOR ITSCOLLECTION OF
-RUGGED LAND SANSKRIT AND TIBETAN MANUSCRIPTS,7 STOREYS HIGH WITH SPACIOUS
ASSEMBLY HALL
HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL
•POTALA PALACE, LHASA: BUILT FOR THE 5TH DALAILAMA. SKYCRAPER LIKE
•UNTIL THE 7TH C- SMALL REGIONS KINGDOMS WERE ESTABLISHED UNDER SLOPING WALLS, GUILDEDROOFS AND BELLS, RICHLY DECORATED
KING SRON-BTSANG-GAM-POWITH 2 BUDDHIST WIVES SANCTUARIES,RECEPTION AND STATE ROOMS.

•MONASTERIES, CHIEF ABBOT (THE GRAND OR DALAILAMA BECAME RULER

OF TIBET)

•19TH-20TH C- TIBET HAS BECOME AN AUTONOMOUSSTATE OF PEOPLES

REPUBLIC OF CHINA

RELIGION:

•ORIGINALLY FOLLOWED AN ANIMISTIC FAITH BONPO, WHICH INCLUDED

ELEMENTS OF MYSTICISM ANDSORCERY

•630AD- MAHAYANA BUDDHISM WAS INTRODUCED, TEMPERED BY

INDIGENOUS FOLK CULTS

•TANTRIC BUDDHISM PREVALENT IN OTHER COUNTRIESWAS FOUNDED BY

PADMA- SAMBHAVA

CHARACTER

•INFLUENCED BY INDIAN BUDDHISM SAKYA MONASTERY

•9TH CENTURY INFLUENCE FROM THE EAST: •THE SEAT OFTHESAKYA ORSAKYAPA SCHOOLOF TIBETAN BUDDHISM, IT
WASFOUNDED IN 1073, BY KONCHOKGYELPO (1034-1102),
ORIGINALLYANYINGMAPA MONK OF THEPOWERFUL NOBLE FAMILY
OFTHETSANG AND BECAME THEFIRSTSAKYA TRIZIN. ITS POWERFULABBOTS
GOVERNEDTIBET DURINGTHE WHOLE OF THE 13TH CENTURYAFTER THE
DOWNFALL OF THE KINGSUNTIL THEY WERE ECLIPSED BY THERISE OF
THENEWGELUKPA SCHOOLOFTIBETAN BUDDHISM.

SOUTHEAST ASIAN ARCHITECTURE INFLUENCES

CLIMATE AND RESOURCES

SOUTHEAST ASIA OCCUPIES THE TROPICAL REGIONS OF WESTERN PACIFIC

AND EASTERN INDIAN OCEANS. BECAUSE OF THIS IT IS SUBJECTED TO THE
MONSOONS FROM JUNE TO SEPTEMBER AND TO THE PACIFIC INTER-
TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE ALL YEAR ROUND.

IT IS A REGION OF ABUNDANT SUNLIGHT, INTENSE HUMIDITY, HIGH

PRECIPITATION, PERIODICAL TYPHOONS, AND RELATIVELY HIGH
POTALA PALACE TEMPERATURE.
•SITUATED ON THE RED HILLOF CENTRAL LHASA, POTALAPALACE IS THE BECAUSE OF THIS CLIMATE, THE REGION WAS MOSTLY COVERED BY
HIGHESTANCIENT PALACE IN THEWORLD, REACHING3,767.19M TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS, WHERE HARDWOOD TIMBER, CANE-VINES LIKE
(12,359.55FT) ATTHE TOPMOST POINT. RATTAN AND TALL GRASS SPECIES LIKE BAMBOO THRIVED IN SIMILAR
ABUNDANCE. MOST OF THESE MATERIALS ARE EASILY GENERATED AND
•POTALA NAMED AFTER AHOLY HILL IN SOUTH INDIA ISA SANSKRIT WORD
USED FOR BOATS AND HUTS YET ARE MEANT TO BE REPLACED
MEANING"ABODE OF THEAVALOKITESVARA (BUDDHAOF MERCY)."
PERIODICALLY DUE TO ITS ORGANIC NATURE.

EXCEPT FOR LAOS, MOST OF SOUTHEAST ASIA HAVE ACCESS TO MARINE

RESOURCES. THIS COMPRISES A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE’S DIET,
PARTICULARLY THEIR CULINARY CULTURE. GIVEN THE ABOVE RESOURCES
AND CLIMATE, TRADITIONAL (INDIGENOUS) ARCHITECTURE WAS MAINLY
SHAPED BY BAMBOO, TIMBER AND VINES CONSTRUCTION, IN ORDER TO:

• REDUCE HUMIDITY IN INTERIOR ENVIRONMENT.

• DEFLECT RAIN WATERS FROM ENTERING THE INTERIOR SPACE.

• RESIST MONSOON AND OCCASIONAL TYPHOON

• FACILITATE EASE OF REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT.

