Reinforced Concrete Design
CHAPTER II
FLEXURAL ANALYSIS OF BEAMS
In this section, we consider a scenario where a WORKING-STRESS AND WORKING -
minor transverse load is applied to a concrete beam STRENGTH DESIGN METHODS
with tensile reinforcement, gradually increasing the
From the early 1900s until the early 1960s,
load until the beam reaches its breaking point.
nearly all reinforced concrete design in the United
Throughout this process, the beam undergoes three
States was performed by the working-stress design
distinct phases prior to its collapse: (1) the initial
method (also called allowable-stress design or
uncracked concrete phase, (2) the phase of concrete
straight-line design). In this method, frequently
cracking under elastic stresses, and (3) the stage of
referred to as WSD, the dead and live load to be
ultimate strength.
supported, called working loads or service loads, were
Uncracked Concrete Stage, at small loads first estimated. Then the members of the structure were
when the tensile stresses are less than the modulus of proportioned so that stresses calculated by transformed
rupture (the bending tensile stress at which the area did not exceeds certain permissible or allowable
concrete begins to crack), the entire cross section of values.
the beam resists bending, with compression on one
Since 1963 the ultimate-strength design
side and tension on the other.
method has rapidly gained popularity because: (1) it
Concrete Cracked-Elastic Stresses Stage, as makes use of a more rational approach than does WSD;
the load is increased after the modulus of rupture of the (2) a more realistic consideration of safety is used; and
beam is exceeded, cracks begin to develop in the (3) it provides more economical designs. With this
bottom of the beam. The moment at which these cracks method (now called strength design) the working dead
begin to form-that is, when the tensile stress in the and live loads are multiplied by certain factor loads
bottom of the beam equals the modulus of rupture-is (equivalent to safety factors) and the resulting values
referred to as the cracking moment, 𝑀𝑐𝑟. are called factored loads
Beam Failure-Ultimate Strength Stage, as the Balanced Design refers to a design so proportioned
load is increased further so that the compressive that the maximum stresses in concrete (with strain of
stresses are greater than one-half of 𝑓'𝑐 the tensile 0.003) and steel (with strain of 𝑓𝑦/𝐸𝑠 ) are reached
cracks move further upward, as does the neutral axis, simultaneously once the ultimate load is reached,
and the concrete stresses begin to change appreciably causing them to fail simultaneously.
form a straight line. For this initial discussion it is
assumed that the reinforcing bars have yielded. Underreinforced Design is a design in which the steel
reinforcement is lesser than what is required for
Two different types of problems arise in the balanced condition. If the ultimate load is approached,
study of reinforced concrete: the steel will begin to yield although the compression
concrete is still understressed. If the load is further
1. Analysis, given a cross-section, concrete increased, the steel will continue to elongate, resulting
strength, reinforcement size and location, and in appreciable deflections and large visible cracks in
yield strength, compute the resistance or the tensile concrete. Failure under this condition is
strength. In analysis there should be one ductile and will give warning to the user of the
unique answer. structure to decrease the load.
2. Design, given a factored design moment,
normally designated as 𝑀𝑢 , select a suitable Overreinforced Design is a design in which the steel
cross-section, including dimensions, concrete reinforcement is more than what is required for
strength, reinforcement, and so on. In design balanced condition. If the beam is overreinforced, the
there are many possible solutions. steel will not yield before failure. As the load is
increased, deflections are not noticeable although the
compression concrete is highly stressed, and failure
24
Reinforced Concrete Design
occurs suddenly without warning to the user of the less than the cracking moment of the section, and 𝐼𝑔 is
structure. the gross moment of inertia of the cross section:
LOCATION OF REINFORCEMENT 𝑀𝑦
𝑓=
𝐼𝑔
Concrete cracks due to tension and (as a result)
reinforcement is required where flexure, axial loads or Section 419.2.3 says that 𝑓𝑟 may be taken as
shrinkage effects cause tensile stresses. A uniformly
7.5𝜆 𝑓'𝑐 for normal weight concrete with 𝑓'𝑐 in psi or
loaded, simple supported beam deflects as shown in
Fig. 5-19a and has the moment diagram shown in Fig. as 0.62𝜆 𝑓'𝑐 when 𝑓'𝑐 is in SI units. The cracking
5-19b. Because this beam is in positive moment moment is as follows:
throughout, tensile flexural stresses and cracks are
developed along the bottom of the beam. Longitudinal 𝑓𝑟 𝐼𝑔
𝑀𝑐𝑟 =
reinforcement is required to resist these tensile stresses 𝑦𝑡
and is placed close to the bottom side of the beam, as
shown in Fig. 5-19c. Because the moments are greatest ELASTIC STRESSES-CONCRETE CRACKED
at midspan, more reinforcement is required at the
The cracking moment of a beam is normally
midspan that at the ends, and it may not be necessary
quite small compared to the service load moment.
to extend all the bars into the supports.
