Chapter 1: An Introduction to Anatomy and § Understanding physiology also requires a

Physiology knowledge of physics, which explains

electrical currents, blood pressure, and
§ Anatomy – the study of the structure of the way muscle uses bone for movement
body parts and their relationships to one Principle of Complementarity
another § Function always reflects structure
§ Gross or macroscopic § What a structure can do depends on its
§ Microscopic specific form
§ Developmental
§ Physiology – the study of the function of Levels of Structural Organization
the body’s structural machinery § Chemical – atoms combined to form
molecules
Gross Anatomy § Cellular – cells are made of molecules
§ Regional – all structures in one part of § Tissue – consists of similar types of cells
the body § Organ – made up of different types of
(such as the abdomen or leg) tissues
§ Systemic – gross anatomy of the body § Organ system – consists of different
studied by system organs that work closely together
§ Surface – study of internal structures as § Organismal – made up of the organ
they relate to the overlying skin systems
Microscopic Anatomy
§ Cytology – study of the cell Organ Systems of the Body
§ Histology – study of tissues § Integumentary system
Developmental Anatomy § Forms the external body covering
§ Traces structural changes throughout life § Composed of the skin, sweat
§ Embryology – study of developmental glands, oil glands, hair, and nails
changes of the body before birth § Protects deep tissues from injury
Specialized Branches of Anatomy and synthesizes vitamin D
§ Pathological anatomy – study of structural § Skeletal system
changes caused by disease § Composed of bone, cartilage, and
§ Radiographic anatomy – study of internal ligaments
structures visualized by X ray § Protects and supports body organs
§ Molecular biology – study of anatomical § Provides the framework for
structures at a subcellular level muscles
§ Site of blood cell formation
Physiology § Stores minerals
§ Considers the operation of specific organ § Muscular system
systems § Composed of muscles and tendons
§ Renal – kidney function § Allows manipulation of the
§ Neurophysiology – workings of the environment, locomotion, and facial
nervous system expression
§ Cardiovascular – operation of the § Maintains posture
heart and blood vessels § Produces heat
§ Focuses on the functions of the body, § Nervous system
often at the cellular or molecular level § Composed of the brain, spinal
column, and nerves
 § Is the fast-acting control system § Main function is the production of
of the body offspring
§ Responds to stimuli by activating § Testes produce sperm and male
muscles and glands sex hormones
§ Cardiovascular system § Ducts and glands deliver sperm to
§ Composed of the heart and blood the female reproductive tract
vessels § Female reproductive system
§ The heart pumps blood § Composed of mammary glands,
§ The blood vessels transport blood ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and
throughout the body vagina
§ Lymphatic system § Main function is the production of
§ Composed of red bone marrow, offspring
thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and § Ovaries produce eggs and female
lymphatic vessels sex hormones
§ Picks up fluid leaked from blood § Remaining structures serve as
vessels and returns it to blood sites for fertilization and
§ Disposes of debris in the development of the fetus
lymphatic stream § Mammary glands produce milk to
§ Houses white blood cells involved nourish the newborn
with immunity Organ Systems Interrelationships
§ Respiratory system § The integumentary system protects the
§ Composed of the nasal cavity, body from the external environment
pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and § Digestive and respiratory systems, in
lungs contact with the external environment,
§ Keeps blood supplied with oxygen take in nutrients and oxygen
and removes carbon dioxide § Nutrients and oxygen are distributed by
§ Digestive system the blood
§ Composed of the oral cavity, § Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the
esophagus, stomach, small urinary and respiratory systems
intestine, large intestine, rectum,
anus, and liver Necessary Life Functions I
§ Breaks down food into absorbable § Maintaining boundaries – the internal
units that enter the blood environment remains distinct from the
§ Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs external
as feces § Cellular level – accomplished by
§ Urinary system plasma membranes
§ Composed of kidneys, ureters, § Organismal level – accomplished by
urinary bladder, and urethra the skin
§ Eliminates nitrogenous wastes § Movement – locomotion, propulsion
from the body (peristalsis), and contractility
§ Regulates water, electrolyte, and § Responsiveness – ability to sense changes
pH balance of the blood in the environment and respond to them
§ Male reproductive system § Digestion – breakdown of ingested
§ Composed of prostate gland, penis, foodstuffs
testes, scrotum, and ductus
deferens
Necessary Life Functions II § Effector – provides the means to
§ Metabolism – all the chemical reactions respond to the stimulus
that occur in the body
§ Excretion – removal of wastes from the
body
§ Reproduction – cellular and organismal
levels
§ Cellular – an original cell divides
and produces two identical
daughter cells
§ Organismal – sperm and egg unite
to make a whole new person
§ Growth – increase in size of a body part
or of the organism
Survival Needs
§ Nutrients – chemical substances used for Negative Feedback
energy and cell building § In negative feedback systems, the output
§ Oxygen – needed for metabolic reactions shuts off the original stimulus
§ Water – provides the necessary § Example: Regulation of blood glucose
environment for chemical reactions levels
§ Maintaining normal body temperature –
necessary for chemical reactions to occur
at life-sustaining rates
§ Atmospheric pressure – required for
proper breathing and gas exchange in the
lungs
Positive Feedback
Homeostasis § In positive feedback systems, the output
§ Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a enhances or exaggerates the original
relatively stable internal environment in stimulus
an ever-changing outside world § Example: Regulation of blood clotting
§ The internal environment of the body is in
a dynamic state of equilibrium
§ Chemical, thermal, and neural factors
interact to maintain homeostasis
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
§ The variable produces a change in the
body Homeostatic Imbalance
§ The three interdependent components of § Disturbance of homeostasis or the body’s
control mechanisms are: normal equilibrium
§ Receptor – monitors the § Overwhelming of negative feedback
environments and responds to mechanisms allowing destructive positive
changes (stimuli) feedback mechanisms to take over
§ Control center – determines the
set point at which the variable is
maintained