UNIT - 2

Research Design
 Research Design
Meaning of Research Design

The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted.

it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.”

design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data
• Framework or blue print of the research
Ex : Trip Plan Design
Pickup Location
Drop Location
Cost
Which are the places we will be covering
Return date

Same way in research Design we will be doing all the plan.

Research work will be very smooth
Steps in Research Design
• Determining the sources of data
• Designing the data collection forms (Observation, Survey)
• Determining sample design and sample size
• Organizing of conducting the field survey
• Processing & analyzing the collected data
• Preparing the research report (Findings, Suggestions, Conclusions)
 Design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Types of Design
(a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting
items to be observed for the given study;
(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under
which the observations are to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how
many items are to be observed and how the information and data
gathered are to be analysed; and
(d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which
the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and
observational designs can be carried out.
Sampling Design
Sampling design is a critical aspect of research methodology, focusing on
how researchers select participants, subjects, or units to include in a study. It
ensures that the sample drawn from the population is representative and
reliable, leading to more valid and generalizable conclusions. Here’s a
breakdown of the main concepts and types of sampling designs:
Key Concepts:
1.Population: The entire group of individuals or items that the researcher is
interested in studying.
2.Sample: A subset of the population selected for the study.
3.Sampling Frame: A list or representation of all the units in the population
from which the sample is drawn.
4.Sampling Error: The difference between the sample result and the true
population result, caused by the fact that only a subset of the population is
studied.
 Observational Design
Observational design is a key approach in research methodology where researchers collect
data by observing and recording behavior, events, or phenomena without directly
manipulating variables. This type of research is non-experimental, meaning that the
researcher does not intervene but merely observes the situation as it naturally occurs.
Observational studies are often used in fields such as social sciences, medicine, and ecology,
especially when experimentation is impractical, unethical, or too expensive.

Key Characteristics of Observational Design:

1.Non-manipulative: No interventions or treatments are applied by the researcher; they
passively collect data.
2.Natural setting: Observations typically take place in real-world settings, providing insights
into natural behaviors.
3.Descriptive: The primary goal is to describe what occurs, rather than explain cause-and-
effect relationships.
4.Ethical considerations: Since researchers don't interfere, observational designs are often
more ethically feasible in sensitive or complex situations.
Sumary of Research Design
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features
of a research design as under:
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information
relevant to the research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering
and analysing the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are
done under these two constraints.
 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
• The need for research design arises from its critical role in ensuring that the
research process is methodical, efficient, and produces reliable and valid
results. Here are some key reasons why research design is essential:
1.Clarity and Focus: A well-defined research design helps to clearly outline the
objectives, hypotheses, and research questions. This helps maintain focus on
the specific goals of the study.
2.Logical Structure: Research design ensures that the study follows a logical
sequence, from formulating a problem to collecting and analyzing data. This
minimizes errors and ensures coherence throughout the process.
3.Resource Optimization: By planning the study in advance, research design
helps in efficiently utilizing resources such as time, budget, and effort. It
prevents unnecessary data collection and ensures the right information is
gathered.
Purpose or Advantages of Research Design
• Minimize he expenditure -> To facilitate the smooth scaling

• To provide blueprint for Plans -> To provide a direction

• To collect the relevant data of technique

 Features of a Good Design

A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate,

efficient, economical and so on
(i) the means of obtaining information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work
1. Clarity in Research Objectives
• The research design should be guided by clear, well-defined research questions or
objectives. The design must align with the purpose of the study to ensure that the
right data are collected to answer the research questions.

2. Adequate Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

• Representative Sampling: A good research design ensures that the sample is
representative of the population being studied, which enhances generalizability.
• Sampling Methods: The design should specify appropriate sampling techniques (e.g.,
random, stratified, or convenience sampling) based on the study objectives and
constraints.

3. Validity
• Internal Validity: The design should minimize bias and error within the study,
ensuring that the results accurately reflect the reality of the situation.
• External Validity: The design should allow the results to be generalized to a larger
population or different settings, depending on the study's goals.
4. Reliability
• The research design should ensure that if the study were repeated under the same conditions, it
would produce consistent results.
5. Control of Variables
• A good design controls for extraneous or confounding variables, particularly in experimental
studies, to ensure that changes in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable.