Thus, when the service loads are applied, the bottom of
the beam cracks.
On the tensile side of the beam as assumption
of perfect bond is made between the reinforcing bars
and the concrete. Thus, the strain in the concrete and in
the steel will be equal at equal distances from the
neutral axis. But if the strains in the two materials at a
particular point are the same, their stresses cannot be
the same since they have different moduli of elasticity.
Thus, their stresses are in proportion to the ratio of
A cantilever beam develops negative moment their moduli of elasticity. The ratio of the steel
throughout and deflects as shown in Fig. 5-20 with the modulus to the concrete modulus is called the modular
concave surface downward, so that the flexural ratio.
tensions and cracks develop on the top surface. In this
case, the reinforcement is placed near the top surface, 𝐸𝑠
as shown in Fig. 5-20c. Because the moments are 𝑛=
𝐸𝑐
largest at the fixed end, more reinforcement is required
there than at any other point. If the modular ratio for a particular beam is 10,
the stress in the steel will be 10 times the stress in the
concrete at the same distance from the neutral axis.
CRACKING MOMENT
The stress in the concrete at any point a
distance 𝑦 from the centroid of the cross-section can be
determined from the following flexure formula in
which 𝑀 is the bending moment, which is equal to or
25
Reinforced Concrete Design
In this figure, the steel bars are replaced with is the assumed area stressed in compression at
an equivalent area of fictitious concrete (𝑛𝐴𝑠 ), which 0.85𝑓'𝑐 .
supposedly can resist tension. This area is referred to 3. Calculate the distance between the centers of
as the transformed area. The resulting revised cross- gravity of 𝑇 and 𝐶. (For a rectangular section it
section of transformed section is handled by the usual equals 𝑑 − 𝑎/2).
methods for elastic homogeneous beams. 4. Check whether the tension steel is yielding.
𝑓𝑦
𝜀𝑦 = 𝐸
The first step in determining the stresses and 𝑠
𝑑−𝑐
resisting moments for reinforced concrete beams is to 𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀𝑐
𝑐
locate the neutral axis, which is assumed to be located 𝜀𝑠 > 𝜀𝑦 steel is yield
a distance 𝑥 from the compression surface of the beam.
5. Determine 𝑀𝑛 which equals 𝑇 or 𝐶 times the
The moment of the compression area of the beam
distance between the centers of gravities.
cross-section about the neutral axis must equal the
moment of the tensile area about the neutral axis. The
resulting quadratic equation can be solved by
completing the squares.
After the neutral axis is located, the moment of
inertia of the transformed section is calculated, and the
stresses in the concrete and the steel are computed with
the flexure formula.
Compression steel is generally thought to be
uneconomical, but there are occasional situations BALANCED CONDITION
where its use is quite advantageous. Compression steel
is quite in reducing long-term deflections, and such When the steel strain corresponding to section
steel is useful for positioning stirrups or shear equilibrium is equal to the yield strain, 𝜀𝑦 , and the
reinforcing. strain in the extreme concrete fiber is equal to the
maximum useable compression strain, 𝜀𝑐 . The area of
The transformed area of the compression side tension steel required to cause this strain condition in a
equals the gross compression area of the concrete plus beam section will be defined as the balanced area of
2𝑛𝐴'𝑠 minus the area of the holes in the concrete tension reinforcement. The balance area is an
(1𝐴'𝑠 ) , which theoretically should not have been important parameter for design of beam and slab
included in the concrete part. This equals the sections.
compression concrete area plus (2𝑛 − 1)𝐴'𝑠 . Similarly,
2𝑛 − 1 is used in the moment of inertial calculations. The strain diagram corresponds to a balanced
The stresses in the concrete bars are determined by figure, the tension reinforcement is just reaching its
multiplying 2𝑛 times the stresses in the concrete yield strain at the same time the extreme concrete
located at the same distance from the neutral axis. compression fiber is reaching the maximum useable
compression strain. Understanding and using the
ULTIMATE OR NOMINAL FLEXURAL balanced strain diagram is important for the analysis of
MOMENTS both beam sections subjected to only bending and
column sections subjected to bending plus axial load.