FISHING AND RICE CULTURE

THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN REGION IS COMPOSED OF A GROUP OF PEOPLE

AND SETTLEMENT THAT EMERGED OUT OF RICE CULTIVATION STARTED. IT
WAS ESTIMATED THAT RICE CULTIVATION STARTED AROUND 13,500 YEARS
AGO IN THE PEARL RIVER VALLEY IN CHINA, WHICH WAS CARRIED TO AND THE LIKE. BAHASA, THE LANGUAGE LARGELY SPOKEN IN SOUTHEAST
SOUTHEAST ASIA BY THE AUSTRONESIANS. ASIA DERIVED MANY OF ITS TERMINOLOGIES FROM THE SANSKRIT.

WITH THE PREFERENCE FOR MARINE-BASED FOOD COMBINED WITH RICE BUDDHISM AND HINDUISM TRAVELED THIS ROUTE TO REACH SOUTHEAST
CULTIVATION, A RICEFISH-BASED SUBSISTENCE ECONOMIES AND ASIA, WITH BUDDHISM TAKING MULTIPLE ROUTES THROUGH TIBET TO
SETTLEMENTS GREW. REACH EAST ASIA.

THE EARLIEST OF THESE SETTLEMENTS’ STRUCTURES EVENTUALLY VEDIC BUILDING PRINCIPLES (5TH CENTURY BC)
SHAPED OUT TO SUPPORT THEIR ECONOMIC FUNDAMENTALS.
VASTRU SHASTRA (OR THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING) IS THE PRACTICE THAT
COVERS A VARIETY OF CONSTRUCTION UNDERTAKING THAT INCLUDES
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN, HOUSE LAYOUT, MEASUREMENTS, GROUND
2 MAJOR ECONOMIC FUNDAMENTALS; TO BE ABLE TO FISH IN SEASON AND PREPARATION, SPACE ARRANGEMENT, TOWN PLANNING, TEMPLE BUILDING,
TO BE ABLE TO STORE SURPLUS GRAINS FOR FUTURE USE. THE PRIMARY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRY. THESE PRINCIPLES ARE SIMILAR TO THE CHINESE
REASONS FOR ENGAGING IN ARCHITECTURE-LIKE ACTIVITIES WERE TO FENGSHUI WHICH ARE MOSTLY BASED ON BELIEFS, SUPERSTITION AND TO
BUILD BOATS AND RICE GRANARIES: A CERTAIN EXTENT, EXPERIENCE OF PREVIOUS BUILDERS. AROUND 6TH
CENTURY BC, THEY FOUND WAYS IT TO BE WRITTEN IN MANUALS
• THE KUBO, RICE GRANARY HUT EVENTUALLY BECAME THE RESIDENTIAL
PRIMARILY THE HINDU TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION.
UNIT FOR A FAMILY, AND
THE CORE PRINCIPLE IN VASTRU SHASTRA IS THE BUILDING OF A
• THE PARAW, BALANGAY, AND THE LIPA/LLEPA OF THE BADJAOS.
MANDALA, A SACRED SPACE FOR MEDITATION USED AS THE IDEAL
THE SIMPLE KUBO EVOLVED TO A MULTI-FAMILY DWELLING SIMILAR TO THE CONCEPT FOR SHRINE AND PRAYER HALL DESIGN FOR BUDDHIST AND
LONG HOUSES IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. HINDU TEMPLES.

THE SETTLEMENTS ALSO BECAME NECESSARY TO SUPPORT MORE LABOR- A MANDALA IS ALSO AN EARTHLY REPRESENTATION OF THE
INTENSIVE CROP PRODUCTION. COSMOS/UNIVERSE, ACCORDING TO JAIN BELIEFS, WHICH ARE CARRIED
OVER TO BUDDHIST AND HINDU DOCTRINES.

MIGRATION AND TRADE

HUMAN MIGRATION NEVER STOPPED SINCE IT STARTED IN EASTERN AFRICA

100-60 YEARS AGO. A COMMON MIGRATION ROUTE THAT CONTINUED
FROM PREHISTORIC TIMES UNTIL AFTER THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SILK
AND TEA ROUTE IS THE COASTAL MIGRATION ROUTE ALONG THE
SOUTHERN COASTAL SHORES OF ASIA. THIS IS PRIMARILY DUE TO THE
ABUNDANCE OF FOOD AND OTHER RESOURCES.

RELIGION, GOODS//RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES ALSO TRAVELED

PRIMARILY ALONG THIS ROUTE UNTIL THE ADVENT OF MORE COMMERCIAL
MEANS OF TRAVELING.

SOUTH ASIA BEING THE ENTRY POINT OF HUMAN MIGRATION FROM AFRICA
AND LATER ON FROM THE ARYAN REGIONS OF EUROPE INEVITABLY BECAME
THE ORIGIN OF MANY CULTURAL INNOVATIONS.