6. Ethical Considerations
• A well-constructed research design incorporates ethical guidelines, including informed consent,
privacy, confidentiality, and minimizing harm to participants.

7. Operational Definitions
• Clearly defining the concepts and variables being studied is essential for ensuring that they are
measured in a consistent and replicable way.

8. Data Collection Methods

• The design should outline the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
and ensure that these methods are suitable for the research objectives. The instruments used
should also be reliable and valid.
 Important Concepts relating to research design
1. Dependent and independent variables:
2. Extraneous variable:
3. Control
4. Confounded relationship
5. Research hypothesis:
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research:
7. Experimental and control groups:
8. Treatments:
9. Experiment:
10. Experimental unit(s):
 Dependent and independent variables
Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of non-
continuous variable. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the
dependent variable is termed as an independent variable.

• A continuous variable is a type of variable that can take on an infinite number of possible
values within a given range. These values can be fractional or decimal, as well as whole
numbers. Continuous variables are typically associated with measurements that can be
subdivided, such as:
• Height (e.g., 5.75 feet)
• Weight (e.g., 150.3 pounds)
• Time (e.g., 2.35 seconds)
• Temperature (e.g., 23.5°C)
Extraneous variable:
• An extraneous variable is any variable that is not the independent or
dependent variable in an experiment but could influence the
outcome of the study. If not controlled, extraneous variables can
introduce noise or error, making it difficult to establish a clear
relationship between the independent variable and the dependent
variable.
• There are different types of extraneous variables, including:
1.Participant variables – Differences in participants, such as age,
gender, or intelligence, that could affect the results.
2.Situational variables – Environmental factors like lighting,
temperature, or noise levels that might impact the outcome.
 Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise
the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).
The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study
minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables.
In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to
restrain experimental conditions.
 Confounded relationship
When extraneous variables systematically affect the dependent variable, they can
become confounding variables.

When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s),
the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

Research hypothesis : When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be

tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.
The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable.
Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one
dependent variable.
Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships
that are assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.
 Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research
When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-
experimental design.

Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed

‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an
independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research’.
 Experimental and control groups
In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to
usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’,

when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed

an ‘experimental group’.

Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control

groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’.
In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the usual studies
programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to
determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties
of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of
fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis,
relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we
can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly
developed drug.
Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative
experiment.
If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a
case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one
fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then
will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake comparative
experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.
10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where
different treatments are used, are known as experimental units. Such
experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully.
Different research design
Exploratory research studies

Descriptive and diagnostic research studies

Hypothesis-testing research studies.

 Exploratory research studies
Exploratory research is a type of research design used when a problem is not
clearly defined or when little is known about the subject.

It aims to explore an area of interest, identify patterns, and generate insights

that can guide future research.

Unlike conclusive research, which tests hypotheses or confirms expectations,

exploratory research is more open-ended and flexible.
Characteristics of Exploratory Research:

1.Open-ended: Exploratory research is often qualitative in nature and does

not follow a rigid structure. It allows researchers to adjust questions or
methods based on emerging insights.
2.Flexible: Since it seeks to explore a new area, it adapts as new data
emerges.
3.Unstructured: It does not follow a strict methodology; the design can
evolve as the study progresses.
4.Broad scope: The research is often broad and covers multiple aspects of
the topic, even those that might not seem relevant initially.
5.Foundation for future research: It often leads to the generation of
hypotheses that can be tested in subsequent studies
Methods of Exploratory Research:
1.Literature Review: Reviewing existing literature helps in identifying gaps in
knowledge or understanding trends.
2.Interviews: In-depth interviews with experts or stakeholders provide rich
insights and different perspectives on the subject.
3.Focus Groups: Group discussions that encourage participants to share their
opinions and experiences can reveal new ideas.
4.Case Studies: Detailed analysis of specific instances or examples that illustrate
broader trends.
5.Observations: Directly observing phenomena or behaviors without
influencing them can uncover patterns not evident through other methods.
6.Surveys/Questionnaires (with open-ended questions): These allow
respondents to provide more detailed and qualitative responses.
Descriptive and diagnostic research studies