In this section a very brief introduction to the
calculation of the ultimate or nominal flexural strength
of beams is presented. To obtain the nominal or
theoretical moment strength of a beam the simple steps
to follow are used:
1. Compute total tensile force 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 .
2. Equate total compression force 𝐶 = 0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑎𝑏
to 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 and solve for 𝑎. In this expression 𝑎𝑏
The next step through the stress distribution
and the force diagram are similar to the analysis of 𝑀𝑛 .
26
Reinforced Concrete Design
0.85𝛽𝑓'𝑐 87,000
𝜌𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓𝑦 8700+𝑓𝑦
english unit
0.85𝛽𝑓'𝑐 600
𝜌𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓𝑦 600+𝑓𝑦
metric unit
𝐴𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑏𝑑
SINGLY AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM
A singly reinforced beam is one that has
reinforcement only in the tension zone. This means it
has extra support in the area where the beam is likely
to be under the most stress.
While, doubly reinforced beam is one that has
extra support in both tension and compression zones.
This is done when the depth of the beam is limited..
Understanding the difference between singly and
doubly reinforced beams can help in making informed
decisions when it comes to constructing strong and 1. Assume the tension steel is yielding.
reliable structures. It’s all about providing the right 2. Select a value for the neutral axis depth (start with a
kind of support where its needed the most. value between d/4 and d/3)
3. Calculate the compression steel strain.
ANALYSIS OF NOMINAL MOMENT 4. Calculate the compression steel stress.
STRENGTH 5. Calculate the compression steel force.
6. Calculate the concrete compression force.
The flexural analysis procedure used for 7. Calculate the tension steel force.
doubly reinforced sections, as illustrated below will be 8. Check section equilibrium.
the same as that used for singly reinforced sections. a) If T > Cc + Cs , increase c and return to step 3
The area of compression reinforcement is referred to as b) If T < Cc + Cs , decrease c and return to step
A’s, the depth to the centroid of the compression 3
reinforcement from the extreme compression fiber of 9. Confirm that tension steel is yielding.
the section is d’, the strain in the compression 10. Calculate the nominal moment strength.
reinforcement is 𝜀'𝑠 , and the stress in the compression
reinforcement is f’s. ANALYSIS OF FLANGED SECTIONS
In the floor system shown, the slab is assumed
to carry the loads in one direction to beam that carry
them in the perpendicular direction. During
construction, the concrete in the column is placed and
allowed to harden before the concrete in the floor is
placed. In the next construction operation, concrete is
placed in the beams and slab in a monolithic pour. As a
result, the slab serves as the top flange of the beams.
Unlike the tension-reinforcement strain, it is
Such beam is referred to as T-beam. The interior beam
not reasonable to assume that this strain exceeds the
AB, has a flange on both sides. The spandrel beam CD,
yield strain when analyzing the nominal moment
with a flange on one side only, is often referred to as
strength of a beam section. The following relationship
an inverted L-beam.
can be established from similar triangles in the strain
diagram.
𝜀'𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑢 𝑐−𝑑'
𝑐−𝑑'
= 𝑐
or 𝜀'𝑠 = 𝑐
𝜀𝑐𝑢
27
Reinforced Concrete Design
consists of a single rectangle and thus the rectangular
beam formulas do not apply.
BALANCED AND MAXIMUM STEEL AREA
AND MOMENT
The balanced value of 𝑐 for any beam shape is
given by:
600𝑑
𝑐𝑏 =
600 + 𝑓𝑦
If 𝑎 is less than the slab thickness, the
formulas for rectangular beam may be used, or
Based on NSCP Section 406.3.2., for non-
prestressed T-beams supporting monolithic or 0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝛽(600)
𝜌𝑏 =
composite slabs, the effective flange width bf shall 𝑓𝑦 (600 + 𝑓𝑦 )
include the beam web width bw plus an effective
overhanging flange width in accordance with Table 𝐴𝑠𝑏 = 𝜌𝑏 𝑏𝑓𝑑
406.3.2.1, where h is the slab thickness and sw is the
clear distance to the adjacent web. 𝑎𝑏
𝑀𝑏𝑛 = 0.85𝑓' 𝑐𝑎𝑏 𝑑 𝑑 −
2
𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.75𝐴𝑠𝑏
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.75𝑎𝑏
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑏 𝑑 −
2
However, if 𝑎 is greater than the slab thickness,
the following formula will be used.