SOUTH ASIA BECAME THE ORIGIN OF MANY CULTURAL INNOVATIONS

FOUND IN SOUTHEAST ASIA, SUCH AS RELIGION, LANGUAGE, WORLDVIEW
 INDONESIAN ARCHITECTURE
- WARM, HUMID CLIMATE, NOT MUCH RAIN NOR HEAT; WET AND DRY
SEASON ONLY

- THERE IS NO STATE OF RELIGION BUT 85% OF THE POPULATION IS

MUSLIM. MONUMENTAL RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES ARE BUDDHIST
THE VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA IS THE STRUCTURE/SPACE WHERE THE - RAIN FOREST PRODUCE PALMS AND DIPTEROCARPS; MONSOON
GOD CONSTRUCTION, IS PINNED ONTO THE EARTH WHICH IS THE FORESTSS YIELD TIMBER, RUBBER, BAMBOO AND RATTAN
MATHEMATICAL AND DIAGRAMMATIC BASIS FOR GENERATING DESIGN.

THE LEGEND OF THE VASTU PURUSHA IS ABOUT A FORMLESS BEING WHO

BLOCKED THE HEAVEN FROM THE EARTH, AND THUS BRAHMA TOGETHER BUILDING TYPES
WITH OTHER GODS TRAPPED HIM TO THE GROUND. THIS INCIDENT IS
DEPICTED GRAPHICALLY IN THE VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA WITH 1 TRADITIONAL INDONESIAN HOUSE
PORTIONS ALLOCATED HIERARCHICALLY TO EACH DEITY BASED ON THEIR
CONTRIBUTIONS AND POSITIONS. BRAHMA OCCUPIED THE CENTRAL
PORTION - THE BRAHMASTHANA- AND OTHER GODS WERE DISTRIBUTED
AROUND IN A CONCENTRIC PATTERN.

THE GEOMETRIC DIAGRAM SHOWS HOW THE GUIDELINES FOR

CONSTRUCTIONS EVOLVED. EACH OF THE FOUR CARDINALS AND FOUR
SUB CARDINAL DIRECTIONS HAVE DESIGNATED PURPOSES FOR SPACES.
 2 SHIVA TEMPLE OF LORO DJONGRANG AT PRAMBANAN (900 AD)

LONG HOUSE – TRADITIONAL DWELLING WHICH IS GENERALLY RAISED ON

STILTS, OFTEN SHELTERING AN ENTIRE CLASN

2 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE – SHRINES ARE ENCLOSED; WITH SLIGHT OF

STEPS ALL GROUPED TOGETHER

NOTABLE EXAMPLES

THAI ARCHITECTURE
- TROPICAL CLIMATE WITH ONLY TWO SEASONS; DRY AND RAINY

BUILDING TYPES

1 TRADITIONAL THAI HOUSE – DESIGN TO KEEP OUT DIRECT SUNLIGHT

AND RAIN, TO PERMIT AS MUCH VENTILATION AS POSSIBLE

2 THAI RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE

1 BORODURO (800 AD) – MOST OUTSTANDING BUDDHIST MONUMENT IN
ASIA
- UBOSOT OR BOT - THE ORDINATION HALL AND MOST SACRED AREA OF A
WAT
- PHRA SAT - KUDAKHAN OR RUEANYOT, IS RESERVED FOR ROYAL PALACES
OF THE MONARCH OR FOR SACRED RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES

- PRACHEDI OR PHRA CHEDI - MEANS THE FIRST STUPA

- MONDOP - SPECIFIC SQUARE- OR CRUCIFORM-BASED BUILDING OR

SHRINE, SOMETIMES WITH A SPIRED ROOF
 1 THE GRAND PALACE - COMPLEX OF BUILDINGS AT THE HEART OF
BANGKOK, THAILAND. THE PALACE HAS BEEN THE OFFICIAL RESIDENCE OF
- SALA - AN OPEN PAVILION, USED AS A MEETING PLACE AND TO GIVE THE KINGS OF SIAM (AND LATER THAILAND) SINCE 1782. IT SHOWCASES A
PEOPLE SHADE STUNNING BLEND OF THAI AND EUROPEAN STYLES

- KUTI - ORIGINALLY A SMALL STRUCTURE, BUILT ON STILTS, DESIGNED TO 2 WAT PHO – TEMPLE OF THE RECLINING BUDDHA
HOUSE A MONK

NOTABLE EXAMPLES
 2 DECORATIVE SYSTEM

- COLORED SANDSTONE FOR TEMPLE WALLS

- WALLS ARE DECORATED WITH BAS RELIEF DEPICTING GREAT BATTLES

NOTABLE EXAMPLES

3 WAT PHRA – TEMPLE OF THE EMERALD BUDDHA

CAMBODIAN ARCHITECTURE
- CAMBODIA LIES AT THE FERTILE PLAINS OF THE MEKONG RIVER, AND IS
BOUNDED ON THE NORTH BY LAOS AND THAILAND AND ON THE SOUTH BY
THE GURLF OF SIAM 1 ANGKOR WAT - A HINDU-BUDDHIST TEMPLE COMPLEX IN CAMBODIA.
LOCATED ON A SITE MEASURING 162.6 HECTARES (1,626,000 M2; 402
- TYPICAL MONSOON TYPE CLIMATE WITH DRY AND RAINY SEASONS;
ACRES) WITHIN THE ANCIENT KHMER CAPITAL CITY OF ANGKOR, IT IS
EXTREMELY HIGH HUMIDITY
CONSIDERED AS THE LARGEST RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE IN THE WORLD
- FOREST ARE SOURCESOF HARD WOOD, THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING
MATERIAL