In research design, descriptive and diagnostic research studies serve

distinct but often complementary purposes. Both are part of
conclusive research but differ in their objectives, methodologies, and
outcomes. Here's a detailed look at each:
 Descriptive
Descriptive research aims to describe characteristics of a population or
phenomenon. It focuses on providing a detailed picture of the subject without
delving into cause-and-effect relationships.
Characteristics of Descriptive Research:
• Structured: It follows a clear methodology and structure.
• Quantitative or Qualitative: Descriptive research can use both quantitative
methods (like surveys and statistics) and qualitative methods (like case studies and
interviews).
• Objective: It is usually conducted to measure certain characteristics, behaviors, or
conditions in a specific group or environment.
Objectives of Descriptive Research:
• To describe the who, what, when, and where of a situation.
• To measure variables of interest (e.g., demographics, behaviors, attitudes).
• To identify trends or patterns in the data.
Common Methods:
• Surveys and Questionnaires: These tools gather data from a population
sample to describe certain traits or behaviors.
• Observation: This involves observing subjects in their natural environment
and documenting behaviors or characteristics.
• Case Studies: Detailed studies of a particular case or event, used to illustrate
broader principles or trends.
• Cross-sectional Studies: These studies collect data from a population at a
single point in time to describe the current status of the subjects.

Example of Descriptive Research:

• A survey conducted to determine the average age, gender distribution, and
preferences of customers in a specific store.
• A study measuring the literacy rate in a certain region.
Diagnostic research
Diagnostic research (also called diagnostic analysis) goes one step
further than descriptive research. While descriptive studies outline
what is happening, diagnostic research seeks to identify the causes of a
problem or phenomenon. It attempts to understand why something is
happening by identifying factors or variables influencing the outcome.
Characteristics of Diagnostic Research:
• Problem-focused: It looks at specific problems or issues within a population or
system.
• Cause-and-effect: It tries to establish relationships between variables and
outcomes.
• Hypothesis Testing: Diagnostic research often begins with a hypothesis
regarding the potential cause of a problem, which it then tests.

Objectives of Diagnostic Research:

• To investigate the causes or factors behind a phenomenon or issue.
• To test hypotheses about the relationships between variables.
• To determine whether a particular factor is contributing to an observed
outcome or trend.
Common Methods:
• Surveys and Interviews: In-depth questions are used to identify potential causes for
an issue (e.g., asking about customer dissatisfaction in a company).
• Experimental Designs: Controlled experiments can test specific hypotheses by
manipulating one or more variables to see their effects.
• Regression Analysis: Statistical techniques can determine the strength and nature of
the relationship between different variables.
• Longitudinal Studies: These studies collect data over time to identify causes or
factors that influence changes in a population or system.

Example of Diagnostic Research:

• A study investigating the reasons for a company's decline in sales, looking at factors
like marketing strategies, customer satisfaction, and market competition.
• Research on why a certain disease is more prevalent in specific populations by
analyzing lifestyle, genetic, and environmental factors.
 Hypothesis-testing
Hypothesis-testing research is a crucial aspect of conclusive research design and is primarily focused
on testing predefined hypotheses or theories to establish relationships between variables.
The goal is to determine whether a specific claim or assumption (the hypothesis) about a population
or phenomenon holds true, based on empirical data.

Characteristics of Hypothesis-Testing Research:

• Structured and formal: Hypothesis-testing studies follow a clear, predefined methodology to test
specific hypotheses.

• Quantitative in nature: These studies are usually quantitative and use statistical methods to
validate or reject the hypothesis.

• Focused on causality: Hypothesis-testing research is often used to establish cause-and-effect

relationships between variables.

• Involves controlled conditions: In experimental settings, researchers manipulate variables to

observe the effects on the outcome.
Design of Sample Service
Sample Design

Sampling and Non Sampling errors

 Sample survey V/S Census Survey

 Sample Design
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population.

Sample is a small group of members selected from a population to represent

population

Subset of population
Key Components of Sample Design:

1.Population: The entire group you're interested in studying.