Isolated non-prestressed T-beams in which the
flanged is used to provide additional compression area
shall have a flange thickness greater than or equal to
0.5bw and an effective flange width less than or equal
to 4bw.
The compression block of a T beam may fall
within the flange only or partly in the web. If it falls
within the flange as shown, the rectangular beam
formulas apply since the concrete below neutral axis is
assumed to be cracked and its shape has no effect on 𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
the flexural calculations. If, however it covers part of
the web as shown, the compression concrete no longer 𝐴𝑠𝑏 𝑓𝑦 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
28
Reinforced Concrete Design
𝐴𝑠𝑏 𝑓𝑦 = 0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑏𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑤 𝑧 𝑎 > 𝑡𝑓 → analyze w/ T-action
𝑎
0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑏𝑓 𝑡+ 𝑎−𝑡 𝑏𝑤 ∅𝑀𝑛 = ∅𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑠 𝑑 −
𝐴𝑠𝑏 = 𝑓𝑦 2
From 𝐶 = 𝑇
𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.75𝐴𝑠𝑏
0.85𝑓'𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑓
𝐴𝑠 =
𝑓𝑠
For T-Beams From strain diagram:
Without T-Action, Wide Rectangular Beam 600𝑑 𝑎
𝑐= = → 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑠
𝑎 < 𝑡𝑓 600 + 𝑓𝑠 𝛽
Check:
If 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 𝑓𝑦, Use 𝑓𝑦
If 𝑓𝑠 < 𝑓𝑦, Use 𝑓𝑠
Without T-Action,
Given Mu, required As:
Assume: 𝑎 = 𝑡𝑓
𝑡𝑓
∅𝑀𝑓 = ∅0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑡𝑓 𝑏 𝑑 −
2
∅𝑀𝑓 ≥ 𝑀𝑢 → design as w/o T-action
Given 𝑀𝑢 , required 𝐴𝑠
∅𝑀𝑓 < 𝑀𝑢 → design w/ T-action
𝐴𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠1 + 𝐴𝑠2
𝑎
𝑀𝑢 = ∅𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 𝑑− 𝑡𝑓
2 ∅𝑀𝑛2 = ∅0.85𝑓'𝑐𝑡𝑓 𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑤 𝑑−
2
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦
𝑎= 𝑡𝑓
0.85𝑓'𝑐𝑏𝑓 ∅𝑀𝑛2 = ∅𝐴𝑠2 𝑓𝑦 𝑑 −
2
𝐴𝑠
𝜌= From 𝐶𝑓 = 𝑇2
𝑏𝑤𝑑
𝜌 > 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 → ok! 0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑡𝑓 𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑤 = 𝐴𝑠2 𝑓𝑦
𝜌 > 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 → 𝐴𝑠 = 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑤 𝑑 ∅𝑀𝑛1 = 𝑀𝑢 − ∅𝑀𝑛2
𝑎
∅𝑀𝑛2 = ∅𝐴𝑠1 𝑓𝑦 𝑑 −
2
Given 𝐴𝑠, required ∅𝑀𝑛:
From 𝐶𝑤 = 𝑇1
Assume as wide rectangular beam:
𝐴𝑠1 𝑓𝑦
𝑎=
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 0.85𝑓' 𝑐 𝑏𝑤
𝑎=
0.85𝑓'𝑐𝑏𝑓
𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.75𝐴𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑙
𝑎 ≤ 𝑡𝑓 → analyze w/o T-action
From 𝐶𝑓 + 𝐶𝑤 = 𝑇
29
Reinforced Concrete Design
0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑡𝑓 𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑤 + 𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑤 21 MPa and normal weight concrete is used, what is
𝐴𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑙 = the maximum uniformly distributed load the beam can
𝑓𝑦
carry if it used as a simple beam with 5 m span without
𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐𝑏𝑎𝑙𝛽 exceeding the modulus of rupture of the concrete?