- GRANITE AND SANDSTONES ARE THE CHIEF BUILDING STONES; CLAY IS

USED FOR FLOOR AND ROOFING TILES

- BUDDHISM AND BRAHMANISM ARE THE DOMINANT RELIGIONS

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

1 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

- POST AND BEAM CONSTRUCTION

- STONE WERE LAID INTO POSITION AS RAW CUBES - NO MORTAR

2 ANGKOR THOM - ALTERNATIVELY NOKOR THOM, LOCATED IN PRESENT-
DAY CAMBODIA, WAS THE LAST AND MOST ENDURING CAPITAL CITY OF
THE KHMER EMPIRE. IT WAS ESTABLISHED IN THE LATE TWELFTH CENTURY
BY KING JAYAVARMAN VII. IT COVERS AN AREA OF 9 KM², WITHIN WHICH
ARE LOCATED SEVERAL MONUMENTS FROM EARLIER ERAS AS WELL AS
THOSE ESTABLISHED BY JAYAVARMAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS. AT THE
CENTRE OF THE CITY IS JAYAVARMAN'S STATE TEMPLE, THE BAYON, WITH
THE OTHER MAJOR SITES CLUSTERED AROUND THE VICTORY SQUARE
IMMEDIATELY TO THE NORTH.

EUROPEAN INFLUENECES
THE INFLUENCE OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION
AND ORIENTAL RELIGIOUS

ISLAMIC

THE ISLAMIC WORLD WAS POLITICALLY AND ECONOMICALLY POWERFUL

BEFORE THE ONSET OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION.

HOWEVER, THE ONSET OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION LED TO SIGNIFICANT

POLITICAL, ECONMIC, ANDCULTURAL CHAGES IN ISLAMIC WORLD. THE
COLONIZATION PROCESS OFTEN LED TO FRAGMENTATION OF ISLAMIC
SOCIETIES INTO SMALLER, WEAKER STATES, AND CONTRIBUTED TO -ONE OF THE MOST NOTICEABLE CHANGES WAS THE INTRODUCTION OF
ONGOING POLITICA INSTABILITY. ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION AND THE EUROPEAN STYLES, SUCH AS GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE.
IMPOSITION OF EUROPEAN CULTURES AND LANGUAGES ERODED LOCAL
CULTURES AND CONTRIBUTED TO ONGOING CULTURAL TENSIONS. NOTABLE STRUCTURE

NOTABLE STRUCTURE

VICTORIA MEMORIAL

-THE ARCHITECT OF THE VICTORIA MEMORIAL WAS WILLIAM EMERSON. THE

DESIGN IS IN THE INDO-SARACENIC REVIVALIST STYLE WHICH USES A
MIXTURE OF BRITISH AND MUGHAL ELEMENTS WITH VENETIAN, EGYPTIAN,
DECCANI ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES.

-THE VICTOR IA MEMOR IAL IN KOLKATA IS A MAGNIFICENT STRUCTURE

THAT BLENDS TRADITIONAL IND IAN ARCH ITECTURAL FEATURES AND
MUHAMMAD ALI MOSQUE EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS.

CAIRO EGYPT  SOME OF THE KEY FEATURES THAT REFLECT THIS BLEND OF STYLES
INCLUDE:
-MUHAMMAD ALI PASHA WAS INFLUENCED BY EUROPEAN
-DOME
ARCHITECTS TO DESIGN THE MOSQUE.
-WHITE MARBLE
-THE MOSQUE’S EXTERIOR FEATURES A LARGE COLUMNS AND A
PEDIMENTED ENTRANCE THAT ARE TYPICAL OF NEOCLASSICAL -CLASSICAL EUROPEAN COLUMNS
ARCHITECTURE, WHICH WAS POPULAR IN EUROPE IN THE 18TH AND 19TH
-INDIAN MOTIFS
CENTURIES.