1. Example: All high school teachers in Bangalore.
2.Sample: A subset of the population that is selected for the study.
1. Example: 500 high school teachers randomly chosen from all the schools in
Bangalore.
3.Sampling Frame: A list or database from which the sample is drawn.
1. Example: A list of all registered high school teachers in Bangalore.
4.Sampling Technique: The method used to select participants.
 Types of Sampling
1. Probability Sampling (random selection, where every member has a
known and equal chance of being selected)

1. Simple Random Sampling:

2. Stratified Random Sampling:
3. Systematic Sampling:
4. Cluster Sampling:
5. Multistage Sampling:
 Types of Sampling

Simple Random Sampling:

• Definition: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being chosen.
• Example: using a random number generator.
Stratified Random Sampling:
• Definition: The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on specific
characteristics (e.g., age, gender), and random samples are drawn from each
subgroup.
• Example: Sampling 100 male and 100 female teachers separately from a population of
teachers.
Systematic Sampling:
•Definition: Selecting every "nth" participant from a list of the population after starting at a random point.
•Example: Choosing every 10th person on a school registry list.

Cluster Sampling:
•Definition: The population is divided into clusters (often geographically), and some clusters are
randomly selected. Then all or a random sample from each selected cluster is studied.

•Example: Randomly selecting 10 schools from a city, and then studying all teachers in those schools.

Multistage Sampling:
• Definition: A more complex form of cluster sampling where multiple stages of sampling are conducted.
• Example: First selecting a region, then schools within that region, and finally teachers from those schools.
2. Non-Probability Sampling (not all members have
a chance of being selected; non-random)
1. Convenience Sampling:
2. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling:
3. Snowball Sampling:
4. Quota Sampling:
2. Non-Probability Sampling (not all members have
a chance of being selected; non-random)
• Convenience Sampling:
• Definition: Selecting participants who are readily available and willing to
participate.
• Example: Surveying teachers at your local school because it’s convenient.
• Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling:
• Definition: Participants are selected based on specific characteristics or
criteria relevant to the research.
• Example: Choosing only experienced teachers with 10+ years in the
profession.
Snowball Sampling:
•Definition: Current study participants recruit future participants from their acquaintances.
•Example: Asking each teacher you interview to suggest another teacher who might participate.

•Quota Sampling:
•Definition: The researcher ensures that certain characteristics (e.g., gender, age) are represented
in specific proportions.
•Example: Interviewing 50 male and 50 female teachers to ensure gender balance.
Example of a Sample Design in Research:
Research Question: How do teaching strategies impact student engagement
in urban high schools?
• Population: High school teachers in urban areas.
• Sampling Frame: List of high school teachers from urban school districts.
• Sampling Technique: Stratified random sampling (to ensure a mix of new
and experienced teachers).
• Sample Size: 300 teachers, calculated based on population size, desired
confidence level, and margin of error.
• Steps: Divide teachers into groups based on years of experience, then
randomly select teachers from each group.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

1. Type of universe
2. Sampling unit
3. Source list
4. Size of sample
5. Parameters of interest
6. Budgetary constraint
7. Sampling procedure
 Type of universe
The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of
objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied.
The universe can be finite or infinite.
In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite
universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about
the total number of items.
The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are
examples of finite universes
 whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio
programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
 Sampling unit
A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample.

Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc.,
OR
 a construction unit such as house, flat, etc.,
OR
it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc.,
OR
it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.
Source list
It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be
drawn.
 It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite
universe only).
If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list
should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.
 It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of
the population as possible
 Size of sample
This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample.
This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should neither
be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum.
An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
Parameters of interest
• In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of
the specific population parameters which are of interest.
• For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of
persons with some characteristic in the population, or we may be
interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning
the population.
Budgetary constraint

• Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact

upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to
the type of sample.
• This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
Sampling procedure

• Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e.,
he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items
for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the
sample design itself
Identifying and Applying Sampling Designs