Given 𝐴𝑠, required ∅𝑀𝑛
∅𝑀𝑛 = ∅𝑀𝑛1 + ∅𝑀𝑛2
𝑡𝑓
∅𝑀𝑛2 = ∅0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑡𝑓 𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑤 𝑑−
2
From 𝐶𝑓 = 𝑇2
0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑡𝑓 𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑤 = 𝐴𝑠2 𝑓𝑦 PROBLEM 2.3
𝐴𝑠1 = 𝐴𝑠 − 𝐴𝑠2 A.) Calculate the bending stress in the beam shown in
Figure 1.2 by using the transformed area method. f’c =
𝑎 21 MPa, n = 9, M = 15 kN.m, a = 50 mm, b = 200 mm,
∅𝑀𝑛1 = ∅𝐴𝑠1 𝑓𝑠 𝑑 −
2 h = 300mm, d = 50mm. As = 450 mm2
Check yielding of 𝐴𝑠1 : B.) Determine the allowable resisting moment of the
beam, if the allowable stresses are f’c = 24 MPa and fs
From 𝐶𝑤 = 𝑇1 = 414 MPa.
𝐴𝑠1 𝑓𝑠 PROBLEM 2.4
𝑎= Compute the bending stresses in the beam shown by
0.85𝑓'𝑐 𝑏𝑤
using the transformed-area method. N = 8, M = 110 ft-
From Strain Diagram: k
600(𝑑 − 𝑐)
𝑓𝑠 =
𝑑
INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEM
PROBLEM 2.1.
Assuming the concrete is uncracked, compute the
bending stresses in the extreme fibers of the beam
having a cross-section of Figure 1.2 for a bending
moment of15 kN.m. The normal weight concrete has
an f’c of 18 MPa. Determine the cracking moment of
the section. a = 50 mm, b = 250 mm, h = 300mm, d =
50mm. As = 450 mm2
PROBLEM 2.5
Calculate the bending stresses in the concrete and the
reinforcing steel using the transformed area method.
f’c = 3000 psi, normal weight concrete, n = 9, M =
250 ft-k.
FIGURE 1.2
PROBLEM 2.2
If the T-beam shown in uncracked, calculate the stress
in the concrete at the top and bottom extreme fibers
under a positive bending moment of 80 kN.m. If f’c =
30
Reinforced Concrete Design
PROBLEM 2.6
Compute the bending stresses in the beam shown. N =
10, M = 118 ft.k
PROBLEM 2.9
Compute the nominal strength of a beam with f’c = 28
MPa and fy = 350 MPa.
PROBLEM 2.10
Compute the nominal moment strength for doubly
reinforced rectangular beam shown. f’c = 28 MPa and
fy = 350 MPa.
PROBLEM 2.7
Compute the nominal moment strength of a beam with
f’c = 20 MPa, β = 0.85, fy = 420 MPa, b =250 mm, d
= 500 mm, and 3-No. 25 bars giving As = 1530 mm2.
Note the difference between the total section depth, h
and the effective depth is 65 mm, which is typical
value for beam sections designed with metric
dimensions.
PROBLEM 2.11
Compute the nominal moment strength for doubly
reinforced rectangular beam shown. Abar = 20 mm dia.,
f’c = 28 MPa and fy = 400 MPa.
PROBLEM 2.8
Compute the nominal strength of a beam with f’c = 24
MPa and fy = 420 MPa.
31
Reinforced Concrete Design
PROBLEM 2.14
Compute the flexural strength of the T-beam shown
below. Use f’c = 28 MPa and fy = 350 MPa. The
concrete cover is 20mm and clear layer distance
between bars in tension is 25 mm.
PROBLEM 2.12
Determine the amount of tensile reinforcing of a T-
beam for a floor system shown below. MD = 300 kN.m
and ML = 500 kN/m. Use f’c = 20.7 MPa and fy = 276
MPa with beam span of 6.0 meters. PROBLEM 2.15
Calculate the desing flexural strength of the T-beam
shown. Use f’c = 21 MPa and fy = 415 MPa.
PROBLEM 2.13
Determine design moment of interior T-beam shown in
the figure. Use f’c = 20.7 MPa and fy = 276 MPa. The
beam with 9m span is cast integrally with a floor slab
that is 100mm thick. Beam tributary width is 1.5m.
32