-THE MOSQUE'S CENTRAL DOME AND TWO MINARETS ARE REMINISCENT

OF OTTOMAN ARCHITECTURE, WHILE THE USE OF LIMESTONE AND THE CHINA
INCLUSION OF STAINED-GLASS WINDOWS, CHANDELIERS, AND A CLOCK
TOWER ARE TYPICAL OF EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE. -FROM THE 18TH CENTURY, EUROPEANS STEADILY INCREASED THEIR
PRESENCE AND INFLUENCE IN CHINA, NOT WITHOUT OPPOSITION. THIS
FOREIGN IMPERIALISM IN CHINA WOULD BECOME A NOTABLE SOURCE OF
NATIONALIST AND REVOLUTIONARY SENTIMENT.
INDIA
-SHANGHAI WAS ONE OF THE FIRST CHINESE PORTS CEDED TO WESTERN
-THE BRITISH COLONIAL ERA LASTED IN INDIA FOR OVER THREE
COLONIST POWERS AFTER THE FIRST OPIUM WAR IN 184.
CENTURIES STARTING FROM 1615 TO 1947.
-THE BRITISH SOON BECAME CHINA’S LARGEST FOREIGN TRADING -THEY BROUGHT WITH THEM A NEW STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE THAT
PARTNER. BRITISH COMPANIES PURCHASED VAST AMOUNTS OF CHINESE COMBINED EUROPEAN AND ASIAN ELEMENTS, RESULTING IN A UNIQUE
TEA, AS WELL AS LUXURIES LIKE SILKS, PORCELAIN AND OTHER STYLE THAT BECAME KNOWN AS "NANBAN-ZUKURI," OR "SOUTHERN
DECORATIVE ITEMS. WEALTHY CHINESE WERE ALSO AVID CONSUMERS OF BARBARIAN STYLE."
BRITISH-MADE GOLD, SILVER AND JEWELLERY.
1.BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
-THE Q ING REG IME WAS FORCED TO GRANT BRITAIN ‘MOST FAVOURED
NATION’ STATUS, GIVING IT PRECEDENCE OVER OTHER FOREIGN POWERS. BRICK, GLASS, TILES
THE REG ION AROUND THE PEARL RIVER DELTA, NOW THE LOCAT ION OF
EUROPEAN TIMBER FRAME CONSTRUCTION
HONG KONG, WAS CEDED TO BRITISH CONTROL.
- EUROPEAN-STYLE TIMBER FRAME CONSTRUCTION WAS ALSO ADOPTED,
NOTABLE STRUCTURE
BUT WITH MODIFICATIONS TO SUIT JAPAN'S CLIMATE AND EARTHQUAKE-
PRONE ENVIRONMENT.

2. ARCHITECTURAL STYLES:

THE NANBAN-ZUKURI STYLE

·EMERGED IN THE LATE 16TH CENTURY,

·COMBINED EUROPEAN GOTHIC ELEMENTS SUCH AS POINTED ARCHES AND

VAULTED CEILINGS WITH TRADITIONAL JAPANESE CONSTRUCTION
METHODS

WESTERN CLASSICAL STYLES

· SUCH AS NEOCLASSICISM AND RENAISSANCE REVIVAL WERE ADOPTED IN

THE LATE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURIES, RESULTING IN BUILDINGS
WITH SYMMETRICAL FACADES, COLUMNS, AND PEDIMENTS

THE BUND 3. URBAN PLANNING

-THE AREA WAS DEVELOPED BY EUROPEAN COLONIAL POWERS IN THE ·THE MEIJI GOVERNMENT IMPLEMENTED A COMPREHENSIVE URBAN
LATE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURIES AND FEATURES SEVERAL PLANNING SCHEME IN THE LATE 19TH CENTURY, WHICH INVOLVED THE
BUILDINGS IN THE ART DECO AND NEOCLASSICAL STYLES. CONSTRUCTION OF BROAD BOULEVARDS, PUBLIC PARKS, AND WESTERN-
STYLE BUILDINGS IN MAJOR CITIES.
-A HISTORIC WATERFRONT AREA IN CENTRAL SHANGHAI THAT WAS
DEVELOPED IN THE LATE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURIES, DURING THE 4.DECORATION AND ORNAMENTATION
PERIOD WHEN SHANGHAI WAS A TREATY PORT AND WAS CONTROLLED BY
VARIOUS EUROPEAN POWERS. WESTERN DECORAT IVE MOT IFS SUCH AS ACANTHUS LEAVES, ROSETTES,
AND SWAGS WERE INCORPORATED INTO JAPANESE ARCHITECTURAL
JAPAN DESIGN, OFTEN ADAPTED TO SUIT JAPANESE TASTES AND AESTHETICS.
-THE FIRST SIGNIFICANT CONTACT BETWEEN JAPAN AND EUROPE
OCCURRED IN THE LATE 16TH CENTURY, WHEN PORTUGUESE TRADERS
AND JESUIT MISSIONARIES ARRIVED IN JAPAN.
 CHURCHES WERE BUILT IN THESE STYLES, WHICH WERE SEEN

AS SYMBOLS OF MODERNITY AND PROGRESS.

3. USE OF NEW MATERIALS

CONCRETE, STEEL, GLASS

4. URBAN PLANN ING:

- THE INFLUENCE OF EUROPEAN ARCH ITECTURE ALSO HAD AN IMPACT ON

URBAN PLANNING IN KOREA. NEW CITIES AND TOWNS WERE BU ILT WITH
W IDER STREETS, PUBL IC PARKS, AND OTHER FEATURES THAT WERE
COMMON IN WESTERN CITIES.
THE CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF THE ASSUMPTION

·IT WAS BUILT BY THE JESUITS IN THE LATE 16TH CENTURY, DURING A TIME
WHEN PORTUGUESE TRADERS AND JESUIT MISSIONARIES FIRST ARRIVED IN
JAPAN

·THE CHURCH'S DESIGN COMBINED EUROPEAN GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

WITH TRADITIONAL JAPANESE BUILDING TECHNIQUES, RESULTING IN A
UNIQUE STYLE THAT BECAME KNOWN AS "NANBAN-ZUKURI," OR
"SOUTHERN BARBARIAN STYLE."