Instructions:
• Below are five research scenarios. For each
scenario, identify which sampling design would
be the most appropriate to use. Justify your
answer.
• For each scenario, briefly explain the steps
you would take to implement the sampling
design.
Scenario 1:
You are conducting a study to estimate the
average income of households in a large city.
The city has 50 neighborhoods, each with its
own socioeconomic characteristics.
Scenario 2:
A health organization wants to survey 1,000
people about their exercise habits. They want
to ensure that different age groups (under 18,
18-35, 36-50, 51-65, and 65+) are
proportionately represented in the sample.
Scenario 3:
A company wants to inspect the quality of
products on its production line. The company
produces 10,000 units per day and wants to
check the quality of 100 randomly selected
units.
Scenario 4:
A national education researcher wants to assess
the performance of students in science
subjects. The researcher selects a few schools
from different regions of the country, then
randomly selects students from within those
schools to test.
Scenario 5:
A researcher is conducting a study on customer
satisfaction at a local cafe. The researcher
asks customers who are present in the cafe
during lunch hours to complete a survey.
Scenario 1: Cluster Sampling
•Justification: Since the city is divided into distinct neighborhoods, each of
which may have different income levels, the most efficient approach would be
cluster sampling. The researcher can randomly select certain neighborhoods
(clusters) and survey all households within those neighborhoods.
• Steps:
• List all neighborhoods in the city.
• Randomly select a few neighborhoods.
• Survey every household in the selected neighborhoods.
Scenario 2: Stratified Sampling
•Justification: The organization wants to ensure representation from specific age
groups, making stratified sampling the best choice. The population will be
divided into strata based on age, and a random sample will be taken from each age
group.
• Steps:
• Divide the population into five age groups (strata).
• Determine the proportion of people in each age group relative to the entire
population.
• Randomly select individuals from each age group, ensuring the sample size for
each group matches its proportion in the population.
Scenario 3: Simple Random Sampling
•Justification: The goal is to randomly select 100 products from a total
of 10,000, making simple random sampling an appropriate choice. Each
product has an equal chance of being selected.
• Steps:
• Assign a unique number to each product on the production line.
• Use a random number generator to select 100 unique product numbers.
• Inspect the 100 selected products.
Scenario 4: Multistage Sampling
• Justification: The researcher is selecting
schools first and then students within those
schools, which is characteristic of multistage
sampling. This approach reduces the cost and
effort involved in nationwide surveys.
• Steps:
• Divide the country into different regions.
• Randomly select a few regions.
• Within each selected region, randomly choose a few
schools.
• Randomly select students from the chosen schools.
Scenario 5: Convenience Sampling
• Justification: The researcher is asking
customers who are available at the cafe during
lunch hours, making this a case of convenience
sampling. It is based on ease of access and
does not involve randomization.
• Steps:
• Approach customers who visit the cafe during
lunch hours.
• Ask them to fill out the survey.
• Collect and analyze the survey responses.
 Problem:
A teacher wants to know the average number of hours students study
per week in a class of 30 students. To get this information, she
decides to use simple random sampling. She randomly selects 10
students and records their study hours for the week as follows:
• Student 1: 5 hours
• Student 2: 7 hours
• Student 3: 6 hours
• Student 4: 8 hours
• Student 5: 4 hours
• Student 6: 9 hours
• Student 7: 5 hours
• Student 8: 6 hours
• Student 9: 7 hours
• Student 10: 8 hours

Calculate the average number of hours all students study per week
based on this sample.
Problem:
A factory produces 1,000 light bulbs each day.
The quality control manager wants to check the
quality of the bulbs by sampling. She decides
to use systematic sampling. She will select
every 100th bulb for inspection.
Determine which bulbs will be sampled and what
will be the total number of bulbs sampled.
Solution:
• Determine the sampling interval: Since the
manager has decided to select every 100th bulb,
the sampling interval (k) is:
k=100k = 100k=100
• Identify the sampling method: The manager will
randomly select a starting point between 1 and
100. Let's say she randomly selects the
starting point as 25.
• List the sampled bulbs: The bulbs selected for
inspection will be:
• Starting point: 25
• Next: 25 + 100 = 125
• Next: 125 + 100 = 225
• Next: 225 + 100 = 325
• Next: 325 + 100 = 425
• Next: 425 + 100 = 525
• Next: 525 + 100 = 625
• Next: 625 + 100 = 725
• Next: 725 + 100 = 825
• Next: 825 + 100 = 925
• So, the sampled bulbs are:
• Bulb 25
• Bulb 125
• Bulb 225
• Bulb 325
• Bulb 425
• Bulb 525
• Bulb 625
• Bulb 725
• Bulb 825
• Bulb 925
• Total number of bulbs sampled: Since the process
continues until reaching the total of 1,000 bulbs,
and the selected bulbs fall within this range, the
total number of bulbs sampled is:
• 10 bulbs
Sampling and Non Sampling errors
In research design, sampling and non-sampling errors are two broad
categories of errors that can affect the accuracy and reliability of study
results. Understanding both types is crucial to minimize inaccuracies
and improve the quality of the research.
 Sampling Errors
Sampling errors occur due to the process of selecting a subset (sample) of the
population rather than studying the entire population.