·THE CHURCH OF OUR LADY OF THE ASSUMPTION FEATURES ELEMENTS OF

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, SUCH AS POINTED ARCHES, BUTTRESSES, AND A
VAULTED CEILING.

KOREA

1. INCORPORATION OF WESTERN ELEMENTS: KOREAN BUILDERS BEGAN TO THE SEOKJOJEON HALL OF DEOKSUGUNG, SEOUL, SOUTH KOREA
INCORPORATE WESTERN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS, SUCH AS COLUMNS,
-IT WAS DES IGNED BY A BRITISH NAMED ‘HARDING’ AND IT WAS
ARCHES, AND PEDIMENTS, INTO TRAD IT IONAL KOREAN ARCH ITECTURE.
COMPLETED IN 1910. KING GOJONG USED SEOKJOJEON HALL FOR MEETING
• THIS BLEND ING OF EAST AND WEST CREATED A UN IQUE H IGH OFFICIALS ANDFOREIGN ENVOYS.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE THAT IS STILL EVIDENT IN MANY BUILDINGS
-KOREA’S FIRST EUROPEAN STYLE STONE BUILDING
THROUGHOUT KOREA.
-THE STRUCTURE IS IN THE NEO-CLASSICIST STYLE, WITH A TRIANGULAR
2. NEOCLASSICAL AND GOTHIC REVIVAL STYLES
PEDIMENT AND AN ORDERLY ARRAY OF COLUMNS RECALL ING THE IMAGE
- EUROPEAN NEOCLASSICAL AND GOTHIC OF A GREEK TEMPLE
REVIVAL STYLES
-DECORATED WITH ACANTHUS LEAVES AND WALL ORNAMENTATION IN THE
WERE PARTICULARLY POPULAR IN KOREA SHAPE OF FLOWER ING FRU IT TREES, ALL RENDERED IN RIGOROUS
DURING THIS BILATERAL SYMMETRY

PERIOD. MANY GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS,

PALACES, AND
INDONESIA

1 BUILDING MATERIALS
CEMENT, BRICK, GLASS -A CLASS IC BU ILD ING IN THE PALLAD IAN STYLE WITH ROMAN AND
GREEK ELEMENTS
2 BUILDING TECHNIQUES
-STRUCTURED ON TWO STOR ES, WITH THE FIRST ONE USED FOR THE
TILE WORKS, MASONRY, PLASTERING RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES AND THE SECOND ONE HOSTING THE OLD ORGAN
3. ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

THAILAND
EUROPEAN ARCH ITECTURE INTRODUCED NEW ARCH ITECTURAL STYLES THAILAND REMAINED UNCOLONIZED BY EUROPEAN POWERS, THE LATE
TO INDONES IA, SUCH AS NEO-CLASS ICAL, ART DECO, AND MODERN IST 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURIES WITNESSED A NOTABLE WAVE OF
STYLES. THESE STYLES WERE ADAPTED TO INCORPORATE TRAD IT IONAL WESTERNIZATION AND MODERNIZATION WITHIN THE COUNTRY. THIS ERA
INDONES IAN ELEMENTS SUCH AS DECORAT IVE CARV INGS, T ILED ROOFS, LEFT A SIGNIFICANT IMPRINT ON THAI ARCHITECTURE AS LOCAL
AND OPEN COURTYARDS. ARCHITECTS AND DESIGNERS ENCOUNTERED EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURAL
STYLES, CONSTRUCTION METHODS, AND MATERIALS
4. PUBLIC BUILDINGS
• EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCE IN THAILAND BEGAN IN THE 16TH
EUROPEAN ARCH ITECTURE INFLUENCED THE DES IGN OF PUBLIC
CENTURY WITH THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PORTUGUESE TRADING POSTS.
BUILDINGS IN INDONESIA, SUCH AS GOVERNMENT OFFICES, SCHOOLS,
AND HOSPITALS. • THE BAROQUE STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE WAS INTRODUCED BY THE
PORTUGUESE,
5. PRIVATE BUILDINGS
CHARACTERIZED BY ORNATE DECORATION AND ELABORATE DETAIL.
EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE ALSO INFLUENCED THE DESIGN OF PRIVATE
BUILDINGS IN INDONESIA, SUCH AS COLONIAL-ERA VILLAS AND ESTATES. • EARLY PORTUGUESE STRUCTURES HAVE MOSTLY BEEN LOST, EXCEPT FOR
THE HOLY ROSARY CHURCH IN SAMUT PRAKAN, CONSTRUCTED IN THE
LATE 18TH CENTURY.

• THE LATE 19TH CENTURY MARKED A SIGNIFICANT PERIOD OF EUROPEAN

ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCE IN THAILAND.

• THAILAND'S OPENING TO WESTERN TRADE AND MODERNIZATION UNDER

KING CHULALONGKORN (RAMA V) FACILITATED THE PROMINENCE OF
EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE.

• EUROPEAN MERCHANTS, MISSIONARIES, AND ARCHITECTS PLAYED A KEY

ROLE IN CONSTRUCTING WESTERN-STYLE BUILDINGS, PARTICULARLY IN
BANGKOK.

• THESE BUILDINGS CONTRIBUTED SIGNIFICANTLY TO THE ARCHITECTURAL

LANDSCAPE OF THAILAND DURING THIS PERIOD.

NOTABLE STRUCTURE

IMMANUEL CHURCH, JAKARTA

-CONSTRUCT ION OF THE CHURCH STARTED IN 1835 AND COMPLETED IN

1839

-THE OLDEST PROTESTANT CHURCH IN JAKARTA

 PROFOUNDLY INFLUENCING ITS DESIGN ETHOS. NOTABLY, IN URBAN
CENTERS LIKE PHNOM PENH, STRUCTURES EMERGED THAT SEAMLESSLY
BLENDED EUROPEAN CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS WITH
THE ENDURING MOTIFS OF TRADITIONAL KHMER ARCHITECTURE.

• THE INFLUENCE OF EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE ON CAMBODIAN

ARCHITECTURE CAN BE TRACED BACK TO THE PERIOD OF FRENCH
COLONIZATION IN CAMBODIA, SPANNING FROM 1863 TO 1953.
THROUGHOUT THIS ERA, FRENCH ARCHITECTS AND DESIGNERS WERE
ENLISTED TO PLAN AND BUILD NEW STRUCTURES IN CAMBODIA.
CONSEQUENTLY, EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURAL STYLES AND TECHNIQUES
PERMEATED CAMBODIAN DESIGN, LEAVING AN ENDURING IMPRINT ON THE
COUNTRY'S ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE.

NOTABLE STRUCTURE

HOLY ROSARY CHURCH IN SAMUT PRAKAN

• NAME: HOLY ROSARY CHURCH (SANTA CRUZ CHURCH)

• LOCATION: SAMUT PRAKAN, BANGKOK METROPOLITAN REGION, THAILAND

• CONSTRUCTION: BUILT IN 1787 DURING THE REIGN OF KING RAMA I

• ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: FUSION OF EUROPEAN AND THAI ELEMENTS

• FEATURES:

1.TRADITIONAL EUROPEAN-STYLE FACADE WITH TWO TOWERS AND A

CENTRAL DOME

2.INTRICATE CARVINGS AND RELIEFS ADORN THE EXTERIOR

3.HIGH VAULTED CEILING AND ORNATE STAINED-GLASS WINDOWS INSIDE

CAMBODIA

THROUGHOUT THE LATE 19TH TO THE MID-20TH CENTURY, CAMBODIA • NAME: CATHEDRAL OF PHNOM PENH (ALSO KNOWN AS
FOUND ITSELF UNDER THE SWAY OF FRENCH COLONIZATION. THIS PERIOD
NOTRE-DAME CATHEDRAL)
OF DOMINANCE LEFT AN INDELIBLE MARK ON THE COUNTRY'S
ARCHITECTURAL LANDSCAPE, WITH FRENCH COLONIAL STYLES • LOCATION: PHNOM PENH, CAMBODIA
• CONSTRUCTION: BUILT IN THE LATE 19TH CENTURY DURING • ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: NEOCLASSICAL (RENOVATED FROM A FORMER
MALLA DYNASTY PALACE)
THE FRENCH COLONIAL PERIOD.
• FEATURES: GRAND FAÇADE, ORNATE INTERIORS, TRADITIONAL NEPALI ART
• ARCHITECTURAL STYLE: FRENCH COLONIAL GOTHIC REVIVAL AND ARTIFACTS COLLECTION, INCLUDING METALWORK, WOODWORK, AND
STONE CARVINGS
• FEATURES: A GOTHIC REVIVAL STYLE WITH POINTED ARCHES,

STAINED-GLASS WINDOWS, AND A SPIRE. ASIAN ARCHITECTURE

• HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: EXPRESSED IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
1.REPRESENTS THE INFLUENCE OF FRENCH COLONIAL