These errors are primarily linked to the sample size and how the sample is
chosen.

Types of Sampling Errors:

• Random Sampling Error: This occurs purely by chance when a sample does
not perfectly represent the population, even if it is randomly selected. It
diminishes with larger sample sizes.
• Systematic Sampling Error (Bias): This occurs when the sample is not
representative due to flawed sampling methods or procedures. For instance,
excluding certain groups from the sample would create bias.
Ways to Reduce Sampling Errors:

• Increase the sample size.

• Use proper randomization techniques.
• Ensure the sampling frame includes the entire population.
Non-Sampling Errors
• Non-sampling errors arise from factors other than the sample
selection process and can affect both sampled and census-based
studies. These errors may result from flaws in data collection,
processing, or analysis.
Types of Non-Sampling Errors:

• Measurement Errors: Occur when there is a flaw in how the data is

collected. This could be due to poorly worded questions, interviewer bias,
or inaccurate recording of data.
• Non-Response Errors: Occur when a significant portion of the selected
sample does not respond, or if those who do respond differ significantly
from those who don’t.
• Processing Errors: Occur during data entry, coding, or analysis. These can
happen because of human error or software issues.
• Coverage Errors: Arise when the sampling frame does not fully cover the
population, leading to under-coverage or over-coverage of certain groups.
• Respondent Errors: Occur when respondents provide incorrect or
misleading information, either intentionally or unintentionally, due to
misunderstanding questions or privacy concerns.
Ways to Reduce Non-Sampling Errors
•Improve survey/questionnaire design to avoid ambiguity.

•Train data collectors and interviewers effectively.

•Use rigorous data processing and validation techniques.

•Ensure follow-up with non-respondents to minimize non-response bias.

 Key Differences Between Sampling and Non-
Sampling Errors
•Cause: Sampling errors are due to the process of selecting a sample,
while non-sampling errors can occur at any stage of the research.

•Occurrence: Sampling errors can be quantified and reduced with larger sample sizes,
whereas non-sampling errors are harder to measure and may require multiple methods to control.
Sample survey V/S Census Survey
1. Definition
• Sample Survey: Collects data from a selected subset of the population. The
sample is chosen to represent the entire population, and inferences about
the whole population are made based on the data collected from the
sample.
• Census Survey: Collects data from every member of the entire population.
The goal is to gather complete information from everyone within the
defined population.

2. Scope
• Sample Survey: Involves only a part of the population (sample size is much
smaller than the population).
• Census Survey: Involves the entire population (everyone is surveyed).
3. Cost and Time
• Sample Survey: Generally less expensive and quicker to conduct because it
involves fewer people. The analysis is also quicker as the dataset is smaller.
• Census Survey: More expensive and time-consuming because data needs to
be collected from all individuals in the population.

4. Accuracy and Reliability

• Sample Survey: Can provide accurate results if the sample is selected
correctly (randomly and without bias). However, there is a risk of sampling
error or bias if the sample is not representative.
• Census Survey: Typically more accurate and reliable because it includes the
entire population, eliminating sampling errors. However, it could still suffer
from non-response errors or data entry mistakes.
5. Use Cases
• Sample Survey: Used when time, resources, or access to the entire population
is limited. It’s commonly used in opinion polls, market research, and social
studies.
• Census Survey: Used when comprehensive data is needed from the entire
population, such as in national censuses or government planning.

6. Data Depth
• Sample Survey: The collected data may be limited in scope due to the smaller
sample size. Specific variables might be emphasized more than others to
reduce complexity.
• Census Survey: Offers more detailed and comprehensive data about the
entire population, covering a wide range of variables.
7. Examples
• Sample Survey: A survey of 1,000 people to estimate voter
preferences across a country.
• Census Survey: A national population census conducted by a
government to gather demographic data on all citizens.

8. Feasibility
• Sample Survey: More feasible for large populations where it’s
impractical to gather data from every individual.
• Census Survey: Feasible for smaller or well-defined populations, but
for large populations, it is complex and resource-intensive.
Summary Table