ARCHITECTURE IN CAMBODIA DURING THE LATE 19TH -ISLAMIC: KNOWN FOR ITS INTRICATE GEOMETRIC PATTERNS,
ARABESQUES, AND CALLIGRAPHY, ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE TODAY
CENTURY.
CONTINUES TO BLEND TRADITION WITH MODERNITY. ICONIC STRUCTURES
2.SYMBOLIZES THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE REGION LIKE THE SHEIKH ZAYED GRAND MOSQUE IN ABU DHABI SHOWCASE THIS
FUSION, WITH TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS INTERWOVEN WITH
DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD. CONTEMPORARY DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY.
3.WITNESSED SIGNIFICANT HISTORICAL EVENTS IN CAMBODIA'S -INDIA: INDIAN ARCHITECTURE IS A REFLECTION OF ITS DIVERSE CULTURAL
HERITAGE AND RICH HISTORY. IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA, ARCHITECTS
HISTORY.
DRAW INSPIRATION FROM ANCIENT PRINCIPLES OF VASTU SHASTRA WHILE
INTEGRATING SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES AND MODERN MATERIALS.
EXAMPLES INCLUDE THE LOTUS TEMPLE IN DELHI, RENOWNED FOR ITS
NEPAL/TIBET STRIKING CONTEMPORARY DESIGN AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSCIOUSNESS.
NOTABLE STRUCTURE
-CHINA: CHINA'S ARCHITECTURAL LANDSCAPE IS EVOLVING RAPIDLY,
BLENDING ANCIENT PHILOSOPHIES WITH CUTTING-EDGE DESIGN.
CONTEMPORARY CHINESE ARCHITECTURE OFTEN SHOWCASES BOLD
EXPERIMENTATION, AS SEEN IN LANDMARKS LIKE THE BEIJING NATIONAL
STADIUM (BIRD'S NEST) AND THE GUANGZHOU OPERA HOUSE, WHICH
COMBINE TRADITIONAL SYMBOLISM WITH INNOVATIVE ENGINEERING.

-JAPAN: JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE IS CELEBRATED FOR ITS SIMPLICITY,

HARMONY WITH NATURE, AND ATTENTION TO DETAIL. IN THE
CONTEMPORARY WORLD, ARCHITECTS CONTINUE TO HONOR THESE
PRINCIPLES WHILE EMBRACING MODERN TECHNIQUES. STRUCTURES LIKE
THE TOKYO SKYTREE AND THE KYOTO INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
CENTER EXEMPLIFY THIS BLEND OF TRADITION AND INNOVATION.

-KOREA: KOREAN ARCHITECTURE REFLECTS A DEEP CONNECTION TO

NATURE AND A REVERENCE FOR TRADITION. CONTEMPORARY KOREAN
ARCHITECTS INCORPORATE THESE ELEMENTS INTO THEIR DESIGNS,
CREATING SPACES THAT ARE BOTH FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETICALLY
PLEASING. THE DONGDAEMUN DESIGN PLAZA IN SEOUL, WITH ITS
• NAME: PATAN MUSEUM FUTURISTIC DESIGN INSPIRED BY TRADITIONAL KOREAN CERAMICS, IS A
PRIME EXAMPLE.
• LOCATION: PATAN, NEPAL
-INDONESIA: INDONESIAN ARCHITECTURE IS CHARACTERIZED BY ITS
DIVERSITY, INFLUENCED BY INDIGENOUS TRADITIONS AS WELL AS
COLONIAL AND ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE. IN THE CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT,
ARCHITECTS ARE EXPLORING SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES AND CULTURAL
PRESERVATION. THE GREEN SCHOOL IN BALI, CONSTRUCTED PRIMARILY
FROM BAMBOO AND SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS, EXEMPLIFIES THIS -
APPROACH.

THAILAND: THAI ARCHITECTURE IS RENOWNED FOR ITS ORNATE TEMPLES,

INTRICATE CARVINGS, AND VIBRANT COLORS. IN THE CONTEMPORARY ERA,
ARCHITECTS ARE REINTERPRETING THESE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS IN
INNOVATIVE WAYS. THE MAHANAKHON TOWER IN BANGKOK, WITH ITS
DISTINCTIVE PIXELATED DESIGN, IS A STRIKING EXAMPLE OF MODERN THAI
ARCHITECTURE.

-CAMBODIA: CAMBODIAN ARCHITECTURE IS SYNONYMOUS WITH THE

MAJESTIC TEMPLES OF ANGKOR, REFLECTING THE COUNTRY'S RICH
HISTORY AND CULTURAL HERITAGE. IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD,
ARCHITECTS ARE REIMAGINING TRADITIONAL KHMER ARCHITECTURE
WHILE EMBRACING SUSTAINABLE DESIGN PRINCIPLES. THE VATTANAC
CAPITAL TOWER IN PHNOM PENH, WITH ITS ECO-FRIENDLY FEATURES AND
SLEEK DESIGN, SYMBOLIZES CAMBODIA'S MODERN ARCHITECTURAL
ASPIRATIONS.

-NEPAL/TIBET: NEPALESE AND TIBETAN ARCHITECTURE ARE DEEPLY

ROOTED IN RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL TRADITIONS, WITH MONASTERIES
AND STUPAS DOTTING THE LANDSCAPE. IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES,
ARCHITECTS ARE PRESERVING THESE HERITAGE STRUCTURES WHILE
INTEGRATING SEISMIC-RESISTANT TECHNIQUES AND SUSTAINABLE
MATERIALS. THE TIBETAN MUSEUM IN LHASA AND THE PATAN MUSEUM IN
KATHMANDU ARE PRIME EXAMPLES OF THIS PRESERVATION EFFORT.